On The Concept of Political Power

On the Concept of Political Power Author(s): Talcott Parsons Reviewed work(s): Source: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,
Vol. 107, No. 3 (Jun. 19, 1963), pp. 232-262 Published by: American Philosophical Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/985582 . Accessed: 05/12/2012 11:15
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ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

TALCOTT PARSONS Professor Sociology, of HarvardUniversity (Read November 1963) 8,
to POWER is one of the key conceptsin the great ployedor of the statusof "authorization" make about politicalphe- decisionsor imposeobligations.' of Westerntradition thought as -nomena. It is at the same time a concept on of The effect this diffuseness, I call it, is to there is, on treat"influence" as money, well as and sometimes which, in spite of its long history, analytical levels, a notable lack of agreement coercionin various aspects,as "forms"of power, and definition, about many therebymaking it logically impossible to treat bothabout its specific to operating bring mechanism features of the conceptualcontext in which it power as a specific should be placed. There is, however, a core aboutchangesin theactionof otherunits,individin havingto do withthe ca- ual or collective, the processesof social interaccomplexof its meaning, I "to collectivities get things tion. The latteris the line of thought wish to pacity of persons or in done" effectively, particularwhen theirgoals pursue. by are obstructed some kind of humanresistance Secondly,thereis the problemof the relation or opposition. The problemof coping with re- betweenthe coerciveand the consensualaspects. in sistancethen leads into the question of the role I am not aware of any treatment the literature solutionof thisprobthe including use of physical whichpresents satisfactory a measures, of coercive is force,and the relationof coercionto the volun- lem. A major tendency to hold that somehow "in the last analysis" power comes down to one taryand consensualaspects of power systems. of to i.e., The aim of this paper is to attempt clarify or theother, to "reston" command coercive placing sanctions, on consensusand the will to volunby or and relations thiscomplexof meanings the conceptof power in the contextof a general tary cooperation. If going to one or the other a seemsto be unacceptable, way out, conceptualschemefor the analysis of large-scale polarsolution is that is of societies. takenforexampleby Friedrich, to speak ofeach and complex social systems, "forms" of power. I shall In doing so I speak as a sociologistratherthan of these as different but a political scientist, as one who believesthat propose a solution which maintains that both as of of but the interconnections the principalsocial disci- aspectsare essential, thatneither the above namely themis satisfactory, not plines,including onlythesetwo,but especially two ways of relating eitherone to the otheror treating theirrelationsto economicsas well, are so close subordinating "forms." of of thaton matters generaltheory this sortthey themas discrete cannotsafelybe treatedin isolation;theirinterre- Finally the third problem is what, since the lationsmustbe made explicitand systematic.As Theoryof Games,has widelycometo be called the in tendency a sociologist,I thus treat a central concept of "zero-sum"problem. The dominant elements the literature, and C. for example in Lasswell politicaltheoryby selectingamong the in which have figuredprominently politicalthe- Wright Mills, is to maintainexplicitlyor imfor plicitlythat power is a zero-sum phenomenon, ory in termsof theirfitwithand significance analysis of society as a the general theoretical (New York, 1 Thus E. C. Banfield, PoliticalInfluence whole. 1962), p. 348,speaksof conThe Free Press of Glencoe, There are threeprincipalcontextsin which it trol as the abilityto cause anotherto give or withold over control of to seems to me thatthe difficulties the conceptof action, poweras the ability establish and of in power,as treated theliterature thelast gene- another. Similarly Robert Dahl, "The Concept of says that ration,come to a head. The firstof these con- Power," Behavioral Scientist2 (July, 1957), get B to thathe can "A has powerover B to the extent in do something the cerns its conceptualdiffuseness, tendency, do." C. J. that B would not otherwise of the tradition Hobbes, to treatpower as simply Friedrichtakes a similar positionin his forthcoming title capacityto attainends or goals in book,thetentative of whichis "Man and his Governthe generalized of social relations,independently the media em- ment."
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to which is to say that there is a fixed "quantity" total systemare organizedwith reference one colnamelyeffective functions, of power in any relationalsystemand hence any of its fundamental of gain of poweron the partof A mustby definition lectiveactionin the attainment the goals of colin the occurby diminishing powerat the disposal of lectivities. Goal-attainment this sense is the of relationbetweena otherunits,B, C, D.... There are, of course,re- establishment a satisfactory and strictedcontextsin which this conditionholds, collectivity certainobjects in its environment and catebut I shall argue that it does not hold for total which include both other collectivities e.g. "citizens." A total gories of personalities, of level systems a sufficient of complexity. societymust in these termsbe conceived,in one but SOME GENERAL ASSUMPTIONS of its main aspects,as a collectivity, it is also composedof an immensevarietyof subcollectiviis The initialassumption that,withinthe conties,manyof whichare partsnot only of this sothereis an essenceptionof societyas a system, cietybut of others.3 the between structure in tial parallelism theoretical is A collectivity, in theseterms, thusclearly seen conceptualschemes appropriatefor the analysis not a concrete"group" but the term refersto of the economicand the politicalaspects of so- groups, i.e. systematically related pluralitiesof cieties. There are fourrespectsin which I wish persons,seen in the perspective theirinterests of to attempt work out and build on this parallel, in and capacities for effective to collectiveaction. showingat the same time the crucial substantive The politicalprocessthenis the processby which the differences between two fields. is the necessaryorganization built up and operFirst "political theory" as here interpreted, ated, the goals of action are determined and the with the resourcesrequisite it are mobilized. which is not simply to be identified to meaning given the term by many political sciThese two parallels to economictheorycan be entists,is thoughtof as an abstract analytical extended to still a third. The parallel to colschemein the same sense in whicheconomicthe- lectiveaction in the politicalcase is, for the ecoory is abstractand analytical. It is not the con- nomic,production. This conception turnmust in of complete be understood relationto threemain operative ceptual interpretation any concretely in not contexts. The firstis adjustmentto the condiquite definitely categoryof social phenomena, is thoughgovernment the tions of "demand" whichare conceivedto be exthose of government, area in whichthe politicalelementcomes nearest ternalto the economyitself, be located in the to to having clear primacyover others. Political "consumers"of the economicprocess. Secondly, theory thus conceived is a conceptual scheme resourcesmust be mobilized,also fromthe envari- vironment the economy, famousfactorsof set whichdeals witha restricted of primary of the which are to be production. Thirdly,the internal ables and their interrelations, economicprocfound operatingin all concrete parts of social ess is conceivedas creatively it combinatorial; is, subjectto by the "combination" factorsof production systems. These variablesare, however, of in the whichconstitute values the light of the utilityof outputs,a process of conditions parametric of othervariables operatingin the larger system creating to morevaluable facilities meetthe needs whichconstitutes society. the of consumingunits than would be available to on Secondly,following this,I assume that the themwithoutthis combinatorial process. I wish empiricalsystemto whichpoliticaltheoryin this mostdefinitely postulate thatthelogic of "value to a defined, "func- added" appliesto thepolitical sense applies is an analytically spherein thepresent of tional" subsystem a society,not for example sense.4 a concretetype of collectivity. The conception 3 E.g. the American medical profession part of is well de- American of the economyof a societyis relatively but society, also it is part of a widermedical fined.2 I should propose the conceptionof the profession this particularsociety,to which transcends in as polityas the parallel empiricalsystemof direct someextent collectivity. Interpenetrationmemberof amongcollectivities. shipis thusa feature the relations relevance to political theoryas here advanced. 4 For discussions of of the conception "valued-added" The polityof a given societyis composedof the in spheres application alone, broader thantheeconomic of ways in which the relevantcomponentsof the cf.Neil J. Smelser, RevoSocial Changein theIndustrial
lution (Glencoe, Illinois, The Free Press of Glencoe, Cf. Talcott Parsons and Neil J. Smelser,Economy 1959), chapter pp. 7-20,and Neil J. Smelser,Theory II, and Society (Illinois,The Free Press of Glencoe,1956), of CollectiveBehavior (New York, The Free Press of chapter fora discussion this conception. I, of II, 1963), chapter pp. 23-47. Glencoe,
2
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In the politicalcase, however,the value referin ence is not to utility the economicsense but to I very precisely, thinkin the sense effectiveness, purposes used by C. I. Barnard.5 For the limited of politicalanalysis as such the givennessof the goal-demandsof interestgroups serves as the same order of factorin relationto the political of givenness conas system has the corresponding analysissumers'wantsforpurposesof economic on and of course the same orderof qualifications of such postulates. the empiricaladequacy politicalanalysis as here conFinally, fourth, ceived is parallel to economicin the sense that a centralplace in it is occupied by a generalized procmediuminvolvedin the politicalinteraction is also a "measure" of the relevant ess, which values. I conceivepower as such a generalized medium in a sense directlyparallel in logical to substantively, thoughvery different structure, mediumof the economic moneyas thegeneralized of this process. It is essentially conception power mediumparallelto moneywhich as a generalized will, in the theoreticalcontext sketchedabove, analythe for providethethread guiding following with of historicdifficulty sis throughthe types to reference whichthe paper began.
of in the essentially commitment, value terms, any resourcesto economicproductionin the system of independent price. the In the politicalcase, similarly equivalentof of land is the commitment resourcesto effective collectiveaction, independentof any specifiable them.7 Parfor "pay-off" theunitwhichcontrols allel to labor is the demandsor "need" forcollecin tiveactionas manifested the "public" whichin of some sense is the constituency the leadership which in of thecollectivity question-a conception or clear for the governmental other is relatively in electoral association, but needs clarification otherconnections. Parallel to capital is the conof trol of some part of the productivity the econin omy for the goals of the collectivity, a sufficientlydeveloped economythroughfinancialreacquired sourcesat the disposalof the collectivity, or gift, taxation. Finally,parallelto by earnings, of organizationis the legitimation the authority are decisions taken. underwhichcollective to It is most important note thatnone of these categories of input is conceived as a form of power. In so far as theyinvolvemedia,it is the media rooted in contiguousfunctionalsystems, not power as thatcentralto the polity-e.g. conmoney, may operatethrough trol of productivity demands throughwhat I call and constituents' THE OUTPUTS OF POLITICAL PROCESS AND "'influence."Power thenis themeansofacquiring THE FACTORS OF EFFECTIVENESS it in controlof the factors effectiveness; is not itprocesswhichI self one of these factors,any more than in the The logic of the combinatorial hold to be commonto economictheoryand the economiccase money is a factorof production; type of political theoryadvanced here, involves to suppose it was, was the ancient mercantilist a paradigmof inputsand outputsand theirrela- fallacy. tions. Again we will hold thatthelogic is strictly Though the analyticalcontext in which they case, i.e. thatthereshould are placed is perhaps unfamiliar the light of parallelto theeconomic in parallel to traditionalpolitical analysis, I hope it is clear of politicalcategoriesstrictly be a set (inputs) on the thattheactualcategories of thoseof the factors production used are well established, one hand,the shares of income (outputs) on the though there remain a number of problemsof other. exact definition. Thus control of productivity of case, withtheexception land, throughfinancing collectiveaction is very faIn theeconomic of threefactorsmust be regardedas miliar, the remaining and the conceptof "demands"in the sense inputs from the other three cognate functional of what constituents want and press for,is also whatwe call veryfamiliar.8 laborfrom of subsystems the society, is The conceptlegitimation used in system,capital from essentially same sense in which I thinkMax the "pattern-maintenance" the in the polityand organization, the sense of Alfred Weber used it in a politicalcontext.9 system.6 FurtherMarshall,fromthe integrative in factor choicebetween 7"Pay-off" maybe a deciding more,it becomesclear thatland is not,as a factor the of contexts use, but not as to whether rebut particular simplythe physicalresource, of production, at effectiveness all. sourceshall be devotedto collective
The Functions of the Executive (CamI. Barnard, Press, 1938), chapterV, bridge,Harvard University pp. 46-64. see of theseattributions, Economy 6 On the rationale II. and Society, op. cit., chapter
5 C.
fromthe 8 I have in factadopted the term"demands" of to usage of David Easton,"An Approach theAnalysis WorldPolitics9(1957): 383-400. Political Systems," 9 Cf. Max Weber,The Theory Social and Economic of Organization (New York, Oxford UniversityPress,
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The problem of what corresponds,for the ness, in the sense in which labor is a factorof preciselybecause it is a categoryof political case, to the economist's"shares of in- production, once come" is not verydifficult, the essentialdis- power. It is the point at which the economic be- utilityof the human factoris matchedwith its a tinction, veryold one in economictradition, collectiveacto and tweenmonetary "real" incomeis clearlytaken potentialcontribution effective intoaccount. Our concernis withthe "real" out- tion. Since the consumerof servicesis in prinit collectivity, is its effectiveputs of the politicalprocess-the analogue of the ciple the employing goals, not its capacityto satisfy ness forcollective hereis outputof power. monetary which is the vantage revision the "wants" of individuals, important There is one, to us critically of of economictreatment outputs pointfromwhichthe utility the serviceis deof the traditional rived. The outputof power which matchesthe towhich must be made, namelythe bracketing to getherof "goods and services,"whichthenwould input of servicesto the polity,I interpret be whichemployfor be treatedas outputsto the householdas, in our the "opportunity effectiveness" technicalterms,a part of the "pattern-mainte-ment conferson those employedor contractofnance" system. The present position is that fers to partners. Capital in the economicsense for rightsin the is one formof this opportunity effectiveness goods, i.e., more preciselyproperty for belongin thiscate- whichis derivedfromproviding, certaintypes physicalobjects of possession, organiof a of gory,but that "services,"the commitment hu- of performances, framework effective or to man role-performances an "employer," con- zation." contextof important The second, particularly tractingagent constitutean output,not to the the but household, to thepolity, typecase (though "real" outputof the politicalprocess is the cateorganiza- gory which, in accord with much tradition,I not the only one) being an employing himself should like to call capacityto assume leadership commits tion in whichthe role-incumbent of This, as a category "real" outrole,a job,'0 as responsibility. of to performance an occupational of functioning the put also is not a formof power,but this timeof to the effective a contribution influence.'2This is an outputnot to the economy collectivity. system, a There is, fromthis consideration, conclusion but to what I shall call the integrative which is somewhat surprising to economists, which in its relevanceto the presentcontextis namelythat serviceis, in the economicsense the in the firstinstance the sector of the "public" of income whichcan be looked on as the "constituencies" as of "real" counterpart interest monetary fromthe use of funds. What we suggestis that the collectiveprocesses under consideration. It of makes it pos- is the group structure the societylooked at in the politicalcontrolof productivity interestsin particular gains in the political terms of their structured combinatorial sible, through collectiveaction by particular to context, producea surplusabove the monetary modes of effective effective organiby fundscommitted, virtueof whichunder speci- collectivities.It is onlythrough can be taken, can a fiedconditions premium be paid at themone- zation that genuine responsibility of tarylevel which,thougha resultof the combina- hence the implementation such interestdefor related mands responsibility collectiveeffectiveness.'3 torialprocessas a whole,is most directly to the outputof available servicesas an economic analysis foreconomic as 11 In the cases treated typical i.e. phenomenon, as a "fluid resource." Seen a the through in element capitalis it littledifferently, becomesnecessaryto make a the collectivethecontracts loandelegated resources. of financial of of bindingness betweenlabor as a factorof pro- To us this is a special case, employment clear distinction beinganother, ductionin the economicsense and service as an of the bindingobligationassumed by an organization, or it processwhichis utilizedin whether employs loans,by virtueof whichthe reoutputof theeconomic be than would more effective a politicalcontext,that is one of organizational cipientcan be notpossibleto go further otherwise intothesecomthecase. It is or collectiveeffectiveness. be here,but theywill, perhaps, somewhat plex problems is Service,however, not a "factor"in effective- illuminated the later discussionof the place of the by
of in of concept bindingness thetheory power. to of Influence," be 12 See my paper "On the Concept 1947), p. 124. Translationby A. M. Hendersonand publishedin the Public Opinion Quarterly27 (Spring, Talcott Parsons; editedby Talcott Parsons. 10The cases of services to rendered a house- 1963). concretely of re13 Here again Barnard'susage of the concept case wherethe roles as holdwill be considered a limiting seems to me the appropriateone. See sponsibility have notbecomedifferentiated and of consumer employer op. Barnard, cit. fromeach other.
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Again it should be made quite clear that leaderas is ship responsibility nothereconceived an out(e.g. manypoliticaltheorists put of power,though and, morebroadly Friedrich)treatbothleadership as influence, "forms"of power. The powercategorywhichregulatesthe outputof leadershipintakes this formon the one side of binding fluence on policydecisionsof the collectivity, the otherof in the from constituency, thetype support political Policy decisionswe would franchise. case through of treat as a factorin integration the system, not as a "consumable" output of the political
problemsin the allocativesense and competitive of as problems, well as problems enhanceconflict of ment of the total effectiveness the systemof collective organization. In this case also the of "structure" the available resourcesmay not be of to assumed spontaneously matchthe structure of The increment of thesystem interest-demands. throughthe in effectiveness demand-satisfaction politicalprocess is, as in the economiccase, ardecision-processes. combinatorial rivedat through is involved notin "technology" The organizational the analyticalsense political. The demand-reference is not to discreteunits of the systemconprocess.14 fromthe systemas a whole Finally,a fewwordsneed to be said aboutwhat ceived in abstraction It -the "individual"consumerof the economistprocess itself. I have called the combinatorial and that the but to the problemof the share of benefits is of course assumed in economictheory of of "structures" the factorsof productionon the burdensto be allocatedto subsystems various is reference to the one hand, the "demand system"for real outputs orders. The "consumption" rather place in theallocativesystem of on the otherhand,are independent each other. interest-unit's to be enhanced, say than to the independentmerits of particular "Utility"of outputscan only by of nothing maximized, processesof transforma- "needs." tion of the factorsin the directionof providing THE CONCEPT OF POWER whatmerely from whatis wantedas distinguished of this aspect is available. The decision-making elaboratesetting The above may seem a highly process, what is to be produced, in which to place the formalintroduction the transformative of is for consumption, main subject of the paper, namely the concept how much and how offered whereas of power. Condensedand cryptic the exposiwhat is meant by economicproduction, as the physical processes are not economic but tionmayhave been,however, of understanding its by "technological";theyare controlled economic main structure an essentialbasis for the speis but are not themselves in an cial way in whichit will be proposedto combine considerations, sense economic. analytical the elementswhichhave played a crucial part in The consequence of successfuladaptation of the main intellectual traditionsdealing with the available resourcesto the want or demand sys- problems power. of in tem is an increment the value of the resourcemePower is here conceivedas a circulating stock conceivedin termsof utilityas a type of dium,analogous to money,withinwhat is called of value. But thismeans recombination the com- the politicalsystem, but notablyover its boundin ponentsof the resource-stock order to adapt aries intoall threeof the otherneighboring functhemto thevarioususes in question. subsystemsof a society (as I conceive tional The same logic applies to the combinatorial them), the economic,integrative, and patternsphere. Here theresources maintenance processin thepolitical of systems. Specification theproperbut are not land, labor,capital,and organization, an ties of power can best be approachedthrough controlof productivity, attempt to delineate very brieflythe relevant valuationof effectiveness, of demandsand the patterning legiti- propertiesof money as such a medium in the structured in mation. The "wants" are not forconsumption economy. the economicsense, but for the solutionof "insaid, both Money is, as the classical economists terest" problemsin the system,includingboth a mediumof exchangeand a "measureof value." and thus measuring in too much,I shall It is symbolic that,though things 141n ordernot to complicate it "standingfor" economicvalue or utility, does systeminnot enter into problemof the interchange consumpin here. See my paper "Authority, not itselfpossess utility the primary volving legitimation and Political Process," in Nomos 1, re- tion sense-it has no "value in use" but only "in Legitimation, and Process in as printed chapterV of my Structure exchange," i.e. for possession of things having Modern Societies (Glencoe, Illinois, The Free Press, utility. The use of moneyis thusa mode of com170-198. V, 1960), chapter pp.
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munication offers, the one hand to purchase, works as a medium,only withina relatively of on deon the otherto sell,thingsof utility, of relationships withand for finednetwork market whichto be money. It becomes an essential medium only sure now has become world-wide, but the mainwhen exchangeis neither as ascriptive, exchange tenance of which requires special measures to of giftsbetweenassigned categoriesof kin, nor maintain mutual convertibility national curof takes place on a basis of barter,one item of rencies. Such a system on theone handa range is of exchange-potential or for within whichmoneymaybe commodity servicedirectly another. In exchangeforits lack of directutility money spent,but on the other hand, one withinwhich gives the recipient fourimportant degreesof free- certain conditions affectingthe protectionand of dom in his participation the totalexchangesys- management the unit are maintained, both by in agencies under the law. tem. (1) He is freeto spend his moneyfor any law and by responsible The firstfocus of the concept of an instituitemor combination itemsavailableon themarof ket which he can afford,(2) he is free to shop tionalizedpower systemis, analogously,a relaaround among alternativesources of supply for tional systemwithinwhich certaincategoriesof and or desireditems,(3) he can choose his own timeto commitments obligations, ascriptive volunpurchase,and (4) he is free to consider terms tarilyassumed-e.g. by contract-are treatedas i.e. defined conditions which, because of freedomof time and source binding, under normatively may he can accept or reject or attempt influence in theirfulfillment be insistedupon by the apto agencies. Furthermore, the particularcase. By contrast, the case of propriaterole-reciprocal in resistance "comto barter,the negotiator bound to what his par- in case of actual or threatened is of ticularpartnerhas or wants in relationto what pliance," i.e. to fulfillment such obligations he has and will part with at the particular time. when invoked, they will be "enforced"by the of The otherside of the gain in degreesof freedom threator actual imposition situational negative in is of course the risk involvedin the probabilities sanctions, the former case havingthe function in of the acceptanceof moneyby othersand of the of deterrence, the latterof punishment.These of of are eventsin the situation the actorof reference stability its value. Primitive alterhis situation(or threaten moneyis a medium whichis stillvery whichintentionally close to a commodity, commonest conwhateverin specific the case being to) to his disadvantage, preciousmetal,and many still feel that the value tentthesealterations may be. of moneyis "really" groundedin the commodity Power thenis generalized capacityto securethe value of themetallic of base. On thisbase, however, performance bindingobligations units in a by thereis, in developedmonetary organization when the obligasystems, erecteda systemof collective complex structure credit instruments, that tions are legitimized with reference theirbearof to so onlya tinyfraction actual transactions con- ing on collective goals and where in case of of is ducted in termsof the metal-it becomes a "re- recalcitrance of there is a presumption enforceserve" available for certaincontingencies, is mentby negativesituationalsanctions-whatever and actuallyused mainlyin the settlement interna- theactualagencyofthatenforcement. of tionalbalances. I shalldiscussthenatureofcredit It will be noted that I have used the concepfurther anotherconnection in and of legitimation delater. For the mo- tions of generalization in mentsuffice to say that,howeverimportant power. Securingpossessionof an object of it in fining certain contingencies the availabilityof metallic utility bartering anotherobject for it is not a by reserves may be, no modern monetarysystem monetarytransaction. Similarly,by my definioperates primarily with metal as the actual me- tion,securingcompliance with a wish, whether it dium, but uses "valueless" money. Moreover, be definedas an obligationof the object or not, of theacceptance this"valueless" moneyrestson a simply threatof superior by force,is not an exercertain institutionalized in confidence themonetary cise ofpower. I am well aware thatmostpolitical system. If the security monetary of commitments theoristswould draw the line differently and restedonlyon theirconvertibility metal,then classify into thisas power (e.g. Dahl's definition), but the overwhelming majority of them would be I wish to stickto my chosen line and explore its worthless,for the simple reason that the total implications. The capacityto secure compliance of quantity metalis fartoo smallto redeemmore must,if it is to be called power in my sense, be than a few. generalizedand not solelya function one parof One final point is that money is "good," i.e. ticularsanctioning whichthe user is in a posiact
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tion to impose,15 and the mediumused must be by using some formof controlover the situation to in whichalteris placed,actuallyor contingently "symbolic." of Secondly,I have spokenof power as involving changeit so as to increasethe probability alter the acting in the way he wishes, or, alternatively, legitimation.This is, in the presentcontext, ego to attempting changealter'ssituation, consequence of conceivingpower as without necessary i.e. if whichtherefore, it is exchangedfor may attemptto change alter's intentions, he "symbolic," valuable for collectiveef- may manipulatesymbols which are meaningful intrinsically something withan obligation, to alter in such a way thathe triesto make alter namelycompliance fectiveness, of the performer the obliga- "see" thatwhat ego wants is a "good thing"for leaves the recipient, of tion,with"nothing value." This is to say,that him (alter) to do. namely but he has "nothing" a set of expectations, The second variable then concernsthe type of to thatin othercontextsand on otheroccasions,he sanctionsego may employin attempting guarof of can invokecertainobligations the part of other antee the attainment his end fromalter. The in is here is betweenpositiveand negative units. Legitimation therefore, power sys- dichotomy in sanctions. Thus throughthe situationalchannel tems,the factorwhichis parallelto confidence of and mutualacceptability stability the monetary a positivesanctionis a changein alter's situation by considered alteras to his advansystems. presumptively unit in monetary in that ques- tage, whichis used as a means by ego of having The two criteriaare connected of on tioningthe legitimacy the possessionand use an effect alter's actions. A negativesanction more then is an alterationin alter's situationto the of power leads to resort to progressively "secure"3means of gaining compliance. These latter's disadvantage. In the case of the inten"intrinsi- tional channel,the positive sanction is the exmore effective must be progressively situ- pression of symbolic"reasons" why compliance hence more tailoredto the particular cally," ations of the objects and less general. Further- withego's wishesis "a good thing"independently effective, of any further action on ego's part, fromalter's more in so far as theyare intrinsically less becomesa progressively important point of view, i.e. would be felt by him to be legitimacy factorof their effectiveness-atthe end of this "personallyadvantageous,"whereas the negative first varioustypesof coercion, sanction is presentingreasons why noncomplito serieslies resort, to eventually the use of forceas the most intrin- ance with ego's wishes should be feltby alter to in to of be harmful interests whichhe had a signifisicallyeffective all meansof coercion.'6 be and to attemptto place both cant personalinvestment should therefore I should like now of and powerin thecontext a moregeneral avoided. I should like to call the four types of money of "strategy"open to ego respectively (1) for the paradigm,which is an analyticalclassification ways in which,in the processesof social interac- situationalchannel, positive sanction case, "inchannelnegativesanction,the actionsof one unit in a systemcan, inducement";(2) situational channel,posiabouta change tion, "coercion"; (3) intentional to be oriented bringing tentionally, in what the actions of one or more other units tive sanction "persuasion," and (4) intentional into channelnegativesanction"activationof commitwould otherwisehave been-thus all fitting table: of the contextof Dahl's conception power. It is ments"as shownin thefollowing to statethisin termsof the convention convenient Channel type Sanction of speakingof the actingunit of reference-individual or collective-as ego, and the object on Situational Intentional to whichhe attempts "operate"as alter. We may 1 3 Positive open to ego in terms the Inducement thenclassify alternatives Persuasion variables. On the one hand of two dichotomous to ego may attempt gain his end fromalter either
15
2 Coercion of 4 Activation Negative in of There is a certainelement generality physical Commitments whichgivesit a specialplace sanction, as force a negative in power systems. This will be taken up later in the discussion. fromthe fact here 16There are complications deriving now needs to be introcomplication A further that power is associated with negative sanctionsand duced. We thinkof a sanctionas an intentional their efhence that,in the face of severe resistance, act on ego's part,expectedby him to change his to is fectiveness confined deterrence.
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is versusnoncompliance also relationto alter fromwhat it would otherwise cisionsof compliance have been. As a means of bringingabout a a variable. This rangehas a lowerlimitat which disappears. That is, changein alter's action,it can operatemost obvi- the elementof contingency of ously wherethe actual imposition the sanction fromego's pointof view, he may not say, if you by on either situational is made contingent a futuredecisionby alter. do so and so, I will intervene, in or will operatein two manipulations by "arguments" suchand such Thus a processof inducement an on offer ego's part that,if a way, but he may simplyperform overt act contingent stages,first alter will "comply" with his wishes, ego will and facealterwitha faitaccompli. In the case of promisedsitu- inducement giftwhichis an object of value and a "reward" him by the contingently ationalchange. If thenalterin factdoes comply, with respectto the acceptanceof which alter is case. With respect act. In the case givenno optionis thelimiting the ego will perform sanctioning threat to coercion,compulsion,i.e. simply imposinga of coercionthe firststage is a contingent and on alteration alter's situation that, unless alter decides to comply, ego will disadvantageous impose the negativesanction. If, however,alter then leaving it to alter to decide whetherto "do case. happens,but,if he something further about it" is the limiting thennothing complies, then ego must carry decides on noncompliance, to just The asymmetry referred appears hereas or out his threat, be in a positionof "not meaning well. As contingent may be said that the priit channelego's mary meaningof negativesanctionsis as means it." In the cases of the intentional act acfirst-stage is eitherto predictthe occurrence, of prevention.If theyare effective, further no of or to announcehis own intention doing some- tion is required. The case of compulsion that is or alter's sentiments interests. in which it is renderedimpossiblefor alter to thingwhichaffects entersin in that ego avoid the undesiredaction on ego's part. In the The elementof contingency "argues" to alter,thatif this happens,on the one case of positive sanctionsof course ego, for exhand alter should be expected to "see" that it ample in makinga giftto alter,cuts himself out whichis would be a good thingfor him to do what ego frombenefiting fromalter'sperformance wants-the positivecase-or thatif he failsto do presumptively advantageousto him, in the par"subjectivecost" ticularexchange. it it would implyan important to alter. In the positivecase, beyond "pointing Both, however,may be orientedto theireffect out" if alter complies,ego is obligatedto deliver on alter'sactionin future sequencesof interaction. sanctionof approval. In The object of compulsion the positiveattitudinal may have been "taught attitudinal a lesson" and hence be less disposed to noncomthe negative case, the corresponding only for pliancewithego's wishes in the future, well as sanctionof disapprovalis implemented as noncompliance. of preventedfromperformance a particularunIt is henceclear thatthereis a basic asymmetry desiredact and the recipient a giftmay feel a of between the positive and negative sides of the "sense of obligation" reciprocate some form in to sanctionaspect of the paradigm. This is that,in in thefuture. and persuasion,alter's the cases of inducement So far this discussionhas dealt with sanctionobligatesego to "deliver"his promised ing acts in termsof their"intrinsic"significance compliance case the promised both to ego and to alter. An offered in positivesanction, the former inducement advantages,in the latter his approval of alter's may thus be possession of a particularobject of "good sense" in recognizingthat the decision utility, coercivethreat, feared thatofa particular a wished for by ego and accepted as "good" by loss, or othernoxious experience. But just as, in alter'spoint alter,in factturnsout to be good from his the initialphase of a sequence,ego transmits cases, on the otherhand, of view. In the negative through to intentions altersymbolically contingent complianceon alter's part obligates ego, in the communication, the sanctioninvolvedmay also so in case, not to carryout his threat, the situational e.g. in place of possessionof certain be symbolic, intentionalcase by withholdingdisapproval to a valuablegoods he may offer sum of intrinsically to confirm alter that his compliancedid in fact money. What we have called the generalized ego's intervention, spare himwhatto him,without thenmay be used as typesof would have been the undesirablesubjectivecon- media of interaction sanctionswhichmay be analyzed in termsof the namelyguilt sequencesof his previousintentions, above paradigm. The factorsof generalization of overviolations his commitments. howof Finally, alter's freedomof action in his de- and of legitimation institutionalization,
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if certaincompli- cally valuable entity it is to serve as a generalever,as discussedabove, introduce but cationswhichwe mustnow take up withreference ized mediumof inducement, it must,as we as to power. There is a sense in whichpower may have said, be institutionalized a symbol; it of medium coercion must be legitimized,and must inspire "confias be regarded thegeneralized in the above terms,but this formulaat the very dence" withinthe system-and must also within managed. Similarlypower least requiresvery carefulinterpretation-indeed limitsbe deliberately deterrent; effective to cannotbe onlyan intrinsically it will turnout by itself be inadequate. mediumof mobilizing I spoke above of the "grounding"of the value if it is to be the generalized collectiveaction, and for value of the monetary resourcesfor effective ,of moneyin the commodity made by collectiviof thatthereis a corresponding thefulfillment commitments metal,and suggested of tiesto whatwe have herecalledtheirconstituents; relationof the "value," i.e. the effectiveness and generalized, of power, to the intrinsiceffectiveness physical it too mustbe both symbolically forceas a means of coercionand, in the limiting legitimized. betweenthe conThere is a directconnection case, compulsion.17 due account must cept of bindingness,as introducedabove, and this In interpreting formula or just discussed. The deterrence. To treata commitment any other be taken of the asymmetry a base rests on formof expectationas bindingis to attribute special place of gold as a monetary to high value in special importance its fulfillment.Where it such propertiesas its durability, of of smallbulk,etc.,and highprobability acceptabil- is not a mattersimplyof maintenance an esnew actions but of undertaking in in exchange,i.e. as means of inducement, a tablishedroutine, ity wherethe commitment whichare not de- in changedcircumstances, of verywide variety conditions on typesof actioncontingent order. Ego's pri- is thus to undertake pendenton an institutionalized as theydevelop,thenthe riskto be or to maryaim in resorting compulsion coercion, circumstances commitments however, is deterrenceof unwanted action on minimizedis that such contingent in in- will not be carriedout when the circumstances is alter's part.18 Force, therefore, in the first or as stance important the "ultimate"deterrent. It questionappear. Treatingthe expectation obof is the means which,again independent any in- ligationas bindingis almost the same thing as systemof order, can be assumed saying that appropriatesteps on the other side stitutionalized if in the to be "intrinsically" mosteffective the con- mustbe takento preventnonfulfillment,possiwhen means of effectiveness ble. Willingnessto imposenegativesanctionsis, text of deterrence, out of the order seen in this light,simplythe carrying which are dependenton institutionalized as commitments binding, of an implications treating are insecureor fail. Therefore,the unit of of control physical and the agent invokingthem "meaning it" or whichcommands action system counter beingpreparedto insist. forceadequate to cope withany potential On the otherhand thereare areas in interaction threatsof force is more secure than any other systemswhere there is a range of alternatives, in a Hobbesian stateof nature.19 in systemrestingentirely choiceamongwhichis optional, thelightof the But just as a monetary of exchangeis a very promised advantageousness,situational or "inon gold as theactualmedium of cannotmediatea com- tentional," one as comparedto other choices. one primitive whichsimply a of plex system marketexchange,so a power sys- Positive sanctionsas here conceivedconstitute contingentincrementof relative advantageoustem in which the only negative sanctionis the of or one threatof forceis a veryprimitive whichcan- ness, situational intentional, the alternative to function mediatea complex systemof or- ego desiresalter to choose. not symbolic If, in theselatterareas, a generalized, coordination-itis fartoo "blunt"an ganizational medium,is to operate in place of intrinsicadinstrument. Money cannot be only an intrinsithere must be an elementof bindingKarl vantages, 17 I owe theinsight intothisparallelto Professor of ness in the institutionalization the mediumit(personaldiscussion). W. Deutschof Yale University instrumental self-e.g. the fact that the moneyof a societyis of 18 "Sadistic" infliction injurywithout "legal tender" which must be accepted in the to significance ego does notbelongin thiscontext. to 19I have attempted developthis line of analysisof settlement debtswhichhave the statusof conof morefullyin "Some of the significance forcesomewhat tractualobligationsunder the law. In the case in of Reflections the Role of Force in Social Relations," for the typicalacting ed., HarryEckstein, The Problem of Internal War (New of money,I suggestthat, in a market system,what specificunderunit Press,1963). University Princeton Jersey,
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e.g. in the fieldsof emoptional freedomare protected, takingshe entersinto is overwhelmingly in the above sense, but whetherthe money in- ploymentand of the promotionof interest-deis volved in the transactions or is not "good" is mandsand decisionsaboutpoliticalsupport. This feature of the boundary relations of a not for him to judge, but his acceptanceof it is binding. Essentiallythe same is true of the con- particularpolitical unit holds even for cases of in tractual obligations,typicallylinking monetary local government, that decisions of residence, withina or whichhe undertakes. employment, acquisitionof property utilities, and intrinsic I would now like to suggestthat what is in a particularjurisdictioninvolve the optional elecertain sense the obverse holds true of power. ment,since in all these respectsthere is a relalies in its capacityto tivelyfree choice among local jurisdictions, even Its "intrinsic"importance thus though, are "really" binding, once havingchosen,the citizenis, forexensure that obligations if necessarycan be "enforced"by negativesanc- ample,subject to the tax policiesapplyingwithin as tions. But forpower to function a generalized it-and of course he cannotescape being subject i.e. but mediumin a complexsystem, to mobilizere- to any local jurisdiction, must choose among action,it mustbe thoseavailable. for sourceseffectively collective In the case of a "national" politicalorganizawhichin the presentcontextmeans "legitimized" boundariesordinarily which is the tion,however, territorial its that in certainrespectscompliance, commonfactoramong our media, is not binding, coincide with a relativebreak in the normative to say nothingof being coerced,but is optional. order regulating social interaction.21 Hence becomesinwhichthereexists a continuous across such boundariesan ambiguity The rangewithin bindingobligationsis es- volvedin the exerciseof power in our sense. On systemof interlocking sentiallythat of the internalrelationsof an or- the one hand the invokingof bindingobligations in explicituse of coercion without ganized collectivity our sense, and of the con- operatesnormally on undertaken its behalfat its within certain ranges where the two territorial tractualobligations theirrehave institutionalized boundaries. systems collectivity cometo lations. Thus travelersin friendly counforeign The pointsat whichtheoptionalfactors bear are, in the boundaryrelationsof the col- tries can ordinarily enjoy personal securityand for of wherefactors importance collective the amenitiesof the principalpublic accommodalectivity, are otherthanbindingobligations ex- tions,exchange of theirmoneyat "going" rates, functioning on changed for such binding commitments the etc. Where, on the otherhand,the moregeneral and are part of the collectivity vice versa, nonbinding relationsbetweennationalcollectivities at isfor binding commit- sue, the power systemis especiallyvulnerableto outputs of the collectivity mentsto it. These "optional"inputs,I have sug- the kind of insecurity expectations of whichtends of gested above, are controlof productivity the to be met by the explicitresortto threatsof coinfluence throughthe ercive sanctions. Such threatsin turn,operating economyat one boundary, relationsbetween leadershipand the public deon both sides of a reciprocalrelationship, readily mandsat the other.20 enterinto a vicious circle of resortto more and of This is a pointat whichthe dissociation the more "intrinsically" effective drasticmeasures or conceptof polityfromexclusive relationto gov- of coercion, the end of whichroad lies physical at important. In a force. In other words, the danger of war is ernmentbecomes particularly society,the boundary- endemic in uninstitutionalized differentiated sufficiently relationsbetween relationsof the great majorityof its important territorially organized collectivities. units of collectiveorganization(including some relation betweenboth There is thusan inherent are boundariesof government) boundarieswhere the use and the control forceand the territorial of the overwhelming majorityof decisions of com- basis of organization.22 of One centralcondition are mitment optionalin the above sense, though is once made, their fulfillment binding. This, 21 This, of course, is a relative difference. Some within the hazards increasethe moment steps outsidehis own one however,is only possible effectively may stable, institutionalized home,police protection be betterin one local comrange of a sufficiently may a thanthenext,and crossing stateboundary normativeorder so that the requisitedegrees of munity in difference legal or actual rights. meana considerable 20 Thus,if control through 22 Cf. my paper "The Principal Structures Comof operates of productivity and Process, op. cit., Nomos 2 and Structure theirpossessor cannot"force"e.g. munity," funds, monetary employment. to chapter See also W. L. Hurst,Law and Social Proc8. employees accept prospective
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is of the integration a powersystem thatit should money and power. Money is a "measure of put area, and a crucial value," as the classical economists it, in terms a within territorial be effective in linearvariable. Objects of utility condition of this effectiveness turn is the of a continuous the valued in moneyare more or less valuable than forcewithin of of monopoly control paramount statableterms. Simiarea. The criticalpointthen,at whichthe insti- each other in numerically of power systems is most larly,as mediumof exchange,amountsof money tutional integration into re- differ the same single dimension. One acting to vulnerable strain,and to degeneration in threatsof the use of force,is between unit in a societyhas more money-or assets exciprocating organized political systems. This, changeablefor money-than another,less than, territorially is notoriously, the weakestpointin the normative or the same. dimension order of human society today, as it has been Power involves a quite different almost fromtime immemorial. in which may be formulated terms of the conit In this connection shouldbe recognizedthat ception thatA mayhave powerover B. Of course and possibleuse in competitive the biddingthe holder of superiorfithe possession, mutualthreat, of force is only in a most proximatesense the nancialassets has an advantagein that,as econoof principal"cause" of war. The essentialpoint is mistssay, the "marginalutility money"is less to withsmallerassets. of thatthe "bottleneck" mutualregression more to himthanto his competitor or means of protecting ad- But his "bid" is no morebindingon the potential and more primitive vancing collectiveinterestsis a "channel" into exchangepartnerthan is that of the less affluent power" all dollarsare whichall elementsof tensionbetweenthe collec- bidder,sincein "purchasing tive unitsin questionmay flow. It is a question "createdfreeand equal." There maybe auxiliary may thinkit advisable of the many levels at which such elementsof reasons why the purveyor bidder; tension may on the one hand build up, on the to accept the bid of the more affluent but not of any simple and un- these,however, not strictly economic, conare other be controlled, betweenmoneyand other equivocal conception of the "inherent" conse- cern the interrelations quences of the possession and possible uses of media,and otherbases of statusin the system. betweenthe value of effectiveorganizedforce. The connection It should be clear that again there is a direct ness-as distinguishedfrom utility-and bindin impliesa conception turnof the focusparallel with the economiccase. A functioning ingness, of for marketsystemrequiresintegration the mone- sing of responsibility decisions,and hence of This for tarymedium. It cannotbe a systemof N inde- authority theirimplementation.23 implies units and agencies controlling a special formof inequalityof power which in pendentmonetary them. This is the basis on whichthe main range turn implies a prioritysystemof commitments. of of extension of a relativelyintegratedmarket The implications havingassumedbindingcomor- mitments, the fulfillment which spokesmen of on systemtends to coincidewith the "politically as are ganized society," Roscoe Pound calls it, over a for the collectivity preparedto insist to the territorialarea. Internationaltransactionsre- point of imposingserious negativesanctionsfor not are of an order of seriousness quire specialprovisions requiredfordomestic. noncompliance, of in sys- suchthatmatching priority the system thecomThe basic "management" the monetary in there must be priorities withtheinstitutional- mitments themselves temmustthenbe integrated over takeprecedence of ization of politicalpower. Justas the latterde- thematter whichdecisions monopolyof institutionallyothersand, back of that,of whichdecision-making pends on an effective dependson agencieshave the rightto make decisionsat what stability organizedforce,so monetary of monopoly basic reservesprotecting levels. Throughoutthis discussion the crucial an effective is unit and, as we shall see later,on questionconcernsbindingness. The reference the monetary signifiand over thecreditsystem. of to the collectivity, hence the strategic centralization control on cance of the various "contributions" the perTHE HIERARCHICAL ASPECT OF of of formance which the effectiveness its action
23 As alreadynoted, in this area, I thinkthe analysis A verycriticalquestionnow arises,whichmay of ChesterI. Barnard,in The Functionof the Execubetween be statedin termsof a crucialdifference clear and cogentthat tive,op. cit.,is so outstandingly
POWER SYSTEMS
of ess in the United States (Ann Arbor, University MichiganLaw School,1960).
in theory my the it deserves statusof a classicof political X. chapter sense. See especially specific
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depends. Effectiveness the collectivity a by thehighechelonsof authority power. The for as and whole is dependenton hierarchicalorderingof conceptof constitutionalism the criticalone at is the relative of strategic importance thesecontribu- this level, namelythat even the highestauthority tions,and hence of the conditions the is bound in the strictsense of the conceptbindgoverning impositionof binding obligations on the con- ingnessused here,by the termsof the normative tributors. order under which he operates,e.g. holds office. Hence the power of A over B is, in its legit- Hence binding obligationscan clearly be "inagainsthigher-order agenimizedform, "right"of A, as a decision-mak- voked" by lower-order the ing unit involved in collectiveprocess, to make cies as well as vice versa. decisionswhichtake precedenceover those of B, firminThis of course implies the relatively in the interest the effectiveness the collective stitutionalization the normativeorder itself. of of of operation a whole. as of Within the framework a highlydifferentiated The rightto use power, or negativesanctions polityit implies,in additionto constitutionalism of for a system thegranting high on a barterbasis or even compulsion assertpri- itself, procedural to to even in private, say nothing orityof a decisionover others,I shall, following politicalauthority, and a legal framework Barnard,call authority. Precedencein this sense of public organizations, is The most serious am- withinwhichsuch authority legitimized. This can take different forms. biguity here seems to derivefromthe assumption in turn includesanotherorder of proceduralinwithin whichthequestionof the legality that authority and its attendantpower may be stitutions understoodas implying oppositionto the wishes of actual uses of power can be tested. of "lower-order"echelons which hence includes the prerogativeof coercing or compellingcomPOWER AND AUTHORITY pliance. Though this is implicit, may be that it of order The institutionalization the normative and power may imply the higher-order authority just referred thuscomesto focusin the concept to as the prerogativeis primarilysignificant "deis of finingthe situation"for the performance the of authority. Authority essentiallythe institutionalcode withinwhich the use of power as lower-orderechelons. The higher "authority" may then make a decision which definesterms mediumis organizedand legitimized. It stands as as will to poweressentially property, an institution, withinwhich other units in the collectivity does to money. Property a bundleof rightsof is is be expectedto act, and this expectation treated as binding. Thus a rulingby the Commissioner possession,includingabove all that of alienation, of InternalRevenue may exclude certaintax ex- but also at various levels of controland use. In institutional system, prophave a highlydifferentiated whichunits under his jurisdiction emptions are ertyrights focussedon the valuationof utility, thoughttaxpayerscould claim. Such a decision of betweencom- i.e. the economicsignificance the objects, e.g. need not activatean overt conflict for consumption as factorsof production, or and and taxpayer, may rather"channel" missioner but this factorcomes to be differentiated from authe decisions of revenue agents and taxpayers the thority. Thus, in European feudalism "landof with reference performance obligations. to lord" had both property rightsin the land, and There does not seemto be an essentialtheoretical difficulty involved in this "ambiguity." We political jurisdictionover persons acting on the can say thatthe primary function superiorau- same land. In modernlegal systemsthese comof fromeach otherso the is thority clearly to definethe situationfor the ponentsare differentiated landowner no longerthe landlord;thisfunction is lowerechelonsofthe collectivity.The problem of is takenovermainly local political by authority. in overcoming opposition the formof dispositions Preciselywith greaterdifferentiation focus the to noncompliance thenarises fromthe incomplete of the institution becomes more generalizedand, institutionalization the power of the higherauof while specific objects of possessionof course conholder. Sources of this may well include tinue to be highlyimportant, most important thority the of overstepping the bounds of his legitimate au- object of property comes to be monetary assets, on thority the part of this agent. The conceptof and specificobjects are valued as assets, i.e., in shouldclearlynotbe limited "obedi- termsof potentialsof marketability.Today we compliance to ence" by subordinates, is just as importantly can say that rightsto moneyassets, the ways in but applicable to observanceof the normativeorder whichthesecan be legitimately acquired and dis-
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of code posed of,the ways in whichthe interests other the institutionalized It is then essentially have come to constitute defining in partiesmustbe protected, rightsof participation the power sysof the core of the institution property.24 tem whichI should like to thinkof as authority. then,is the aspect of a status in a It is this conception Authority, whichgives us the basis for namelyits collec- the essentialdistinction betweenthe internaland systemof social organization, is the external to aspectsof powerrelative a particutive aspect,by virtueof which the incumbent to is, put in a positionlegitimately make decisions lar collectivity.The collectivity by our conbut not of whichare binding, onlyon himself on the ception,the definition the range withinwhich rightsto hold and as collectivity a whole and hence its othermem- a systemof institutionalized in ber-units, the sense that so far as theirimpli- use power can be closed. This is to say, the imdecisionmade at one of cations impinge on their respective roles and plications an authoritative bindtheyare boundto act in accordancewith point in the systemcan be made genuinely statuses, these implications.This includesthe rightto in- ing at all the other relevantpoints throughthe because of the general relevant processesof feed-back. sist on such actionthough, division of labor, the holder of authorityvery The hierarchicalprioritysystemof authority can, in oftenis not himself a positionto "enforce"his and power,withwhichthisdiscussionstarted decisions,but must be dependenton specialized by this criterion, only be bindingwithina given system. In this sense then agenciesforthis. collectivity particular from be of If, then,authority conceivedas the institu- a hierarchy authority-as distinguished of of tional counterpart power, the main difference the sheer differences power of other coercive oris lies in the factthat authority not a circulating capacities-must be internalto a collectively medium. Sometimes,speakingloosely, we sug- ganized systemin this sense. This will include in to gest thatsomeone"gives away his property." He authority bind the collectivity its relations posses- to its environment, persons and to othercolrightsin specific to can give away property and enof legitimized sions but not the institution property. Simi- lectivities. But bindingness, au- forcedthrough colcan of the agency of this particular larlythe incumbent an office relinquish but this is very different lectivity, cannot be extended beyond its boundthorityby resigning, of the abolishing authority the office. Prop- aries. If it exists at all it must be by virtueof from order which tranrightsin ob- an institutionalized normative is ertyas institution a code defining throughconof possession,in the firstinstancephysical scends the particularcollectivity, jects with others, or through objects, then "symbolic" objects, includingcul- tractual arrangements bindingobligation. tural objects such as "ideas" so far as they are othertypesof mutually and of course includterms, valuablein monetary ing moneyitself,whoeverpossesses them. AuPOWER, INFLUENCE, EQUALIZATION, is AND SOLIDARITY similarly, a set of rightsin statusin a thority, as preciselyin the collectivity actor, collectivity, It is on thisbasis thatit maybe held thatat the mostespeciallyrightto acquire and use including of the boundariesof the collectivity closed system powerin thatstatus. prioritiesis breachedby "free" exercise, at the whichis essentialto stability, The institutional of boundary, influence. or inheres constituency integrative of theconception a code,thenforproperty to gives authority settle Status in the collectivity of structure the market. At a in the institutional with includes the termson whichpowerwill be exchanged of higherlevel the institution property influenceover this boundary. The wielder of rights,not only to use and dispose of particular is fromoutside,on the collectivity, not influence in objects of value, but to participate the system terms,and it bound in advance to any particular transactions. of market is of the essence of use of power in the "foreign is that authority a of 24 Two particularly manifestations this relations"of the collectivity, important the to of are, first generallegal un- right, monetization property withincertainlimitsof discretion, spend to of that derstanding executors estatesare not obligated in exchange for influence. This in turn intactpendingfull power retainthe exact physicalinventory ob- can, through the offerof accepting leadership fiduciary but statement, may sell variousitems-their in ligationis focussedon the moneyvalue of the estate. responsibility exchange for political support, optionhas replenishthe expenditureof power by a corincreasing Similarlyin the law of contract with moneydamages in lieu been given to compensate input. responding for. contracted originally "performance" of thespecific
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shouldbe capable of spheresof "jurisdiction" in influence By thisreasoning mustbe defined terms the within collectivity. of a normative the system system,a body of law, which is altering priority policydecisionas a cate- binding both on government and on the nonThis is what I interpret in units,though the "last gory of the use of power as a mediumto be, the governmental collectivity in process of alteringpriorities such a way that analysis" it will, withinan institutionalized order or the new pattern comes to be binding on the either have to be enforcedby government, the must be re- contrariwise,by revolutionaryaction against collectivity.Similarly, franchise of garded as the institutionalization a marginal, government. status,betweenthe main collecinterpenetrating of sociallyorcontrol serious, Since independent of tivityand its environment solidarygroupings ganized forcecannotbe given to "private"collecin the largersystem. It is the institutionalizationtivities, tendto be sanctions negative theirultimate the of a marginalauthority, use of whichis con- expulsion frommembership, thoughmany other amongcandidates typesof sanction of fined thefunction selection to important. maybe highly In forleadership responsibility. thegovernmental Considerationssuch as these thus do not in in case, thisis the inclusion a commoncollectivity any way eliminateor weaken the importance of systemof both the operativeagencies of govern- hierarchical decisionwithina collective priorities on mentand the "constituencies" whichleadership systemitself. The strict"line" structure such of a is dependent, grantnot onlyin a given instance authorityis, however, greatly modifiedby the but with interpenetration othersystemswith the politiofpowerto thelatter a statusof authority of of respectto the one crucial function selectionof cal, notablyfor our purposes the importance of leadership and grantingthem the authorityof technicalcompetence. The qualifications the of office. at of apply in principle the importance hierarchy In interpreting discussionit is essentialto boundaries of the particularcollectivesystemthis keep in mind that a society consists,from the analytically to considered-ratherthan internally but it. These I would interpret defining limits presentpoint of view, not in one collectivity, the as in a ramifiedsystemof collectivities. Because, of authority. There are two main contexts in col- which norms of equality may be expected to of however, the basic imperatives effective of lective action already discussed, these must in modifythe concreteexpectationsof hierarchical whichgoes decision-systems, cross-cutting additionto thepluralistic namely on the one hand, the also withfunctional differentiation, have theaspect context of influenceover the right to assume ofa "Chinesebox" relation. There mustbe some- power, or decision-making and, on the authority where a paramountfocus of collectiveauthority otherhand, the contextof access to opportunity and withit of the controlof power-though it is for status as a contributing unit in the specific crucial that this need not be the top of the total political systemin question. control,which may for exsystemof normative It is essentialhere to recall that I have treated ample be religious. This complexof territorialitypower as a circulating medium,movingback and and the monopolyof force are central to this, forthover the boundaries of the polity. The binding- "real" outputs of the political process, and the because the closed systemof enforceable ness can always be breachedby the intervention factorsin its effectiveness-inthe sense correofforce.25 spondingto the real outputsand factorsof ecoof ordersotherthan nomic production-are not in my sense "forms" The bindingness normative collec- of power but, in the most important those upheld by the paramountterritorial cases, of tivitymust be definedwithinlimits institution- financialcontrol of economic resources,and of alized in relation it. So faras suchcollectivities influence, the meaningof the categoryof into in are not "agencies" of the state,in this sense,their fluence,definedas a generalized mechanismof persuasion. These are very essentialelementsin 25 Since this system is the territorially organizedcolthese consider- the total political process, but it is just as imlectivity, state with its government, the them frompower as it is ations underliethe criticalimportance foreignrela- portantto distinguish of tions in the sense of the relations otherterritorially to distinguishfinancially to valuable outputs and collectivities, since,once in- factorsof productionfrom money itself. They force-controlling organized, of ternalcontrol forceis effectively institutionalized, the be the dangerof thiskindof breachcomesfrom outsidein may, in certain circumstances, exchangeable thingfrom thisspecific senseof outside. The pointis cogently made forpower,but this is a verydifferent of Aron. by Raymond beingforms power.
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The circulationof power between polity and the Westerndemocracies.26Equality of the franof I system conceiveto consistin binding chise which,since the consequences its exercise integrative I binding,27 classifyas in fact a policy decisions on the one hand, which is a are very strictly primaryfactor in the integrativeprocess, and formof power,has been part of a largercomplex whichincludesin addipoliticalsupporton the other,whichis a primary of its institutionalization, extensionto of process. Supportis ex- tionthe principle universality-its outputof the integrative and for adult citizensin good standing changed,by a "public" or constituency, the all responsible through the secrecyof the ballot,whichservesto differenassumptionof leadershipresponsibility, the process of persuadingthose in a positionto tiate this context of political action from other and protectit against give bindingsupportthatit is advisable to do so contexts of involvement, in the particularinstance-throughthe use of pressures,not only from hierarchicalsuperiors as influence or some less generalized means of but, as Rokkan points out, fromstatus-peers persuasion. In the other political "market" well. of Of coursethe same basic principle one memsystem,policy decisions vis-a-vis the integrative in in are given in responseto interest-demands the ber,one vote,is institutionalized a vast number associations,includingmany which sense of the above discussion. This is to say that of voluntary such as to of it groups,which, is mostimportant note are subassociations wider collectivities, interest or in about the moralquality faculties a university, boardsand committees. as a conceptsays nothing or a between chairman presidof the particular interest,attemptto persuade Thus thedifference marked head is clearly and in collectiv- ingofficer, an executive thosewho hold authority the relevant it whatever may authority, decisions, withrespectto formal to ity,i.e. are in a position makebinding that by that they should indeed committhe collectivity be withrespectto influence, the principle has only one like any othermember, want. In a chairman, to the policies the influence-wielders are our termsthis is to persuadethe decisionmakers vote. Many collectivities in this sense "trunto use and hence"spend" some of theirpowerfor cated" associations,e.g. in cases where fiduciary the imNevertheless of thepurposein hand. The spending poweris to boards are self-recruiting. be thought just as the spendingof money,as portance of this principleof equality of power of, that is the of in consisting the sacrifice alternative through franchise so great empirically essentially the questionof how it is groundedin the strucby decisionswhichare precluded thecommitments is of undera policy. A member the col- tureof social systems a crucialone. undertaken fromwhat I shouldcall the It derives,I think, to as notedto have authority we lectivity conceive in of component patterns normative makingbindingdecisions universalistic "spend" power through that discriminaorder. It is the value-principle whichthoseoutsideacquireclaimsagainst through mustbe grounded tionsamong unitsof a system, however, is in- in intrinsically the collectivity. Its authority, among them, valued differences not alienable; it can onlybe exercised, "spent." cawhichare, for both personsand collectivities, It has been suggested that policies must be pacitiesto contribute valued societalprocesses. to ordered in a prioritysystemand Differences power in decision-making hierarchically which of both outwardin relation thatthepowerto decideamongpoliciesmusthave mobilizescommitments, and interof a corresponding hierarchical orderingsince such to the environment the collectivity of nally,to the assignment tasks to its members, and its constituent decisionsbind the collectivity of conditions units. The imperativeof hierarchydoes not, are ideallygroundedin the intrinsic on differences the basis effectiveness.Similarly, of however, applyto theother"market" thepower essentialrolesare to of technical competence fulfill that involvingthe relasystemin this direction, groundedin the strategicconditionsof effective tions between leadership and political support. contribution. it Here on the contrary is a critically important These considerations not,however, do apply to fact that in the largest-scaleand most highly the functions the choice of leadership,where of differentiated namelythe leadershipsyssystems, 26 See, on thisprocess, Stein Rokkan,"Mass Suffrage, the temsofthemost"advanced"nationalsocieties, European Secret Voting, and Political Participation," equalized power elementhas been systematically of Journal Sociology2 (1961): 132-152. so throughthe device of the franchise, that the by evaluated theelectoral of 27 I.e., theaggregate votes, of the has been evolved in all rules,determines incumbency office. universaladult franchise
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bases of characterof the leadership elementswhich asthischoicehas been freedfromascriptive and statusor some imputed sume responsibility which,in exchange,are kinship right, through e.g. in as "charismatic"superiority in such a case as invested, the typecase by the electoralprocess, to pres- with authority carry out theirresponsibilities. "white supremacy." There is a persistent or One centralfeatureof this controlis comingto highlyvalued functions sure of the sufficiently in elementsinherent and underthis pressurethereseems to termswith the hierarchical outcomes, in thoughuneven,process of powersystems the aspectsjust discussed. Cerhave been a continual, in hiererosion of discriminations this criticalfieldof tain value systemsmay of course reinforce of archy,but-itwould be my view that a universalthe distribution power. of value systeminherently thattheprinciple univer- isticallyoriented tendsto It maybe suggested the which is immedi- counteract spreadof hierarchical with salistic normative organization patterns to ately superordinate that of politicaldemocracy respectto powerbeyondthe rangefeltto be funcis tionally in the sense of the universalequal franchise, necessaryforeffectiveness.28 There is, however,a crucial link betweenthe the principleof equality beforethe law; in the the case of the AmericanConstitution, principle equality of the franchiseand the hierarchical of of within ofequal protection thelaws. I have emphasized structure authority collectivities, namely is framework essential to the all-or-none that a constitutional characterof the electoralprocess. given of course Every voter has an equal vote in electingto an advanced collectiveorganization, but levels of scale and complexitywhich preclude office, in most cases only one candidateis in and traditional normative regu- factelected-the authority office not divided of is purely"informal" in to puts the burdenof among candidatesin proportion the numbers lation. The principle effect proof on the side of imposing discriminations,of votes theyreceived,but is concentrated the in of eitherin access to rightsor in imposition obli- successfulcandidate,even thoughthe marginbe are verynarrow,as in the U. S. presidential election gations,on the side that such discriminations in to be justifiedonly by differences sufficientlyof 1960. There are, of course, considerable highly valued exigencies of operation of the possible variations in electoral rules, but this basic principle is as central as is that of the system. seems to The principleof equality both at the level of equalityof the franchise. This principle of applicationof the law and of the political fran- be the obverseof the hierarchy authority. The hierarchicalcharacterof power systems of chise,is clearlyrelatedto a conception thestatus withthe linear of membership. Not all livingadults have equal has above been sharplycontrasted the affairsof all collectivities quantitativecharacter of wealth and monetary r-ight influence to in everywhere the world,nor does an American assets. This has in turnbeen relatedto thefundabetweenthe exigenciesof effecwitha citizenof a quite different mentaldifference have equal rights society within its territory. Membershipis in tiveness in collectiveaction, and the exigencies of fact the applicationto the individualunit of the of utilityin providingfor the requirements the of conceptof boundary a social systemwhichhas satisfying "wants" of units. In orderto place discussionof the relationsbetween in the property solidarity, Durkheim's sense. the foregoing of in of is The equal franchise a prerogative members, power and influence a comparabletheoretical the valuecan be context,it is necessaryto formulate and of course the criteriaof membership institutionalized under different standard which is paramountin regulatingthe very differently function which corresponds utility integrative to circumstances. sense in whichthe double There is an important 28 Of course where conditionsare sufficiently simple, or interchange system under consideration here, where there is sufficient anxiety about the hierarchial whichI have called the "support"systemlinking implications of power, the penethepolity withtheintegrative aspectofthesociety, trate far into the political egalitarian element may itself, decision-makingsystem is preciselythe systemin which power is most with, e.g. insistence that policy-decisions,both external directly controlled,both in relation to more and internal in reference,be made by majority vote of interest-elements which seek rela- all members, or even under a unanimityrule. The reparticularized policies-which of course in- spects in which such a system-which of course realtivelyparticularized istically often involves a sharply actions tion of influence-is incompatiblehierarchical stratificacertain potential to cludes wanting prevent with effectivenessin -and in relation themoregeneral"tone" given many spheres,can be said to be relativelyclear, especially to of to the directionality collectiveaction by the for large collectivities.
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on in and effectiveness the economic and political losses-deriving frommemberships, the other the respectively. to influence processesby whichcollectiveacfunctions This is, withlittledoubt,the famousconceptof tion operates. This clearlyinvolvessome instituof of solidarityas formulatedby Durkheim.29 The tionalization the subordination unit-interest for in two essentialpointsof reference presentpur- to thecollective cases wherethetwo are in conand actualor potential, hencethejustification poses concernthe two main aspects of member- flict, withthe more exas of above,thefirst whichconcerns of unit interests compatible ship,as outlined for claims on executiveauthority policydecisions tensivecollectiveinterest. A social systemthen as in on interest the possesses solidarity proportion its members the whichintegrate totalcollective which through interests of to one hand,the "partial" interest a subgroupon are committed common and the of discreteunit interests can be integrated other. The second concerns integration the and subordinaresolution of rightsto a "voice" in collectiveaffairswith the justification conflict and implemented.It defines, leadershipand the corre- tion can be defined exigenciesof effective of notthemodesof implementation thesecommon spondingresponsibility. agency,but the standeffective through of a collective interests is The principle the "grounding" systemin a consensusin the sense of the above ards by whichsuch agencyshouldbe guided and to elements have discussion,namelyan "acceptance" on the part the rightsof variousconstituent of in together, the a voice in the interpretation thesestandards. of of its members theirbelonging sense of sharing,over a certainrange, common bothby type, POWER AND EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY whichare defined interests interests, of and byconsiderations time. Time becomesreleWe may now turnto the second major boundin factor all human vantbecauseoftheuncertainty at ary of the polity, whichanotherorderof modinor benefits action,and hencethefactthatneither for ficationsof the internalhierarchyof authority and predicted planned can burdens be precisely mustbe comes to focus. This is the boundaryvis-a-vis collectivity in advance; hencean effective is where the "political" interest to prepared to absorb unexpectedburdens,and to the economy and services,and secure controlof productivity balance this,to carry out some sort of just discontrol lies and/or the economicinterest in the collective whichare unexpected of tribution benefits of fluid resourcesand in what we may call opto are not attributable the earned agency of any for portunity effectiveness.I shall not attempt subunit. particular complex, here to discuss the whole interchange Solidaritymay then be thoughtof as the imto myself the crucial problemof but will confine of of plementation commonvalues by definition of structure theway thatherealso thehierarchical in the requisitecollectivesystems whichtheyare be power can, under certainconditions, modified to be actualized. Collectiveaction as such we in an egalitariandirection. have definedas political function. The famous alof Productivity the economyis in principle problem of order, however, cannot be solved locable among collective(in our sense political) system. Solidarity a without commonnormative control as facilities,in linear is the principleby virtue of which the commit- claimants to its is terms. This linear quantification quantitative ment to norms, which is "based" in turn on eitheralthe achievedthrough mediumof money, of with the formation colvalues, is articulated to collective locationof fundswith liberty expend themat whichare capable of effective lectivities evaluationof more spethe will, or at least monetary action. Whereas, in the economicdirection, action is coping with the cificfacilities. "problem"of effective servicesmust developedsystem, In a sufficiently scarcityof available resources,includingtrying termsalso, both from be evaluated in monetary direcin theirmobility, the integrative to facilitate and of the claims,on the pointof view of rationalbudgeting solutionof competing tion it is orderly cost of theiremployment.In termsof monetary the one hand to receive benefits-or minimize servicesare "packages" however, theirutilization, 29 It is thecentral of which are qualitatively concept The Divisionof Labor in of performance-capacity, of recent understanding distinct Society. For my own relatively to and of unequal value as contributions to see its significance, "Durkheim'sContribution the collectiveeffectiveness.Their evaluationas fain of Theoryof Integration Social Systems," KurtWolff, of 1858-1917(Ohio, Ohio State Uni- cilitiesmusthenceinvolvean estimate strategic Ed., Smile Durkheim, which matches the general priority significance Press, 1960), pp. 118-153. versity
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both quantitativeand qualiscale which has been establishedto regulatethe ential competence, tative. of functioning the collectivity. internal Whereas the equalizationof the franchise a is a Services, however,constitute resourceto be power "from above" in as acquired fromoutside the collectivity, Weber control on differential free"contract em- the hierarchyof control and operates mainly of a puts it through "formally thus made are binding throughthe selection of leadership,equality of ployment. The contracts is sense) a on both sides, by virtue of a normativesystem opportunity (in the corresponding though controlfrombelow, and operates to check partranscendingthe particular collectivity, tendencieswhich would tend to exthe obligationmust articulatewith the internal ticularistic aspect. clude sources of service which are qualifiedby order includingits hierarchical normative of to and/or to check tendBut the purveyors serviceare not,in advance, competence contribute, systemand hence encies to retain services which are inferiorto priority bound by this internal to an exchange,whichis here interpreted operate thoseavailablein competition withthem. of in the firstinstanceas betweenstrategicsignifi- It is the combination these two foci of uniand the equalitarianism upper rights of cance expressedas power-potential, themone- versalization, to controlthrough franchise, taryvalue of the service,mustbe arrivedat. the and of rightsto throughservice on the basis of comof whenthe purveyor servicehas participate Quite clearly, he once enteredinto such a contract, is bound by petence,which account for the extent to which 30 advantage," whichmightseem whicharticulates service the "cumulative the theaspectofits terms in internalstrucinto this internalsystem,includingthe level of to be inherent the hierarchical oftenin factfailseitherto for he authority exercisesand its implications his tureof power systems, at in powerposition thecollectivity.If thecollectiv- materialize all, or to be as strongas expected. ityis makingin any sense a rationalarrangement, Long and complexas it is, the above discussion of solution the up this must be tailoredto an estimateof the level maybe summed as an attempted withwhichthis hence secondof thethreemainproblems of the value of his strategiccontribution, paper began, namelythat of the relationbetween his performance-capacity. is the interchange not the coercive and the consensual aspects of the Since,however, boundary of the phenomenon power. The answer is firstpreof system bindingness, to integral the internal but of do not apply to the op- misedon theconception poweras a specific imperatives hierarchical of on aspect of this interchange the extra- generalizedmediumof the functioning social portunity in systems politicalside. This is to say thatthe same order relationships complex, differentiated nor- of social interaction. universalistic of pressuresof a higher-order Power is secondlyspecifically associated with can operatehere thatwe suggested mativesystem operatedto bringabout equalityin the franchise. the bindingnessof obligations to performance whichmay arise dis- withina range of circumstances Again the principleis that no particularistic and changing situation. The obligawhich are not in a varying are criminations to be legitimized deexigenciesof the tions concernedare hence in some important groundedin essentialfunctional so underthem gree generalized thatparticularities reference. of system on thereseemsto be no are contingent circumstances. The bindingIn thecase of thefranchise equality, ness of obligationsimplies that they stand on a place shortof complete inherent stopping agent, of level of seriousnesssuch that the invoking consideration qualifiedonly by the minimum ego, may be put in the positionof asserting that, memberattachedto fullyresponsible competence he since he "means it" thatalter mustcomply, is "defectives," through ship-excludingonlyminors, and mentalillness,and those morally preparedto insiston compliance. Partlythenas retardation throughcrime. In the service case, a symbolic expression of this seriousness of disqualified of to on theotherhand,givencommitments optimum "meaning it" and partly as an instrument of this insistenceis deterrence noncompliance,"' whichin the presentcontextcan be performance 30 Cf. C. WrightMills, The Power Elite (New York, the takenforgranted, limitto the equatingof uniin Press, 1956) and my commentary versalismand equalitylies in the conceptof com- OxfordUniversity petence. Hence the principlearrived at is the Structureand Process in Modern Societies, op. cit., 6. chapter by famousone of equalityof opportunity, which 31Cf. Durkheim's famousessay, "Deux lois de l'evofor lution penale," L'Annee Sociologique 4(1899-1900): thereis equalizationof access to opportunity but contribution, selectionon criteriaof differ- 65-95.
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associated with commandof negativesituational ance with wishes, ratherthan obligations. The metal parallel is the use of a monetary sanctionsthe applicationof which is frequently monetary and of on contingent noncompliance, in certaincases as an instrument barterwhereas a commodity medium of is deterrence achievedby compulsion.We would it ceases to be an institutionalized not speak of power where situationalnegative exchange at all. therehas been a very of sanctionsor compulsionare in no circumstances In the history thought in cases wherea legit- close connection betweenemphasison thecoercive attachedto noncompliance and on the hierarchical in imateagentinsistson compliance. element power systems and of of Thirdly,however,power is here conceivedas aspectof the structure systems authority commitments power. The above discussionhas, I hope, helped a generalizedmediumof mobilizing collectiveaction. As to dissociate them by showingthat this hieraror obligationfor effective as does not itselfpossess intrinsic chicalaspect,important it is, is onlypartof the such it ordinarily and structure power systems. The view advanced but symbolizes effectiveness of effectiveness, of hence the bindingness the relevantobligations is that it is an inherentaspect of the internal even to of to contribute it. The operativevalidityof the structure collectivities. No collectivity, is the symbolization not a func- the nation,however,stands alone as a total soof meaningfulness withnormsand values; tion of any one singlevariablebut, we argue, of cietysince it is integrated can ones. One of theseis thewillingness subcollectivities even less be claimed to be two primary aspect of total social to insist upon compliance,or at least to deter societies. The collectivity a may in a particularcase be dominant noncompliance, line of reasoningwhich leads structure to of to the understanding willingness resortto over others,but always in principleit impinges the negativesanctions, natureof whichwill vary, on at least two sorts of boundary-problems, and of as a function the seriousnessof the question, namelythatinvolvedin its "support"system more that involved in the mobilizationof services as on the dimension of their progressively to sourcesof contribution its functioning. drasticnature,in the last analysisforce. referthe In both thesecases, we have argued,quite difvariableconcerns collective The other 32 ence and hence the justifiation of invokingthe ferentprinciplesare operativefromthat of the namely the equality of in obligations questionin the situation. This as- hierarchyof authority, on of the pect concerns dependence power on the in- franchise the one hand,equalityof opportunity and of stitutionalization authority hencethe rights on the other. In both cases I envisagean interover and change of power, thoughnot of authority, agents to mobilizeperformances of collective case can and in neither of definethemas bindingobligations. This justifi- theboundary thepolity, restson some sort of consensus the principlegoverningthe allocation of power cation inherently to be thisinterchange considered be hierof among the membersof the collectivity refer- through sense. The empirical to withrespect a system archicalin theline authority morebroadly, ence,ifnot but formidable, and power are problemshere are, as elsewhere, of norms under which authority to argue that it is illegitimate hold on legitimized a basis wider than this particular I definitely of by collectivity the values of the system. More that, from serious consideration the role of code poweras a generalized it medium, can be inferred is authority the institutionalized specifically, in withinwhich the "language of power" is mean- thatthereis a generaltrendto hierarchization involved.38 social systems its ingfuland, therefore, use will be accepted in the total empirical which is in the first the requisite community, THE ZERO-SUM PROBLEM of instancethe community collectiveorganization in our sense. We are now in a positionto take up the last of Seen in this lightthe threatof coercivemeas- thethreemainproblems withwhichthediscussion or withoutlegitimation ures, or of compulsion, phepoweris a zero-sum namelywhether started, should not properlybe called the nomenon the sense that,in a system, gain in justification, a in case where use of powerat all, but is the limiting 33 Failure to see thisseemsto me to be a major source mergesinto character, losing its symbolic power, above expressed of the utopianstrainin Marxisttheory, of an intrinsicinstrumentality securingcompli- all by the expectation the "withering away of the of
op. 32 Cf. my paper "On The Conceptof Influence," and of cit.,for a discussion the conceptof justification fromlegitimation. its distinction cona state." There is perhaps parallelto the confusion doctrine withthe Aristotelian nectedfor manycenturies of of the "sterility" money.
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powerby a unitA is in the natureof the case the by the quantityof new bank depositscreatedby loss of power by other the loans outstanding.35 cause of a corresponding Perhaps the best way to describewhat happens units,B, C, D. . . .The parallel with moneyon should is to say thattherehas occurreda differentiation throughout which we have been insisting give us clues to the answer,whichclearlyis, un- in thefunctions moneyand hencethereare two of yes, but by no means ways of using it in the place of one. The ordider certaincircumstances underall circumstances. nary depositis a reservefor meeting excurrent In the monetarycase it is obvious that in penses, whether"private" or "business," which with respectto the time elethe budgeting use of a fixedincome,allocationto is mainlyimportant uses. mentof the degreesof freedom mentioned above. one use mustbe at the expenseof alternative the apply From the pointof view of the depositor bank parallellimitations The questionis whether to an economyconceivedas a total system. For is a convenience,giving him safekeeping,the of checksratherthanusingcash, long this seemed to many economiststo be the privilege writing case; thiswas the main burdenof the old "quan- etc.,at a cost whichis low because the bank earns through loaningoperations. From the its of theory money." The mostobviouspolitical interest tity on of within pointof view of the borrower, the otherhand, parallelis thatof thehierarchy authority a particular collectivity.It would seem to be ob- the bank is a source of otherwiseunavailable ideallyin the economist's sense,forinvestvious that,if A, who has occupied a positionof funds, operationspromisingfuture substantialpower, is demoted,and B takes his ment,for financing of whichwould place, A loses power and B gains it, the total in increments economicproductivity, have been feasible. the same. Many political not otherwise the systemremaining of The possibility this "miracle of loaves and like Lasswell and C. WrightMills, gentheorists fishes"of course restson an empirical as uniformity, eralized this to politicalsystems a whole.34 and The mostimportant obviouspointat which namelythat depositorsdo in fact,under normal balances on handkeep sufficient breaks down for moneyis circumstances, the zero-sumdoctrine bank- thoughtheyare not requiredto-so thatit is safe throughcommercial that of credit-creation amountsout on as ing. This case is so important a model thata for the bank to have substantial briefdiscussionhere is in order. Depositors,that loan at any given time. Underlyingthis basic is bank will theirmoneyfundsto a bank, not only uniformity the factthatan individual is, entrust for safe keeping,but as available to the bank for ordinarilyalso have access to "reserves," e.g. lending. In so doing, however,they do not re- assets which, though earning interest,are sufliquid to be realizedon shortnotice,and rightsin thesefunds. The ficiently linquishany property fundsare repayable thebankin fullon demand, in the last analysis such resourcesas those of a by bank,and beingwith respectto federalreservesystem. The individual the onlynormalrestrictions is relatively bankinghours. The bank,however,uses part of withit its depositors, thus ordinarily the balances on depositwith it to make loans at secure. We all know,however, thatthis is trueonlyso pursuantto whichit not only makes the interest, long as the systemoperates smoothly. A parbut availableto theborrower, in mostcases money assumes binding obligationsnot to demand re- ticularbank can meetunusual demandsforwithwhichin general drawal of deposits,but if this unusual demand excepton agreedterms, payment leave the borrower undisturbedcontrol for a spreads to a whole banking system,the result stipulatedperiod-or obligates him to specified may be a crisis,which only collectiveaction can of installments amortization.In otherwords,the solve. Quite clearlythe expectationthat all desame dollars come to do "double duty," to be positors should be paid, all at once, in "real" of treatedas possessionsby the depositors, who re- money,e.g. even "cash" to say nothing moneand also by the banker tary metal, cannot be fulfilled. Any monetary tain theirproperty rights, the who preempts rightsto loan them,as if they systemin which bank creditplays an important "insolwere "his." In any case thereis a corresponding part is in the natureof the case normally vent" by that standard. medium, measured net additionto the circulating
35Whetherthis be interpreted net additionto the as H. D. Lasswell and A. Kaplan, Power and Society medium as increasein the velocity circulation or of of (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1950) and Mills, the "slow" deposit funds, is indifferent, because its The Power Elite, op. cit. economic effects the same. are
34
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it Back of theseconsiderations, maybe said, lies in circulationis economically"functional"only an importantrelation between bindingnessand if it leads aftera sequence of operationsover a increase in which is in certainrespectsparallel period of time to a corresponding "confidence" coercionand consensusin relation productivity-ifit does not the consequence is to thatbetween The processis knownas investment, the to power,indeed one which,through element inflationary. is be- and the standardof a good investment the exinvolvesa directarticulation of bindingness, which,measured of tweenmoneyand power. How is this parallelto pectedincrement productivity The organizaoperate? in moneyterms,is profitability. and how does the articulation be defined for First the bankingoperationdependson mutual tional question of allocationof responsibility their decisionsand paymentsshould of course not be entrust or confidence trustin thatdepositors with the present level of if fundsto the bank,knowing, theystop to think too directlyidentified argument. aboutit,thatthebankwill have a volumeof loans analytical if It mayhelp roundout thispicture theconcept which makes it impossibleto repay outstanding is all depositsat once. It is well knownwithwhat of investment relatedto thatof "circularflow" is sense.36 The conception that many classes have been in Schumpeter's hesitation,historically, of banksat all in thissimplesense- the routinefunctioning economicprocesses is to brought trust theclassicalcase oftheFrenchpeasant'sinsistence organized about the relationbetween producing his on putting savingsin cash underthe mattress and consumingunits, we may say firms and illustration. The other side of the households. So long as a series of parametric is sufficient coin, however,is the bank's trust that its de- constantssuch as the state of demand and the hold, this is a of positors will not panic to the point of in fact coefficients cost of production whichmoneymedithrough of the completefulfillment theirlegal processin equilibrium demanding ates the requisite decisions oriented to fixed rights. points. This is preciselythe case to The banker here assumes bindingobligations reference of the in two directions, honoring both of which whichthe zero-sumconceptapplies. On the one of and "velocity circulation" dependson this trust. On the one hand he has hand a fixedquantity mediumis an essentialcondition of the monetary whichhe cannotrecover on loanedmoney contract whereason the of on demand,on the otherhe is legally bound to of the stability thisequilibrium, repaydepositson demand. But by makingloans otherhand, thereis no place for bankingoperaon binding contractualterms he is enabled to tions which, through credit expansion, would conditions. power in the changetheparametric create money,which is purchasing These decisionsare governedby the standard the statusof the literalsense that,as notedabove, and in monetary unit is politically guaranteed-e.g. of solvency, the sense thatbothproducing expectedto recoup unitsare normally its through positionas "legal tender"-and hence consuming on expenditures, the one hand for the newly created dollars are "as good as" any theirmonetary on of what makes factors production, the otherforconsumers' otherdollars. Hence I suggestthat proceeds,on the producing themgood in this sense is the inputof power in goods, frommonetary sale on the form of the bindingnessof the contractual side, sale of output, the consuming, of facnotablylabor. Solvencythen obligation assumed by the banker-I should tors of production, cost and receipts. The is a balance betweenmonetary for thisas opportunity effectiveness. classify is thus enjoys a "power posi- Investment also governedby the standardof as collectivity, bank, tion" by virtueof whichit can give its borrowers solvency,but over a longer time period, long of control certaintypesof opportunity. enough to carry out the operationsnecessaryto effective matching that in gen- bringabout an increaseof productivity important critically It is, however, the monetary obligationsassumed. eral this grant of power is not unconditional. First it is power in its formof directconvertibil- There is here a crucial relation between the of process and use ity with money,and second, withinthat frame- time-extension the investment binding. Only of power to make loan contracts is work,the condition that,per unitof time,there if the extensionof controlof resourcesthrough the shouldbe a surplusof moneygenerated, borof can the recipients the rowercan and must returnmore moneythan he loans createsobligations the being "interest." Money, received, difference 36 Joseph Schumpeter, The Theoryof EconomicDeand is however, a measureof productivity, hence velopment (Cambridge, Harvard UniversityPress, 1955), of the we may say thatincreasing quantity money translated by Redvers Opie.
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commitment perform to services,broadly obligationsand ex- through loans in turnassume further for balances the output of offerof opportunity pectothers assumethem. to performance. The essentialprinciple here is that,in the sense effective The suggestionis that it is a conditionof the a medium ofthehierarchy control, higher-order of that the inputs of system is used as a source of leverageto break into the stability this circulation "circle" of the Schumpeterian flow, giving the and outputsof poweron each side shouldbalance. control of a This is anotherway of saying that it is ideally recipientsof this power effective as so share of fluidresourcesin order to divertthem formulated a zero-sumsystem, far as power though becauseit includestheinvestchannelsto new uses. is concerned, from established the routine It is difficult see how this could work sys- mentprocess,the same is not trueforthe involveto fundsin the interchanges.The if were ab- mentof monetary of tematically the element bindingness sent either from loan contracts or from the politicalcircularflowsystemthenis conceivedas the locus of the "routine"mobilization performof medium. acceptance-status the monetary of eitherthrough invoking obligaelementof the monetary One further complex ance expectations needs to be mentioned here. In thecase of invest- tions under old contractual-and in some cases, or a ascriptive-relations, through mentthereis the elementof time,and hence the e.g. citizenship, of obliuncertainty that projected operationsaiming at stable rate of assumption new contractual increasein productivity in factproduceeither gations, which is balanced by the liquidation, will to typicallythroughfulfillment, old ones. The of this increase or financialproceeds sufficient in repay loans plus interest accordancewith con- balance applies to the system,of course, not to units. tract. In the case of the particularborrower- particular this lenderrelationship can be handledon an indito Corresponding utilityas the value-pattern basis vidual contract-solvency witha legallydeter- governing economicfunction have put forward I minedbasis of sharingprofits and/orlosses. For effectiveness that governing as politicalfunction. of If it is important distinguish the system, however,it creates the possibility to utility,as the inflation, namely that the net effectof credit- categoryof value to which increments made are but by the combinatorial extensionmay not be increasein productivity process of economicproducunit. Fur- tion,fromsolvency the standardof satisfactory decline in the value of the monetary as once a systeminvolves an important performance handlingmoney as the medium thermore, in componentof credit, the opposite disturbance, of economicprocess,then we need to distinguish of namely deflationwith a rearrangement the effectiveness the politicalvalue category, as from meaningof the whole networkof financialand a correspondingstandard for the satisfactory is credit expectationsand relationships, also a handlingof power. The best available termfor possibility. This suggests that there is, in a this standardseems to be the success of collective ramifiedcredit economy,a set of mechanisms goal-attainment.Where the polityis sufficiently of which,independently particularcircular flow, differentiated thatpowerhas becomegenuinely so and credit-extension repayment and transactions a generalizedmediumwe can say that collective regulatesthe total volume of credit,rates of in- unitsare expectedto be successful thesensethat in relationsin the economy. the bindingobligationsthey undertakein order terest, and price-level to maintain and createopportunities effectivefor ZERO-SUM: THE CASE OF POWER ness, is balanced by the input of equally binding to Let us now attemptto work out the parallel, commitments performservice, either within in or and articulating,analysis for power systems. the collectivity some status of employment, on basis. There is, I suggest,a circularflowoperating be- for the collectivity a contractual tween polity and economy in the interchange The unit of productivedecision-making, howbetweenfactorsin politicaleffectiveness-in this ever,is, in a sense corresponding thatapplying to case a share of controlof the productivity the to the householdfor the economiccase, also exof economy-and an outputto the economyin the pectedto be successful the sense thatits expenin formof the kind of controlof resourceswhich a ditureof power throughnot only the output of thereare variousotherforms. This circularflow services but their commitment utilizationby to loan for investment provides-though of course particularcollectivities, balanced by an input is is controlled the mediumof powerin the sense of opportunity by which is dependenton collective thatthe inputof bindingobligations, particular organization, in thatis a unitin a positionto under-
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which are binding gous to that of the banker. The "deposits" of take to provide opportunities on the unit. are power made by constituents revocable,if not analogous In the lightof this discussionit becomesclear at will,at thenextelection-a condition that the business firmis in its aspect as collec- to regularity bankinghours. In some cases of of tivityin our technicalsense, the case where the electionis tied to barterlike conditions expectwo standardsof success and solvencycoincide. tation of carryingout certain specificmeasures to uses its powerincomeprimarily main- favored thestrategically The firm crucialvotersand only by and, in tain or increaseits productivity as a measure these. But particularly a system which is to not of this, its moneyincome. A surplus of power pluralistic onlywithreference the composibut in will therefore general be exchanged for en- tion of politicalsupport, also to issues,such a productivity. leadershipelement of to acquiresfreedom make cerof hancement its control economic specializedin politicalfunction tain types of binding decision, binding in the For a collectivity of the primarycriterion success would be given natureof the case on elementsof the collectivity relativethatis to othercol- other than those whose "interest" is directly in its powerposition, lectivities. Here there is the special problemof served. This freedommay be conceived to be to the meaningof the termpower position. I inter- confined thecircularflowlevel,whichwould be in the pret it here as relativeto othercollectivities a to say thatthe inputof power through chanin not system, as a position an internal nel of politicalsupportshouldbe exactlybalanced competitive to policydecisions, interest is of hierarchy power. This distinction of course by the outputthrough demanded these power sys- groups which have specifically for important a pluralistic particularly special- decisions. is tem where government a functionally There is, however,anothercomponentof the of not structure, an ized subsystem the collectivity whichis crucialhere. of of to approximation the totality that structure.37freedom electedleadership example to fashiona collectivity This is the freedom use influence-for In somewhatcorresponding as function would measure throughthe "prestige"of office distinguished specializedin integrative its successin termsof its "level of influence"-for from its specifiedpowers-to embark on new in in example,as a politicalinterest-group the usual ventures the "equation"of powerand influence. to public policy de- This is to use influence createadditionsto the sense, its capacityto influence cisions. A consequenceof this reasoningis that total supply of power. How can this be consuch an influencegroup would be disposed to ceived to work? between "give away" power,in the sense of tradingit for One important pointis thattherelation of an increment influence.This could take the the media involvedwith respectto positiveand barter- negativesanctionsis the obverse of the case of without formof assuringpoliticalsupport, like conditions, to leadership elements which creatingmoneythroughbanking. There it was seemedto be likelyto be able to exercisethe kind the use of power embodiedin the bindingcharacter of loan contracts which"made the difference." in of influence question. Is therethena politicalequivalentof the bank- Here it is the optionalcapacityto exertinfluence a ing phenomenon, way in whichthe circularflow throughpersuasion. This process seems to opof of power comes to be brokenthroughso as to erate throughthe function leadershipwhich, it bringabout net additionsto the amountof power by way of the involvements possesseswithvaristructure the of argu- ous aspects of the constituency in the system? The trendof the analytical generates and structuresnew "dethat there must be, and that its collectivity, ment indicates that is the area mands" in the specific sense of demands for focus lies in the supportsystem, of interchangebetween power and influence, policydecision. system. betweenpolity and integrative Such demands then may be conceived,in the in case of the deciders, justify increasedoutput conspicuous an First I suggestthat,particularly to electoralsystems, political of power. This in turn is made possible by the the case of democratic the of support should be conceived as a generalized generality the mandateof politicalsupport, grantof power which,if it leads to electoralsuc- factthat it is not given on a barterbasis in excess, puts electedleadershipin a positionanalo- change for specific policy decisions,but once the has "equation"of powerand influence been estab37 If very carefully perhapsthe old term interpreted, lished throughelection,it is a mandate to do, could be used to designatethis standard "sovereignty" withinconstitutional limits,what seems best, in than moredefinitely success. somewhat
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case "in the public interest." votes in their decisions dictated by their own the governmental maythenbe conceivedas the interests.38 leadership Collective to It is perhapslegitimate call the responsibility bankersor "brokers"who can mobilizethe bindleadership specifically in of ing commitments their constituents such a assumed in this connection and distinguishit in these terms made by the responsibility of way thatthe totality commitments which focuses responsibility as collectivity a whole can be enhanced. This from administrative must,however,be justifiedthrough on theroutine functions.In any case I shouldlike enhancement as it of the mobilization influence; must,thatis, both to conceivethis processof power-enhancement in be feltto be in accordancewith valid normsand strictly parallel to economic investment, the apply to situationswhich "call for" handlingat further sense that the pay-offshould be an inthe level of bindingcollectivecommitments. crementto the level of collectivesuccess in the is, The criticalproblemof justification in one sense outlinedabove, i.e. enhanced effectiveness that of consensus,of its bearingon the of collectiveaction in valued areas which could direction, on risk-taking the of as value-principle solidarity we have outlined not have been expectedwithout whichcorre- part of leadershipin a sense parallel to entrethis above. The standardtherefore of is sponds to the value principle solidarity con- preneurialinvestment. and nonThe operationof both governmental sensusin the sense in whichthatconcepthas been is collectivities full of illustrations governmental used above. The problem thenis thatof a basis forbreaking of the kind of phenomenonI have in mind, of through circularstability a zero-sumpower though because this type of formal analysis is the to it system. The crucial point is that this can only somewhatunfamiliar, is difficult pin them if the collectivity and its membersare down exactly. It has, for example, oftenbeen happen over and pointed out that the relation of executive rereadyto assume new bindingobligations is to in above thosepreviously force. The crucialneed sponsibility constituency-interestsvery different in domestic and in foreign affairs. I the is to justifythis extensionand to transform "sentiment"that somethingought to be done suggestthatthe elementof "politicalbanking"in is large and affairs particularly the sentiment thefieldof foreign to into a commitment implement by positive action, includingcoercive sanctions that the sanctionof approval of policy decisions, be if necessary. The crucial agency of this process where is occurs, cannot infallibly translated not intovotes,certainly in the shortrun. Similar seems to be leadership,precisely conceived as involved in independent considerationsare very frequently analytically possessing a component which de- what may be called "developmental"ventures, of the routinepower positionof office, finesthe leader as the mobilizerof justifications whichcannotbe expectedto be "backed" by curin interests the same sense well-structured under rently forpolicieswhichwould not be undertaken functions. The case of of as maintenance current the circularflow assumptions. It may be suggestedthat the parallel to credit supportof researchand trainingis a good one of as since the "community scholars" is not a very creationholds with respectto time-extension of well as in otherrespects. The increments ef- strong"pressuregroup" in the sense of capacity large blocksof votes. to new directly influence to whichare necessary implement fectiveness that It would followfromthese considerations an bindingpolicies which constitute addition to "freethereis, in developedpolities,a relatively cannotsimply the total burdenon the collectivity clear case of the relabe willed into being; they require organizational 38 Perhapsthis is an unusually of of changes through recombinations the factors tivityof the formallegal sense of the bindingness in component demoThus the populistic commitments. of effectiveness, developmentof new agencies, oftenties both executiveand legislacraticgovernment of new norms,and even tive branchesratherrigidlyin what they can formally procurement personnel, changes in bases of legitimation. Hence leader- promise. However,thereare manyde factoobligations whichare verynearlybinding. for be ship cannotjustifiably held responsible ef- assumedby Government Thus legally Congress could withdrawthe totalityof fective implementation immediately,and con- fundsrecently of for to granted universities the support appropriations and training, formal the research versely,the sources of politicalsupportmust be scientific however,plan in willingto trusttheirleadership the sense of not being made year by year. Universities, of of very much in the expectation maintenance these demandingimmediate-by the time of the next fundsand thismaintenance certainly like something a is of election-"pay-off"of the power-valueof their de factoobligation Congress.
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in floating" elementin the power systemwhich is of the commitments which the widest extenfield analogous to a credit-system.Such an element sion had takenplace was in the international should then be subject to fluctuations a di- -the United States had very rapidlycome into on mensionof inflation-deflation, be in need of the positionof bearing the largest share of reand of for controlsfor the systemas a whole, at a level sponsibility maintenance worldpoliticalormovement. Communist der againstan expansionist above thatof the activities particular of units. The analogue of inflation seems to me to touch The "loss of China" was in certain quarters a and the Korean experience, traumatic of the credibility the assertionof the bindingness particularly of obligationsassumed. Power, as a symbolic war a highlychargedsymbolof the costs of the is medium, like moneyin that it is itself"worth- new stewardship. A pluralistic politicalsystem like the American less," but is accepted in the expectationthat it can later be "cashed in," this time in the activa- always has a large body of latentclaims on the not to of tionof bindingobligations. If, however,"power- loyalty its citizens theirgovernment, only but for "sacrifices," credit" has been extended too far, withoutthe for the "right sentiments" necessaryorganizationalbasis for fulfillment but equallytheseare expectedto be invokedonly of definition to in genuineemergencies.The McCarthy expectations havingbeen laid, thenattempting anywas, however,thatvirtually invoke the obligationswill result in less than a of the situation should of responsibility full level of performance, inhibitedby various one in a position significant the sorts of resistance. In a collectivity undergoing not onlyrecognize "in case" priority-notnecdisintegration the same formal officemay be essarilyby our basic values the highest-of nabut should explicitlyrenounceall "worthless" than it otherwisewould have been tional loyalty, compete of because of attrition its basis of effectiveness. otherloyaltieswhich mightconceivably The same considerations hold when it is a case with that to the nation,includingthose to kith a of overextension of new power-expectationsand kin. This was in effect demandto liquidate in without adequate provision for making them all othercommitments favorof the national,a demand which in the nature of the case could effective. not be met withoutdisastrous consequences in It goes without saying that a power-system directions. It tendedto "deflate" is manydifferent in which this creditlike elementis prominent the essential in a state analogous to the "insolvency"of a the power systemby undermining monetarysystem which includes an important basis of trust on which the influenceof many leadership elementof actual credit,namelyits commitments elementsbearingformaland informal and which in turn sustained all cannot be fulfilled at once, even if those to responsibilities, necessarilyrested. Perhaps the valid "power-credit," whom theyhave been made have formally rights such fulfillment. to Only a strict zero-sum most strikingcase was the allegation of comand hence widespread "dispower system could fulfill this condition of munist infiltration of "liquidity." Perhaps the conservatism politi- loyalty"in the army,whichwas exploitedto try cal ideologiesmakes it even more difficult ac- to forcethe army leadershipto put the committo of cept the legitimacy such a situation-it is all ments of all associated personnel,includinge.g. in "liquid" form. too easy to defineit as "dishonest"-than in the research scientists, completely movement particuTwo features the McCarthy of economiccase. corresponding spiral, firstthe a fineline betweensolid,re- larly mark it as a deflationary There is, however, with the sponsible and constructivepolitical leadership vicious circle of spreadinginvolvement casting of suspicion on wider and wider circles which in fact commits the collectivity beyondits loyal elementsin the presumptively of fulfillment all obli- of otherwise capacitiesfor instantaneous abruptend societyand secondlythe surprisingly gations, and reckless overextendedness, just as there is a fineline betweenresponsiblebanking of the spiral once the "bubble was pricked"and "confidence restored,"events associated particuand "wild-catting." larlywiththe public reactionto McCarthy'sperunder unusual pressures, even Furthermore, in highlyresponsible leadershipcan be put in situ- formance the televisedarmy hearings,and to Senator Flanders' protest on the floor of the ations wherea "deflationary" spiral sets in, in a patternanalogous to that of a financial panic. I Senate.39 for as interpret, instanceMcCarthyism such a de39I have dealt with some aspects of the McCarthy flationary spiral in the politicalfield. The focus episode in "Social Strains in America,"Structureand
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Process, op. cit., chapter7, pp. 226-249. The inherent impossibility the demandfor "absolutesecurity" a of in pluralisticsystemis very cogentlyshown by Edward Shils in The Torment Secrecy (New York, The Free of Press of Glencoe,1956), especiallyin chapterVI.
finance which has been The focus of the McCarthy disturbancemay tions to governmental be said to have been in the influence controls. system,in seen to be thefocusof thesehighest-level the relation between integrativeand pattern- In the case of power it is of course the first in maintenance functions the society. The pri- crucialpointthattherewas to be some relatively mary deflationary effect was on the "credit" paramountapex of controlof the power and auelements of pluralisticloyalties. This in turn thoritysystem,which we think of as in some would make leadershipelements, only in gov- sense the "sovereign"state.40 This has mainlyto not ernmentbut private groups, much less willing do with the relations between what we have and legitimacy, relationto in to take risks in claiming loyalties which might called justification as competewith those to government. Since, how- government thehighest-order tightly integrated structure-so far. This is the central ever, in the hierarchyof control the influence collectivity to systemis superordinate the power system, de- focus of Weber's famous analysis of authority, flationin the formeris necessarilypropagated but his analysis is in need of considerable extento the latter. This takes in the firstinstancethe sion in our sense. It seems,among otherthings, formof a rush to withdrawpolitical support- thathe posed an undulysharpalternative between whichit will be remembered here treatedas a charismatic is and "routine" cases, particularly the formof power-from leadershipelementswhich rational-legal versionof the latter. In particular could in any sense be suspectedof "disloyalty." it would be my view that very substantial possiThe extremeperhaps was the slogan propagated bilitiesof regulatedextensionof power-commitby McCarthyand played withby more responsi- mentsexist withinthe framework certaintypes of ble Republicanleaders like Thomas E. Dewey, of of "legal" authority, especially where they are "twentyyears of treason" which impugnedthe aspectsof a politicalsystem whichis pluralistic in loyalty the DemocraticParty as a whole. The generalterms. These problems, of however,cannot effect was, by depriving be oppositionleadershipof further exploredat the end of what is already influence, make it unsafe even to consider a very long paper. to granting thempower. The breakingthroughof the zero-sumlimitaCONCLUSION tions of more elementary power systemsopens This paper has been designedas a generalthethe way to altogethernew levels of collective oreticalattackon the ancientproblemof the nabut effectiveness, also, in the natureof the case, involves new levels of risk and uncertainty. I ture of politicalpower and its place, not only in narrowlyconceived,but in the have alreadydealt briefly withthisproblem the politicalsystems, at structureand processes of societies generally. level of the particularcollectivity and its extenfor the attack has sion of commitments.The problemof course is The main point of reference been the conceptionthat the discussion of the for compounded a systemof collectivities because problemin themain traditions politicalthought of of the risk not only of particularfailures, but of have not been couchedat a sufficiently rigorously generalizedinflationary deflationary and disturbanalyticallevel, but have tendedto treat the naances. There are, as we have noted,mechanisms collectively orof controlwhich operate to regulateinvestment, tion,the state,or the lower-level ganized "group," as the empiricalobject of refand similarlyextension of the commitments of to particular collectivities, both of whichhave to do erence,and to attempt analyze its functioning without further basic analyticalbreakdown. The with the attempt ensure responsibility, the to on 40In sayingthis I am veryfar frommaintaining that one hand for solvencyover the long run, on the is of otherfor success of the larger "strategy"of ex- "absolute"sovereignty an essentialcondition the minimalintegration tension. It is reasonableto suppose that beyond trary,firstit is farof politicalsystems. On the confromabsoluteinternally, precisely these,theremustbe mechanisms operating the becauseof thepluralistic at character mostmodern of politilevel of the system a whole in bothcontexts. as cal systems and becauseof the openness theirboundof economicand other directions. In themonetary case it was the complexof cen- aries in the integrative Externally the relationof the territorial unit to norms tral banking,credit management and their rela- and
values transcending is crucial,and steadilybeit comingmore so. See my paper "Polarizationof the World and International Order" in Quincy Wright, William M. Evan and MortonDeutsch,eds.,Preventing World War III (New York, Simonand Schuster, 1962), pp. 310-331.
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of upon heremakesit possibleto treatpower most conspicuousmanifestation this tendency entered of and precisetermsand thus in conceptually specific has been thetreatment power. called diffuseness The presentpaper takes a radically different gets away fromthe theoretical lines. It to attention, termsof whichit has been necesin position,cuttingacross the traditional of fromthe positionof economic saryto includesuch a verywide variety probletakes its departure between matical phenomenaas "forms" of power. Secthe and, by inference, asymmetry theory it whichhas ondly,I think can advance a valid claimto prepoliticaltheory,41 it and the traditional as defined senta resolution theold dilemma to whether of of an analytically one as thetheory treated a systemof society-the economy-and (in theolder terms) power is "essentially" phefunctional of usuallyiden- nomenon coercionor of consensus. It is both, substructure, the otheras a concrete whichintebecause it is a phenomenon withgovernment.Graduallythe possibility precisely tified and outputsof politiof of the ana- gratesa plurality factors has opened out both the extension with and lyticalmodel of economictheoryto the political cal effectiveness is not to be identified of fieldand the directarticulation politicalwith any one of them. Finally,lighthas been thrown of on the famouszero-sumproblem,and a definite economictheorywithinthe logical framework the theoryof the social systemas a whole, so positiontakenthat,thoughunder certainspecific the zero-sumconditionholds, these thatthe politycould be conceivedas a functional assumptions of fun- are not constitutive power systemsin general, of subsystem the societyin all its theoretical "extensystematic conditions but under different damentalsparallel to the economy. spheres withoutsacrificeof the atten- sion" of power concentrated necessarily This perspective a of tionon theplace of moneyin theconception the power of otherunits is just as important case. in economy. More thanthat,it becameincreasingly These claimsare put forward fullawareness arbitrariness phe- thaton one level thereis an inherent a was essentially "symbolic" clearthatmoney power and a nomenonand hence that its analysis required a in them,namelythatI have defined in of than number relatedconcepts myown way,which closerto thatof linguistics of frame reference frommany if not most of the definiproperties is different i.e. of technology, it is not the intrinsic of gold whichaccountforthe value of moneyun- tions currentin politicaltheory. If theorywere choice of definitions onlyof the arbitrary der a gold standardany more than it is the in- a matter as and assumptionsand reasoning from there, it trinsic propertiesof the sounds symbolized to "book" whichaccountfor the valuationof physi- mightbe permissible leave the questionat that form. This and say simply,this is only one more personal in cally fixeddissertations linguistic fromwhich the conceptionof "point of view." Any claim that it is more than is the perspective unthatthe scientific oper- thatrestson the conception power as a generalizedsymbolicmedium, of has of social interaction been derstanding societies is arrived at througha atingin theprocesses analyorganonof theoretical graduallydeveloping set forth. and This paperhas not includeda surveyof the em- sis and empiricalinterpretation verification. is contention that the line of field of My most important pirical evidence bearing on its ramified development here is a further convictionis not only analysispresented problems,but my strong analysisof the social with of a main line of theoretical thatthe line of analysisadoptedis consistent interpretation evidence, systemas a whole, and of verified thebroad lines of theavailableempirical of the empiricalevidencepresentedto that body but that it has already shown that it can illumiwhichwere not of theory. This body of theorymust ultimately problems natea rangeofempirical genbothin theoretical in understood termsof themoreconventional be judged by its outcomes well over the whole range of theoretical positions-e.g. the reasonsforthe gen- eralityand consistency, validity, and by its empirical theory, eral egalitarianpressure in the evolutionof the social system again on levelswhichincludenot onlyconventionor politicalfranchise, the natureof McCarthyism but ally "political"references, theirempiricalinspiral. as a processof politicaldeflationary with all otheraspects of the modern here to recapitulate terrelations It does not seem necessary the main outline of the argument. I may con- complexsocietylooked at as a whole. clude with the three main points with which I TECHNICAL NOTE that the analyticalpath began. I submit,first, in The above analysishas beenpresented wholly 41 I myself this. Cf. The Social System once accepted terms. Many decisionsabout categoridiscursive V, (Illinois,The Free Press of Glencoe,1951), chapter zation and detailed steps of analysis were, howpp. 161-163.
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FIGURE 1 FORMAT OF THE SOCIETAL INTERCHANGE SYSTEM A
ADAPTIVESUBSYSTEM (THE ECONOMY) RESOURCE MOBILIZATION SYSTEM >
259
ever, referredto a formalizedparadigm of the principalstructural components and process categories and relationsof a societyconsideredas a social system. For the benefitof readers with in more technicalinterests social system it theory has seemed advisableto presenta verybriefoutline of the most directlyrelevantparts of the of generalparadigmhere,witha briefelucidation its relevanceto the above discussion.42 The structural reference points are essentially two, namelyfirstthat at a sufficiently level high of differentiation a society, of economy, polityand integrative systembecome empirically distinctin terms of the primacyof functionof structural units e.g. thereis an important structural difference betweena privatebusinessfirm, adminisan trativeagencyof government a courtof law. and Secondlyeverysuch unitis involvedin plural interchange relationswith otherunits with respect to most of its functional from its requirements situation-i.e., for factorinputs-and the conditions of makingits contributions otherunits in to the "divisionof labor"-i.e., disposalof "product" outputs. This order of differentiation requires double interchangesbetween all the structural components belongingto each category-pair, e.g. firms and households, firms and politicalagencies (not necessarilygovernmental, should be reit membered) etc. The double interchange situation precludes mediationof processes in terms either of ascriptive expectationsor barter arrangements, a combinationof the two. It or necessitates the development generalizedsymof bolic media, of which we have treated money, power, and influence cases. as At a sufficiently level of generalizeddevelhigh opment the "governing" interchanges(in the sense of cybernetic hierarchy)take place between the media whichare anchoredin thevariousfunctional subsystems-as power is anchored in the polity. These media in turn serve as instru-
G
GOAL-ATTAINMENT SUBSYSTEb (THE ITY)
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OM
E
(THETY
POITY
-
COMTET) MOTIVATIONAL~~~~
SYTM
~~~~
*-
>
SCA
CONTOL
-LOYALTY---. SOLIDARITY PATTERN-MAINTENANCE COMMITMENT (LOCUS OF CULTURALAND ~SYSTEM MOTIVATIONAL COMMITMENTS)
INTEGRATIVE SUBSYSTEM (LAW (AS NORMS]AND W SCIAL CONTROL)
3I
42The paradigmitselfis still incomplete, even in and its present statehas not beenpublished a whole. The as first beginning statement dealingwithprocesswas made by Parsons and Smelserin Economyand Society,esp. ChapterII, and has been further developedin certain respectsin Smelser'stwo subsequent independent books (Social Changein theIndustrial and Revolution, Theory of Collective Behazior). In myown case certain aspects, whichnow need further in revision, were published the article"PatternVariables Revisited"(AmericanSociological Review, August,1960). Early and partialver43 There is a verycrucialproblem area whichconcerns sions of application politicalsubject-matter found to are a as of between society a sysin my contributions Roland Young, ed., Approaches thenature theinterchanges to This set of probto theStudyof Politics,and Burdickand Brodbeck, eds., temin our senseand its environment. intohere. AmericanVotingBehavior. lemsunfortunately cannot entered be
mentalitiesof gaining control of "lower-order" of resourceswhich are necessaryfor fulfillment of expectations. Thus the expenditure moneyfor or "goods" is not,at the system "aggregate"level (as analyzedby Keynes), acquisitionof the posbut commodities, consistsin session of particular of of thegeneralized expectation availability goods marketterms. This is the prion "satisfactory" to maryoutputof theeconomy consumers. Simias larly,whenwe speak of controlof productivity it a factorof effectiveness, is not managerialcontrol of particular plantswhichis meant,but conof trol of a share of general productivity the economy through market mechanisms,without of specification particulars. betweengeneral The paradigm of interchange is media of communication presentedin figures 1 and 2. Figure 1 simplydesignatesthe format in which this part of the paradigmis conceived. none of of are The assumptions thisformat three, which can be grounded or justifiedwithinthe limitsof the presentexposition. These are (1) of of thatthe patterns differentiation a social system can be analyzed in terms of four primary each of whichis thefocusof functional categories, of a primary functional subsystem the society. As and polity notedin thebodyof theessay,economy are conceived to be such subsystems; (2) The primary interchangeprocesses through which are integrated with each other these subsystems media of the symbolic generalized operatethrough typewhichI have assumed moneyand power to of be,43 and (3) at the level of differentiation interesthere, each interchange systemis a double
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interchange, implying boththe "alienation"of resources and productsfromtheirsystemof origin and the transcending the barter level of exof change. Under these assumptionsall figure 1 does' is to portraya systemof six double interchanges operatingbetween each logically given pair among the four primaryfunctional subsystems of a society. For conveniencetentative names are givento each of thesesix double interchange systems. Figure 2, then, places each of the six interchange systemson a horizontalaxis, simplybecause theyare easier to read that way. It adds
to figure1 only by introducing names of cateof gories, directions flow and designations to as medium(money,power,etc.) foreach of thefour places in each of the six interchange systems, thus presenting twenty-four categories, each of thefour basic media appearingin four"forms." Among the six interchange sets, power as a mediumis involved, our analysis, onlythree, by in namelythe interchanges the polity (G) with of each of the otherthree. These are the systemof "resource mobilization,"vis-a'-vis the economy, the support systemwhich involvesthe input of political support and the output of decisions
FIGURE 2 THE CATEGORIES OF SOCIETAL INTERCHANGE

FACTORS
In to G LIn to A
'
Control Productivity of M2b for Plb Opportunity Effectiveness Commitment Services to the CollectivityPla of of -Allocation Fluid Resources (financial) M2a tIntoI
n t In
A
PRODUCTS
routtoG
LOutto A
FACTORS
rinto A
Labor Capacity C2b
FACTORS
PolicyDecisions P2a
Ila
age Income Mb rIn to L Demand Mla rOut toA Commodity PRODUCTS to LOut to L ,Commitment Production of Goods C2a Fino L In toI
PRODUCTS
G _Interest-Demnds
rOut toI Leadership Ilb Responsibility PRODUCTS> LOut toG PoliticalSupportP2b
Justifications Allocation Loyalties I2a for of Commitment ValuedAssociationCia to Commitments Common to Value Clb Value-basedClaims to LoyaltiesI2b In toL Operative P3a Responsibility tn to G Legitimation Authority of C3a
rOuttoL LOutto I
FACTORS
rIntoI
tIn to A OuttoI
Assertion Claimsto of Standards Allocdtion for

of Resources I3a Resources M3a
-
FACTORS
Grounds Justification for of Claims I3b PRODUCTS of (Out toA <Ranking Claims M3b (Budgeting)
rOuttoL MoralResponsibility for PRODUCTS Collective Interest C3b 1Out to G Legality Powersof of Off P3b ice
M= Money P= Power C Commitments I = Influence control between as 1,2,3 = Order of hierarchical media. a, b : Orderof hierarchical controlwithin interchange systems. of to indicated "In" means Inputof a category resources the subsystem from othermember the pair. the of of of fromthe indicated "Out" meansOutput a category 'product" source to the relevant destination. consistsof one input(factor) interchange Every double interchange and one output (product)interchange.
VOL. 107, NO. 3, 19631
261
and solidarity relation in (vis-a-vis the integrative system) and the sys- pect of group structure tem of legitimation, I have called it, vis-a-vis to the systemof norms (legal and informal)-as as fromvalues. The basic difference the value aspect of the pattern-maintenance sys- distinguished tem. The last of these three is a special case lies in the fact that power here is interchanged which does not involvepower as a medium,but not with money but with influence,and that rather the structure the code governingau- whereasvis-ad-vismoneyit was the "controlling" of it vis-a-visinfluence is controlled. This thorityas defining the institutionalized uses of medium, is power,hence the legitimation authority. Pri- difference symbolizedby the placing of the of maryattention thusbe givento the othertwo. power categories here in the outside positions can The categoriesincludedin the A-G (economy- whereas in the A-G case theywere placed inside categorieswere in L-A). polity,or resourcemobilization)interchange can (as the monetary be describedas "forms"of power and of money The relevant factor interchangehere is be(or wealth) respectively. They will be seen to tweenpolicy decisionsas a "factorof solidarity" be the categories whichhave been used in the ap- and interest-demands a factorof effectiveness, as propriate parts of the discursive expositionof the in the senses in which these conceptswere used body of the paper. The double interchange here, above. Essentiallywe may say that interest-deas in the classic economy-or labor-consumptionmands"define situation" politicaldecisionthe for one factor-interchange, case, involvesfirst namely making-which of course is by no means to say controlof productivity factorof effectiveness thatdemandsin theirinitialform or shouldbe as are exchanged for opportunity effectiveness for (in simply "granted" without modification. Like the particularcase of capital,as a factorof pro- otherfactors in transformed the theyare typically duction). Productivity a monetary is factorbe- course of the politicalprocess. Correspondingly cause it is a pool of resourcescontrolled in through policy decisionsare a factorin solidarity that monetary funds-which of course in turncan be theyconstitute for commitments collectiveaction exchanged for the particular facilities needed, on which "interestedparties" withinlimits can notablygoods and services. Opportunity, how- count. ever, is a formof power in the sense discussed. The interchangeof "product" outputs then The second part of the double interchange is consistsof leadershipresponsibility outputof as one of "product" outputs. This takes place be- the polity (a form of influence,note, not of tween commitment services to organization- power), and politicalsupportas an outputof the of typically throughemployment-which have in- "associational"system-in the governmental I case to terpreted be a formof power,and the alloca- e.g. the electorate, whichis a source of the polititionof fluidresourcesto the purveyors service cal "income"of power. It will of coursebe noted of as facilities essentialto the performance their that the units involvedin any particularcase of of obligations-typicallythe control of budgeted thesetwo interchanges typically not the same are funds,though oftengeneralization does not ex- -thus partyleadersmay bid forsupportwhereas tend as high as this. Thus fluidresourcesin the administrative officials make certain policy deideal typecase take the formof moneyfunds.44 cisions. This typeof "split" (carriedout to varyof The second primary interchange system, which ing degrees) is characteristic any highlydifsystem. for convenienceI shall call the supportsystem, ferentiated Figure 3 attemptsto look at the generalized is that between polity and integrativesystem (G-I), whichlatterinvolvesthe associationalas- media fromthe point of view not only of their hierarchical ordering, of the relationbetween but and 44 The processof investment, whichI conceiveto be thecode and messagecomponents, theposition on one veryimportant special case of the operation this of the latteras sanctionscontrolling the one of interchange system, seems to work in such a way that hand factorsessential to the various functional the powercomponent a loan is a grantof opportunity,subsystems, the other hand product outputs of on throughwhich an increment otherwiseunavailable of controlof productivity gained. The recipient this fromthese subsystems. The rows are arranged is of in hier"grant"is then,through committing (individualor col- fromtop to bottom termsof the familiar lective) services, a position utilizetheseresources archyof control-each row designating in to one of the forincreasing future economic in productivity someway. four media. The columns,on the other hand, This is a specialcase becausetheresources might used be in some otherway, e.g. for relieving distress for sci- designate componentsinto which each medium or entific research. needs to be brokendown if some of the basic con-
262
F \COMOEN \ME,DIA AND iNTERCHANGE IREC IPROCALS HIERARCHY OF CONTROL THE FIGURE 3 MEDIA AS SANCTIONS CODED MESSAGES (SANCTIONS)
TALCOTT PARSONS
[PROC. AMER. PHIL.
SOC.
The A and G columnsof figure3 then designate contextsof operationof each of the four media as sanctions,but arranged not by interchange systemas in figure2, but by controlof factor inputs and product outputs respectively. Thus moneythoughnot itself factorof produca tion,"controls," buys,labor and capitalas the i.e. primaryfactors,in the A-L and the A-G interG change systemsrespectively, whereas for "consuming"systems moneybuysoutputsof the economy, namelygoods (in A-L) and services (in A A-G) respectively. G A The involvement power is conceivedto be of L or parallel. On the one hand it "commands"the twoprimary mobilefactors effectiveness, of namely (in G-A) and interestditions of its operationin mediatinginteraction control of productivity demands (in G-I) (as justified termsof appeal in are to be understood. to norms). On the otherhand the "consumers" In the body of the paper I have discussed the of reasons for which it seems necessaryto distin- or beneficiaries the outputsfromthe process guish two components the code aspect of each can use power to commandthese outputsin the in medium,namelywhat have been called the rele- formof fluidresources (e.g. throughbudget alvant value principleon the one hand, the "coor- locationin G-A) and of leadershipresponsibility dinativestandard" on the other. The most fa- for valued goals (in G-I). It will be noted that in figure3 negativeand miliar example concerns the paradigmaticeconomic case. Here the famous conceptof utility positivesanctiontypesalternatein the hierarchy on seems to be the relevantvalue principlewhereas of control. Power, as the mediumdepending sanctionsis "sandwiched"bethat of solvency is the coordinativestandard. negativesituational Utility is the basic "measure" of value in the tween money (below it) with its positive situand influence (above it) withits economicsense, whereas the imperative main- ationalsanctions to sanctions. tain solvencyis a categoryof normfor the guid- positiveintentional Returningto figure2, power is also involved ance of unitsin economic action. For the political system (L-G), but this time case I have adopted the conceptof effectiveness in the legitimation in Barnard's sense as the parallel to the econo- as code, as aspect of authority.This may be confor mist's utility. Success, for the unit in question, ceived as a mechanism linkingthe principles notablythe collectiveease, seems to be the best and standardsin the L and G rows. What is available termfor the corresponding coordinative called the assumptionof operativeresponsibility standard. (Possibly, used with properqualifica- (P3a), whichis treatedas a "factorof integrity" for tions, the term sovereignty mightbe still more is responsibility success in the implementation of thevalue-principles, onlyof collective not effecfor appropriate this standard.) At the other most important but of societal direct boundary tiveness, of integrity theparamount of the polity, solidarity in Durkheim's sense value-pattern. It may be said that the legitimaseems to be the value-principleof integration tion of authority (C3a) "imposes" the responsiwhich is parallel to utility and effectiveness,bilityto attemptsuch success. Legality of the whereas the very important politicaltheory) powers of office the other hand (P3c), as a on (to conceptof consensusseems adequatelyto formu- categoryof outputto the polity, an application is late the relevant integrative coordinative standard. of the standard of pattern-consistency. the At Since theyare not directly involvedin the inter- various relevantlevels action may and should be change systems of immediateconcern here, I takenconsistent withthe value-commitments. In merely call attentionto the designationof the exchange for legal authorizationto take such of value-principle the pattern-maintenance system action, the responsibleoffice-holder must accept as integrity and the corresponding coordinative moral responsibility his use of power and his for standardas pattern-consistency. decisionsof interpretation (C3b).
TYPES OF VALUE PRINCIPLE COORDINATION STANDARD FACTORS CONTROLLED PRODUCTS CONTROLLED SANCTION AND OF EFFECT LWAGES SOURCE DESTINATION A CONSUMERS' A NEGTIVECLAIMS TO
LOYALTIES
COMMITMENTS
INTEGRITY
PATTERN-
JUSTCIFICAT
ION I
AUCTIVATION oF CM HITENTS
OF LOYALTIES TO VHLUED
COMITMENTS
INFLUENCE
SOLIDARITY
CONSENSUS
ASSUrCATION
MITENT TO COMMN V ALUES SUPPORT

POLITICAL
POSITIVE
DECISIONS
POLICY
TENPOSITIVL IPERSUASION)
INTEREST-
RNESPONSBlTH DEMA^NDS A
LEADERSHIP
IT
HERGTIVH
POWER
EFFECTIVENESS
SUCCESS
SITUATIONAL
CONTROL OF
PRODUCTIVITY
CTROL o oLUHA
RESOURCES
COMPLIANCE)
CAPITAL
COMMITMENT 6
MONEY
UTILITY
SOLVENCY
SITUATIONAL
LABGR
EXPECTUTION
GOODS
I'HUDUEUEHTY

On The Concept of Political Power

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On the Concept of Political Power Author(s): Talcott Parsons Reviewed work(s): Source: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

107, NO. 3, 1963]

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

of ess in the United States (Ann Arbor, University MichiganLaw School,1960).

107, NO. 3, 1963]

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 19631

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

107, NO. 3, 1963]

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 1963]

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

-LOYALTY---. SOLIDARITY PATTERN-MAINTENANCE COMMITMENT (LOCUS OF CULTURALAND ~SYSTEM MOTIVATIONAL COMMITMENTS)

INTEGRATIVE SUBSYSTEM (LAW (AS NORMS]AND W SCIAL CONTROL)

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

FIGURE 2 THE CATEGORIES OF SOCIETAL INTERCHANGE

Labor Capacity C2b

rOut toI Leadership Ilb Responsibility PRODUCTS> LOut toG PoliticalSupportP2b

Assertion Claimsto of Standards Allocdtion for

VOL. 107, NO. 3, 19631

ON THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL POWER

[PROC. AMER. PHIL.

MITENT TO COMMN V ALUES SUPPORT

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