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MEC516
Fluid Mechanics I

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MEC516
Fluid Mechanics I

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MEC516 - Fluid Mechanics I Laboratory

Department of Mechanical Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Table of Contents ....... . .. ..... . .. .. . . . . ........ . . . . ..... .. .. . ....... . . . . . .... I

2. Reynolds Apparatus and Pipe Friction ...... . ..... .. ... . . .... . . . ....... .......... . 7
3. The Impact of Jets .... .. . ..... . . ... .... . . ...... ...... ... .. ...... . ........... 11
4. The Venturi Flow Meter ............... . .......................... . .. .. ...... 15
Lab Notes .... ... . . .. ................................. .. . . .. . ................ 20

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Cover:

The cover illustration is a laser-inducedjluorescence image ofthe laminar and turbulent reaction zones in a methanol spray jlame.

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l. Measurement of Dynamic Viscosity . . .. . .. ... ..... .... . . ... .... .... . .. . ......... 3

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MEC516 - Fluid Mechanics Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering

MEASUREMENT OF DYNAMIC VISCOSITY

1.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this lab is to determine the dynamic viscosity of engine oil by measuring the terminal velocity of small spheres falling through the oil.

2.0 THEORY
Viscosity is a property that describes the "fluidity" ofa fluid i.e., how readily the fluid flows. More specifically, viscosity is associated with the resistance to the sliding motion of one fluid layer over another. This resistance takes the form ofa shear stress within the fluid. For most common fluids, the shear stress (,) is linearly related to the veloc ity gradient within the fluid as follows:

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ou ,= 11 oy
~

(I)

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In Eq.( 1), 11 is a proportionality constant, called the dynamic viscosity (or absolute viscosity). Fluids that obey Eq.(l) are called Newtonianjluids. The method used in this experiment to determine the viscosity of a fluid is to measure the rate at which a sphere of known size and density falls through the fluid wlder the influence of gravity. A force balance on a sphere falling through a quiescent viscous fluid is shown in Figure 1. It will be assumed that the sphere has been falling for long enough for the sphere to have stopped accelerating. When the sphere has reached a steady velocity (called the terminal velocity) the sum of the forces on the sphere will be zero:

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EF= ma " 0

F+F-W=O D B s

(2)

It can be seen from Eq.(2) that at terminal velocity, the weight of the sphere (Ws) is exactly balanced by the upward drag force (F D) and the upward buoyancy force (F B)' For very slow motion G.G. Stokes (1851) has shown that the drag force on a sphere moving at constant velocity through a still fluid is:

F o = 3n I1 UD

(3)

where D is the diameter of the sphere, U is the steady velocity of the sphere and 11 is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.

Quicscent Viscous Fluid

FI) + F (Drag Force + Buoyancy) "

, ,

'g
Sphere falling at uniform velocity U

W, (Weight)

Figure 1: Force balance on a sphere falling through a viscous fluid.

Fa = PrgV =

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Pr!~ nO'
6

From Archimedes Principle, the upward buoyancy force on the sphere is equal to the weight of fluid it displaces: (4)

where p, is the density of the fluid. In Eq. (4), it is noted that the volume ofa sphere is V=rrOJ/6. The weight (Ws) of the sphere can be expressed as:

where Ps is the density of the sphere. Substituting Eq.s (3), (4), and (5) into Eq.(2), and solving for Ii gives: 0 g(ps - Pr)
2

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nO' W s =mg=pVg = p - g S s 6

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Ii

(5)

18U

(6)

Using Eq.(6), the dynamic viscosity of the fluid can be determined by measuring the fluid density and terminal velocity, diameter and density of the sphere. As mentioned above, Eq.(6) is accurate only for slow motion. Experiments have shown that Eq.(6) gives accurate results provided the following condition is met: Pr UO - < I Ii

(7)

This dimensionless ratio of parameters is called the Reynolds number. [fthis condition is met, the flow pattern about the sphere will be as illustrated in Figure 2. In this figure, lines of dye have been injected into the fluid to show the flow pattern. Note that for the slow motion depicted in Figure 2, there are no eddies or recirculating flow behind the sphere.

Figure 2: Photograph of very slow flow ("Stokes flow") over a sphere.

3.0 APPARATUS

The apparatus for this experiment is as follows:

tall graduated cylinder, filled with oil three spheres of various sizes hydrometer for measuring the spec ific gravity of the oil stop watch and metre sti ck to measure the steady velocity of the sphere weigh scale to determine the mass of each sphere micrometer to determine the diameter of each sphere thermometer to measure the oil temperature
4.0 PROCEDURE
1. At the start of the test, measure the temperature of the oil with a thermometer.

2. Determine the specific gravity of the oil using the hydrometer. 3. There are three sizes of spheres to be used for this experiment. For each size of sphere, measure the steady velocity of the sphere in the oil using a stop watch. 4. To check the reproducibility of your results, repeat the measurement for the largest sphere.

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5.0 CALCULA TlONS

1. From Eq.(6), calcul.ate the dynamic viscosity of the oil using the data for each sphere. Also, for each sphere check that the "slow flow" criterion (given by Eq. (7)), is met. 2. Compare your results with the properties of engine oil given in property tables. When making this comparison, be sure to account for the variation of viscosity with temperature. Present your raw experimental data and calcu lated results in properly labelled tables.

6.0 DISCUSSION
Points to consider in the discussion of your resul ts:

Which size of sphere likely gave the most accurate result? Why?

Based on your measurements, can you detennine the SAE spec ification of the oil? Equation (6) assumes that the quiescent fluid extent is infinite. What influence do you think the cylinder wall has on your results, if any?

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Did the data for each sphere yield the same dynamic viscosity? If not, why?

MEC516 - Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Department of Mechanical Engineering

REYNOLDS APPARATUS AND PIPE FRICTION

1.0

OBJECTIVE

The objective ofthis lab is to study t10w in pipes. The qualitative difference between laminar and turbulent flows will be examined , as well as the pressure loss as fluid flows in the pipe.

2.0

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

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Fluid flowing steadily in tubes or pipes has been observed to flow either smoothly, with uniform velocity variation across the pipe and no temporal velocity variation, or irregularly, with random velocity fluctuations superimposed on a steady mean velocity field. The smooth flow is called "laminar flow" and the irregular flow is termed "turbulent flow". A typical pipe flow will assume one of these two flow characteristics (sometimes it may fluctuate between each) depending on the system geometry, flow rate, fluid properties and external disturbances. These characteristics were first observed by Osborne Reynolds in 1883 using apparatus similar to that used in thls Jab; ie glass tubing and dye injection to produce a fine filament of dye in the flowing medium. He discovered that at low velocity, the dye emerged as a thin, unbroken filament which maintained its structure far downstream , indicative of laminar flow. As flow velocity increased, the dye filament began to break up in a random manner, indicative of turbulent flow. The velocity at which turbulent flow became apparent was termed the "upper critical velocity". As the flow velocity in the turbulent flow field was reduced, laminar flow was seen to be restored at a velocity termed the "lower critical velocity", usually significantly less than the upper critical velocity. Further experimentation by Reynolds showed that it was not fluid velocity by itself that determined whether a flow would be laminar or turbulent, but rather a combination of fluid velocity, fluid properties and system geometry. The parameter combining all these factors is now known as the Reynold s number, given by:

where Re is the Reynolds number, p is the t1uid density, V is the flow velocity, d is the tube or pipe diameter and!.l is the fluid absolute viscosity. It should be noted that Re is unitIess. Reynolds found that any flow with a Re less than Re".lowe, would be laminar, and any flow with an Re greater than ReO'. "PO"' would be turbulent. Any flow with a Re falling between these critical bounds would be unstable, and could be laminar, turbulentoroscillating between these modes. Figure 1 shows laminar and turbulent instantaneous reaction zones in a flame. Note the smoothness of the laminar region and

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Re= pVd
7

the irregularity of the turbulent region.

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Figure 1: Laminar and turbulent flame fronts in a methanol spray flame

3.0

PROCEDURE

I. Tum on the apparatus and observe the dye streak at both low (0.02 /Is) and high (0.1 /Is) steady

flow rates. Sketch the appearance of the dye streak for both these cases. 2. Inject a blob of dye at both low and high flow rates. Observe how the blob distorts as it progresses downstream. Sketch the shape of the blob at three successive locations for each flow rate. 3. Set the inclined manometer so that its base is level, its tubes are inclined at 45 C and the liquid level in the tubes is around 320mm on the manometer scale (at no flow). 4. Open the downstream valve and take readings of manometer differential pressure and volwne flow rate (Q) at about 10 equal flow increments as measured on the large rotameter. (Keep the small 8

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Another important phenomenon in pipe flows is the pressure loss. Pipe flows are generally driven by pressure, and as the flow travels through the pipe, pressure is lost due to viscous friction along the pipe walls. It has been found that, for a given flow configuration, the pressure loss per unit length of pipe is directly proportional to flow rate for laminar flows, and to flow rate squared for turbulent flows.

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rotameter closed). 5. Open the small rotameter and close the large one. Incline the manometer to 15 and take manometer differential pressure readings at 10 equal decrements of Q. 6. Plot pressure loss versus flow rate for the two cases above.

NOTE: Pressure loss (in mm water) = (upper manometer reading - lower manu meter reading) x sin(9) where 9 is the manometer inclination.

Dye reservoir
,.

--,~

Water

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Reservoir

" -" [J

--';r

"--

~
-

Glass tube

FI~
-~

Dye injector

Figure 2: Reynolds apparatus schematic diagram

4.0

DISCUSSION
Points to consider in the discussion of your results: In laminar flows, does the dye streak increase in diameter as it tlows downstream due to diffusion? How do you expect mixing rates due to diffusion and mixing rates due to turbulence to compare? What are some implications of this?

According to theory, the pressure loss in pipes is directly proportional to flow rate for laminar flow, but proportional to the square of flow rate for turbulent flows, Does your data bear this out? Based on your data, can you estimate the values for Re", 'pp<r and Re", lower ?

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MEC516 - Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Department of Mechanical Engineering

THE IMPACT OF JETS

1.0

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this lab is to study the impact ofjets on a variety of target shapes. The concept of momentum conservation will be applied to determine resulting forces.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Jet flows are commonly encountered, in forms ranging from water flow exiting a hose to supersonic air flows emerging from jet engines. Ajet is loosely defined as any fluid flow emerging from an aperture. The aperture may be a nozzle, an open pipe or duct, a hole in a wall, or any other similar geometry. Jet flows may carry high momentum, which may be captured and turned to useful work by devices such as the Pelton wheel shown below. The basic principle of operation of this type of device is to extract energy from the jet flow by redirecting the jet, thus causing a momentum vector change.

3.0 THEORY
A sketch of the jet impact apparatus is shown in Figure 3. It is desired to relate the jet momentum change caused by the impact on the target with a force necessary to cause this change. The basic equations relating momentum change to external force are given in White'. For a non accelerating control volume with steady l-D inlets and outlets (see figure 2), the vector momentum equation can be decomposed into components as fo llows:
II

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Split
bucket

Neeple

Figure 1: Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel) From White '

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L:Fx=L:(myx;) -L:(myx;) i
' OUI

'

111

L: Fy = L: (m; Vy 'out - L: (m; Vy ; ) ;) i

j

'In

By drawing a control volwne about the impact target, the force exerted by the jet on the target can be determined if mass flow rates and velocities are known. y

Lx
~ CD
v
"

/'

_I
I

-_/

Figure 2: Net applied force on a target redirecting a flow. From White'

4.0 PROCEDURE

1. Remove the top plate and transparent casing, record the nozzle inside diameter, and place the flat target on the rod attached to the weight pan. 2. Reassemble the apparatus and connect the inlet pipe to the water supply. Level the base of the apparatus with the top plate loosely assembled. Screw down the top plate to dahlin on the spirit level. 3. Adjust the level gauge to suit the datwn on the weight pan. 4. Place 20 grams on the weight pan and allow water to flow by operating the control valve. Adjust the flow rate until the weight pan is aligned with the level gauge.

s. Take readings of flow rate (= volwne/time) and

6. Repeat with 40 and 60 grams on the weight pan.

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)

I--~:///"" CD
0/
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note the mass on the weight pan.

7. Repeat the above using the 120 0 and 180 0 targets.

Weight --;
j;.

Weight pan Spring urled nuts l ._

gauge

Tank wall

Top p''''

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Adjustable feet

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1
Ii -' I
I

~Target

~ - Nozzle

Water inlet

t)
Drain holes

I ,I

Figure 3: Impact of Jets experimental apparatus

13

5.0 CALCULATIONS
I. Using the principle ofconservation of momentum, derive a general expression for the impact force of a jet on a target of the types used in this experiment in terms of volume flow rate (Q) , fluid density (p), jet cross-sectional area (A) and jet redirected angle (9). It may be assumed that the net cross-sectional area of the jet (and hence its absolute velocity) does not change from inlet to outlet of the control volume. 2. Using the results from I. above, write the expression relatingjet impact force to volume flow rate, fluid density and jet area for each of the three target types used in the experiment. 3. Using the results from 2. above, calculate the expected jet impact force for each case tested based on measured flow rate and cross-sectional area. How do these predicted results compare to those measured? Plot your results (predicted and experimental).

6.0 DISCUSSION

Points to consider in the discussion of your results:

The jet velocity calculated is based on measured flow rate divided by nozzle area. Is this reasonable? The jet must travel vertically some distance before impinging on the target. Is jet deceleration due to gravity significant? Quantify your answer. How close were your experimental results to the theoretical predictions? What factors other than those discussed above could account for any differences noted?

7.0 References:
l.

White, F.M.: "Fluid Mechanics, 4'/' Ed" McGraw-Hill, 1999

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MECS 16 - Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Department of Mechanical Engineering

THE VENTURI FLOW METER

1.0 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this lab is to study incompressible flow through a Venturi flow meter. Using Bernoulli's equation, the theoretical vo lume flow rate will be calculated from pressure measurements and an estimate of the Venturi discharge coefficient will be made.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Venturi flow meters are widely used in industry to measure vo lume flow rates in pipes. As shown in Figure I, a Venturi flow meter measures the flow rate using the Bernoulli Principle. The dianleter of the pipe (D,l is gradually decreased to a minimum at the throat of the meter (0 2) , The decrease in flow area causes an increase in velocity that is accompanied with a decrease in pressure. The differential pressure (P,-P,l, measured from taps located around the circumference of the pipe, can be used to determine the volume flow rate Q. Venturi flow meters are designed to have low head losses i.e., low pressure drop across the meter. The flow area is gradually expanded downstream of the throat to convert the high kinetic energy back to pressure energy. So. most of the head loss in a well-designed Venturi meter is caused by the viscous shear stress on the walls of the meter, rather than by turbulent mixing.

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Flow Rate Q

Figure I: A Typical Venturi Flow Meter

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, Pressure Taps Pressure Taps

@
yo

~~
z.,

~o''''

0,0'" ~\ <;<'

..;,/

CD

- - ' - - Datum

Figure 2: Sketch ofa Venturi Flow Meter.

3.0 THEORY

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A sketch of a Venturi flow meter is shown in Figure 2. It is desired to relate the volume flow rate Q to the pressures at the upstream location (P,) and at the throat (P 2). Applying Bernoulli's equation (without losses) from location 1 to location 2 gives:

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V,2
2g
+ ZI = -

+-

Pz
Y

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+-

V22

2g

Zz

(I)

Note that the elevations z, and z, have been expressed relative to a datwTI. V I and V2 are the average velocities across the sections 1 and 2, respectively. Applying the continuity equation for incompressible flow: V , A 1 =V 2 A2

(2)

where A, and A2 are the pipe cross sectional areas at section s 1 and 2. Equations (1) and (2) may be solved for velocity V2:

V2 =

2g [ep 1- P2)/Y+(ZI - z2)] (I-(A/A,i)

(3)

16

V2 is the theoretical velocity at the throat of the Venturi that is predicted by Bernoulli's equation. Experiments have shown that the actual velocity will usually be slightly lower than predicted by Equation (3). In practice, the actual velocity V" is obtained as follows:

VZa

=Cv V 2 = Cv

2g [(P 1- l'z)ly+ ( Zl - Zz) 1

(4)

(l-(A/A,i)

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where C v is the discharge coefficient. (For Venturi meters C v is sometimes called a velocity coefficient.) Figure 3 shows the typical variation ofdischarge coefficient with Reynold number. The shaded area in Figure 3 illustrates the range of values that are typical for Venturi flow meters. It can be shown that meters with the same geometric shape, but of different size, will have the same velocity coefficient, provided the Reynolds numbers are the same. Note that the Reynolds number is based on the velocity (V,) and diameter (D,) at location I.

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.1) 0.98 IE

,.

1.00 0.99

, ..

c:

8
~n

0.97 ] " 0.96

a ..:;
2
~

'" ~ ""

0.95

Approximate Range of Values

094 0.93

"

0.92 =I.

+-~~,~",~,,~~~~~~ r """ "",f.

le+5
Je+7

Je+4

Reynolds Number Re=pV, D, I.,

Figure 3: Range of Discharge Coefficients (CJ for Venturi Flow Meters

17

For the wall mounted Venturi flow meter in the lab, the flow cross section is not round. If this apparatus is used, the Reynolds number should be based on the hydraulic diameter (D H ) at location I. Hydraulic diameter is defined as:

D =
H

4A[

Pwet

(5)

where P we> is the wetted perimeter of the rectangular pipe and A, is the cross sectional area of the rectangular pipe at section I.

4.0 PROCEDURE
l. Adjust the flow through the Venturi to give the maximum difference between the manometer readings at the upstream location and at the Venturi throat.

2. Record all the manometer readings.

4. Adjust the flow until the difference between upstream manometer reading and the throat manometer reading is one half of the full flow value. 5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for this lower flow rate.

5.0 CALCULATIONS

I. Verify the derivation of equation (3). Include the algebraic details in the Appendix of your report. For each flow rate calculate the following:

2. Using the height of fluid in the first manometer (at the Venturi inlet) and manometer reading at the throat, calculate the theoretical velocity at the throat (V;) and the theoretical volume flow rate (Q) using equation (3). 3. Calculate the Reynolds number at the location of the first manometer, i.e, at Section I, the inlet to the Venturi meter. Use the actual velocity. 4. Using the theoretical volume flow rate (Q) and the actual measured volume flow rate (QJ, calculate the Venturi discharge coefficient, C,. Compare your results with the expected range of values given in Figure 3. 5. Calculate the actual fluid velocity at the location of each manometer using the actual volume flow

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J. Measure the actual volume flow rate (QJ of the water. Make at least two measurements and average the results.

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rate, i.e., using V=Q/A. 6. Using the fluid height in the first manometer (at the Venturi inlet) as a reference, and the actual fluid velocities calculated in step 5 (above), calculate the theoretical height of the remaining manometers from Bernoulli's equation. Plot the actual and theoretical manometer height variation along the length of the Venturi. Present your raw experimental data and calculated results in properly labelled tables and graphs.

6.0 DISCUSSION Points to consider in the discussion of your results: Why is the actual fluid velocity different from than the theoretical velocity predicted by Bernoulli ' s equation? Is the discharge coefficient within the expected range? If not, discuss possible reasons for the discrepancy. You may have to extrapolate from Figure 3.

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According to your results, where are the head losses the greatest in the Venturi flow meter?

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