ET013G/ET044G - Metrology

Copyright (c) Benny Thrnberg
ET013G/ET044G -
Metrology

1
Course planning

Your teacher
Mikael Bylund
Email: mikael.bylund@miun.se
Course page:
http://apachepersonal.miun.se/~mikbyl/ET044G
Lab page:
http://apachepersonal.miun.se/~mazhus/
Literature
Lars Bengtsson, Elektriska mtsystem och mtmetoder,
Studentlitteratur, ISBN91-44-02903-9
John P. Bentley, Principles of Measurement Systems
Pearson Education Limited , ISBN 0-13-043028-5

2
Course planning - Organisation
Sensors
Amplifiers and DA-
AD
Signal
analysis
Measurement
systems
Metrology
F1 F2
F3 F4
Exam
Laboratory
exercises
Theory
L3 L4
F1F5: Lectures
L1L5: Laboratory reports
E: Exam

F5
L2 L1 L5
3
Outline

Introduction and motivation
What is a sensor?
Why do we need sensors?
A general measurement system
In what contexts are measurement systems
used?
Physical quantities and sensors
Basic sensor physics
Sensing techniques
More complex sensors

4
Introduction What is a sensor
A sensor converts a physical quantity into a
scalar value carried by an output signal
Sensor
Physical quantity
Pressure
Temperature
Flow
Height, weight and volume
Motion

The conversion is ideally a linear function
with a known coefficient.
5
Introduction What is a sensor
Sensors can be classified as being active or
passive
Active sensors convert energy and do not
need to be externally energized
Photo diode, thermo element
Passive sensors convert the physical
quantity by using external energy
Photo resistor, resistance thermometer
6
Introduction Why do we need sensors
Ignition and fuel
ABS
ASR/ESP
7
Introduction Why do we need sensors
Pulse, blood pressure
Breathing frequency
Body temperature
Acceleration/Activity
Air temperature/pressure/humidity
8
Introduction A general measurement
system
Sensor
Amplifier Filter AD-converter Signal processing
Depending on the application, this output signal is
connected to a display unit and/or to a host system for
further data or multi-signal processing.
9
Introduction In what contexts are
measurement systems used
A measurement system can be connected to a display
unit such that is becomes a standalone measurement
instrument. Ex. Digital voltage meter.
10
A measurement system is an intelligent sensor if it can
communicate with a host computer. The computer
typically runs a program that collect, process and
display the results from several sensors. The program
might also respond by changing speed or position of
output actuators.
11
A measurement system can be a component in the
feedback loop of a process regulation system.
12
Physical quantities and sensors
Sensor
How can a physical property such as temperature be
converted into a scalar value carried by the sensor
output signal?
13
Basic sensor physics Temperature
dependency of a resistor
) 1 ( 100 T R + =
A resistor made of Platinum with R
0
=100 Ohms at zero Celcius.
1 3
10 85 . 3

= K
Platinum
1 3
10 75 . 6

= K
Nickel
1 3
10 33 . 4

= K
Copper
) 1 (
0
T R R + =
14
Basic sensor physics Thermocouple
emf
T
X

T
Y

An electric conductor exposed to a temperature
gradient ranging from T
X
to T
Y
will induce an
emf, E(T
X
T
Y
) approximately proportional to
the temperature difference T
Y
T
X
.
This emf is material dependent and is given by
the thermocouple constant which
quantifies the material in relation to Platinum.
Hence, the thermocouple constant for Platinum
is zero.
15
Basic sensor physics Thermocouple emf
T
2

T
1

T
0

Material A
Material B
Material C
Material C
Solder points
V
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1 0 0 1 1 2
= + + + T T E T T E V T T E T T E
B C C A
KVL:
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2
T T T T E V
T T E T T E T T E T T E V
AB AB
B A B A
~ =
= + =
|
16
Type Material pair Interval
J Iron vs Copper-Nickel 52 -200900
K Nickel-Chromium vs Nickel-Aluminium 39 -250900
S Platinum10%-Rhodium vs Platinum 6.4 -501800
T Copper vs Copper-Nickel 41 -200400
Type T element
) / ( K V
AB
|
17
T
2

T
1

Material A
Material B
T
3

Material B
T
M

Material C
Material C
V
) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 2 1 1 2
T T T T E T T E V
AB B A
~ + = |
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 3 3 3 3 1 1 2
= + + + + T T E T T E V T T E T T E T T E
B M C M C B A
KVL:
18
Basic sensor physics NTC-resistor
A semiconductor can be doped to have a certain resistance.
However this resistance is also strongly dependent on the
temperature.
T
T
e R R
o
=
0
This is a low cost sensor and can be integrated on chip.
However it is far from being linear!
19
But there is a simple circuit that can compensate for this un-linear behavior.
lin
lin T
lin
R
N U
R R
R
U U =
+
=
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
R
T

N
lin

Increasing temperature
R
lin
=680 Ohm
But how to select the best
value for R
lin
?
20
2
C A
B
T T
T
+
=
T
A
T
B

T
C

) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
B R C R A R B R
T U T U T U T U =
Description for a straight line
TB TC TA
TA TC TB TC TA TB
lin
R R R
R R R R R R
R
+
+
=
2
2
21
22
Basic sensor physics Strain gauge
A resistance strain gauge
measures a change in size of a
solid object due to the object
being strained along the sensing
axis.
L
A
A
L
R =
23
Basic sensor physics Piezo crystal
dt
dF
k
dt
dQ
i F k Q
x x
x x
= = =
x
x
x
C
Q
V =
( )
x x
C R t
x x
e V t U
/
= But since the crystal also has a resistance,
24
Basic sensor physics Differential
transformer
A transformer has a variable
position of the kernel. The
output voltages from the
two secondary windings are
added with 180 degrees
phase shift. The total output
is linear to the objects
position having zero at the
transformers centre
position. A phase detector
determines right or left
position.
25
Basic sensor physics Hall effect
d
B k B
d
I R
d
B I
R V
H
H H
=
=
R
H
is the Hall coefficient
26
Basic sensor physics Photo diode
E
27
Sensing techniques - Bridge
A resistive sensor is passive sensor and has a change
of resistance on its output terminals that is ideally
proportional to the change of the physical quantity.
If the sensor coefficient k is small such that the
resistance changes are small, a bridge is used to
increase the sensitivity.
Resistive sensor
28
0
3
4
2
1
= = =
B A b
U U U
R
R
R
R
Resistive sensor
A bridge in balance means
Assume that the sensor R
1
has a resistance value R at a physical zero reference
point. Let the resistors R
2
R
4
have the same value R. Then the bridge output
voltage will be zero at the physical zero reference. A change dR of the sensor
resistance will then give a change of the bridge voltage
dR
R
U
U
b
=
4
Often, sensors have a built-in-bridge such that the sensor has four terminals.
29
Half bridge
Full bridge
The sensitivity can be increased by using half bridge or full
bridge. This will also suppress the temperature dependency
of the bridge output if compared with a quartz bridge.
30
U U
L j dL L j
dL L j
U U U
B A b

+ +
+
= =
2
1
) (
) (
e e
e
Inductive sensor The bridge can also be used to
sense the inductance of an
inductive sensor.
L
dL U
U
b
~
4
31
Sensing techniques Four point
method
A more advanced method to sense the resistance
change of a sensor is by driving a constant current
through the resistor and measure the voltage drop
using four wires.
What is the difference and advantage compared to
Two point method ?
32

Rm
R1
R2
Rs
2
1
D1
2
1
D2
Cm
Frequency
output LM741
3
2
4
7
6
VS+
VS-
+15 Volt
-15 Volt
+
-
Sensing techniques Relaxation
oscillator
( )
1
2 1
2
ln 2
1
R
R R
Q
Q C R
f
m m
osc
+
=
=
Resistive sensor
Or capacitive sensor
33
More complex sensors - Acceleration
Used in cars to measure collision forces
34
More complex sensors - Acceleration
The spring preloads the mass with a force such that acceleration
can be measured in both directions.
35
More complex sensors - Pressure
The sensor chamber has the reference pressure P
2
. Four strain
gauges are assembled on the spring and connected in a bridge.
The bridge output is then proportional to the measured pressure P
1
.
36
More complex sensors Level
A simple inductance can be measured in a bridge or a differential
transformer could be used.
37
More complex sensors - Level
( )
( ) x
d
b
d
bh
x x h
d
b
C C C
V
V V tot
+ =
+ = + =
0 0
0 0 0
c c c
c c c
The capacitance will be proportional to the level and also to the volume.
For a simple parallel plate capacitor with
area A and distance d between plates:
d
A
C = c
38
What to learn
Concepts
Definitions
Functional descriptions and analysis of circuits and sensors
39

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