LEWIS STRUCTURES OF POLYATOMIC IONS Polyatomic ions are charged particles consisting of more than one atom. 1.

. Calculate the total number of electrons (es) for all atoms 2. Account for # of es associated with charge: If ion is positively charged, subtract # of es from total If ion has +2 charge subtract 2 es from total # of es If ion is negatively charged, add # of es from total If ion has 3 charge add 3 es to total # of es 3. Divide new total by 2 to get total # of es pairs 4. Write symbol for central atom (usually underlined or indicated in some way), then put all the other atoms around it. Connect all the atoms together using single bonds. 5. Distribute remaining electrons around outer atoms so they all have an octet (8 e), except hydrogen (H) only needs 2 electrons. 6. If any atom does not have an octet, move nonbonding electrons from central atom to a position between atoms, forming double and triple bonds until all atoms have an octet. 7. Put brackets around all the atoms, and put charge on upper right-hand side This indicates the charge belongs to entire entity rather than to a single atom in the ion. Example: Draw the Electron dot formula for each of the following polyatomic ions: a. NH4+: c. OH:

b. SO42:

d. PO43:

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5.5 CHEMICAL BONDING IN OZONE (O3); RESONANCE STRUCTURE Given the Lewis structure for ozone, we expect either of the following structures:

so one bond (OO) bond should be longer than the other (O=O).

BUT experimental evidence indicates that both oxygen-oxygen bonds in ozone are identical, so neither of the structures accurately represents the molecule. The actual structure is a cross between the two structures, where the electron pair is actually spread over all three atoms:

These electrons are considered delocalized electrons because they are spread between more than two atoms. To correctly represent such delocalized electrons using Lewis formulas we show all the Lewis formulas with a double-arrow between each:

where each of these structures is called a resonance structure. resonance structure: one of two or more Lewis structures representing a single molecule with bonds that are usually between a single bond and a double bond that cannot be described fully with only one Lewis structure. resonance: the use of two or more Lewis structures to represent a molecule with these bonds that are usually between a single and a double bond. The real ozone molecule does not oscillate between the two resonance structures but is a unique, stable structure in which the bond between the oxygen atoms is a bond and a half. Ex. 1 Give the resonance structures for NO2:

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Ex. 2 Give the resonance structures for the carbonate ion, CO32:

5.6 THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES (and POLYATOMIC IONS) Repulsion between electrons causes them to spread out in a molecule valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) model accounts for shape of molecule by considering repulsion between electron pairs around a central atom in a molecule Molecular Shape (or Molecular Geometry): refers to three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in molecule responsible for many physical and chemical properties (m.p., b.p., density, etc.)

MOLECULES WHERE CENTRAL ATOM HAS NO LONE PAIRS Consider a molecule composed of only two types of atoms, A and B A=central atom B=outer atoms

If there are only two atoms, the molecule must be linear. For molecules with three or more atoms, determine a general formulain the form ABx (for x=2, 3, or 4)to determine the molecular geometry (or shape).

AB2: linear the two outer atoms are 180 from each other Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for CO2, where both carbon-oxygen bonds are equivalent. Also indicate the bond angles.

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AB3: trigonal planar three outer atoms at the corners of an equilateral triangle each outer atom is 120 from the other two outer atoms Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for CH2O (including bond angles).

AB4: tetrahedral tetra = four, so tetrahedral is used to indicate four sides or four faces each outer atom is 109.5 from the other three outer atoms Example: Draw the Lewis structure and shape for CH4 (including bond angles).

Table of Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles Part I

General formula AB2 MOLECULAR GEOMETRY # of Outer Atoms 2 NAME of SHAPE Bond Angles

180
linear 180

AB3

120

trigonal planar

120

AB4

109.5

tetrahedral

109.5

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MOLECULES WHERE THE CENTRAL ATOM HAS ONE OR MORE LONE PAIRS Lone pairs of electrons take up more space than bonded pairs of electrons because the bonded pair is held between two atoms whereas the lone pair belongs to only one atom. A=central atom B=outer atoms E=lone pairs

AB2E: bent (or angular) (central atom and 2 outer atoms have a bent shape) start with AB3 (trigonal planar) molecule and replace one B atom with a lone pair of electrons (E) AB2E Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for SO2 (including bond angles).

AB3E: trigonal pyramid (central atom and 3 outer atoms make a pyramid) start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace one B atom with a lone pair of electrons (E) AB3E Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for NH3 (including bond angles).

AB2E2:

bent (or angular) (central atom and 2 outer atoms have a bent shape) start with AB4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace 2 B atoms with 2 lone pairs of electrons (E) AB2E2 Example: Give the Lewis structure and shape for H2O (including bond angles).

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Table of Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles Part II

General formula MOLECULAR GEOMETRY # of Outer # of Lone Pairs Atoms on Central Atom NAME of SHAPE Bond Angles

AB2E

<120

bent or angular

<120

AB3E

trigonal pyramid

<109.5

<109.5

AB2E2

bent or angular

<109.5

<109.5
Given any molecule or polyatomic ion, draw the Lewis Structure, then determine the molecular geometry (or shape) and bond angle(s) for the molecule. Ex. 1: Draw the Lewis structure (including resonance structures if they apply), and determine the molecular geometry and bond angles for SO2.

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Ex. 2 For the following molecules and polyatomic ions (where the central atom is underlined): i. Draw the Lewis structure, including resonance structures if they apply. ii. Determine the molecular geometry of the molecule. iii. Determine the approximate bond angles. a. CH3Cl Lewis structure b. OF2 Lewis structure

ii. shape of CH3Cl: _____________________ iii. bond angles in CH3Cl: ____________

ii. shape of OF2: _____________________ iii. bond angles in OF2: ____________

c. nitrate ion, NO3 Lewis structure

d. azide ion, N3 Lewis structure

ii. shape of NO3: ________________ iii. bond angles in NO3: ___________

CHEM 110 Chapter 5

ii. shape of N3: ________________ iii. bond angles in N3: ___________

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5.7 WATER: POLAR BONDS AND POLAR MOLECULES Electronegativity (EN): Ability of an atom in a chemical bond to attract es

F is the most electronegative (EN) element Elements are less electronegative the further away from F Except for H which has an electronegativity value between B and C.

NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND: Bond between 2 atoms with equal electronegativity values Simplest example of nonpolar covalent bonds are those between two identical atoms: HH bond in H2, FF bond in F2, etc. Nonpolar covalent bonds can also occur between different atoms which have equal electronegativity values (see Table of electronegativity values above) e.g. NCl bond, CS bond, etc.

POLAR COVALENT BONDS In some covalent bonds, one of the two atoms holds electrons more tightly polar covalent bond results between two atoms Delta () Notation for polar bonds: Electrons concentrate around the more EN atom in a molecule Atom gains a partial negative charge, indicated with . Since electrons spend less time around the other atom Other atom gains a partial positive charge, indicated with +.

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Ex. 1: For each of the bonds below: i. Use delta notation (+ and ) to indicate which atom in each bond is more electronegative, and ii. Use an arrow to point from the less electronegative atom to the more electronegative atom.

CCl

NO

BrH

Ex. 2: Identify the type of bond described for each of the following: ionic bond (I) polar covalent bond (P) nonpolar covalent bond (NP)

_____ i. The CO bonds in CO2 _____ ii. The bonds in F2 _____ iii. The bonds in K2O

_____ iv. The CC bonds in C3H8 _____ v. The bonds in MgS _____ vi. The bonds in H2O

POLARITY OF MOLECULES For diatomic molecules: nonpolar molecules: when the 2 atoms have equal electronegativity values polar molecules: when the 2 atoms have different electronegativity values have dipole (+ve and ve ends) For molecules of three of more atoms: the polarity depend on the individual bonds and geometry around the central atom Polar molecules have an overall dipole (+ve and ve end) In nonpolar molecules, there may be individual dipoles that cancel no overall dipole

Guidelines for Determining if a Molecule is Polar or Nonpolar 1. Use Delta Notation and an arrow to indicate the more electronegative atom in a polar bond. 2. Determine if there is an overall dipole: If two arrows point in opposite directions, all arrows point in, or all arrows point out, then the dipoles cancel nonpolar molecule If all arrows point in the same direction and dont cancel, there is an overall dipole for the molecule polar molecule

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Ex. 1: Determine whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar: CO2: H2O:

SO3

Ex. 2: Determine whether the following molecules are polar or nonpolar:

CCl4

CHCl3

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Example: For the following molecules (where the central atom is underlined): i. Draw the Lewis structure. iv. Sketch the molecule and show the dipoles. ii. Determine the shape of the molecule. v. Indicate if the molecule is polar/nonpolar. iii. Determine the approximate bond angles. i. SO2 Lewis structure i. CH2F2 Lewis structure

ii. shape of SO2: (Circle one below) linear trigonal planar bent tetrahedral trigonal pyramidal

ii. shape of CH2F2: (Circle one below) linear bent tetrahedral trigonal pyramidal

trigonal planar

iii. bond angles in SO2: (Circle one) 180 120 109.5 <109.5 <120

iii. bond angles in CH2F2: (Circle one) 180 120 109.5 <109.5 <120

iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the SO2 molecule below, then draw an arrow to show the dipole on each polar bond.

iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the CH2F2 molecule below, then draw an arrow to show the dipole on each polar bond.

v.

The SO2 molecule is __________. (Circle one)

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v. The CH2F2 molecule is __________. (Circle one) polar

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polar

nonpolar

nonpolar

Example: For the following molecules: i. Draw the Lewis structure. ii. Determine the shape of the molecule. iii. Determine the approximate bond angles. i. PF3
Lewis structure

iv. Sketch the molecule to show the dipoles. v. Indicate if the molecule is polar/nonpolar.

i. COCl2 (in which the C-Cl bonds are equivalent)

Lewis structure

ii. shape of PF3: _______________________ iii. bond angle in PF3: ___________ iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the PF3 molecule molecule below, then draw an arrow to show the dipole on each polar bond.

ii.

shape of COCl2: ______________________

iii. bond angles in COCl2: ___________ iv. Sketch the 3D shape of the COCl2 below, then draw an arrow to show the dipole on each polar bond.

v.

The PF3 molecule is __________. (Circle one)

CHEM 110 Chapter 5

v. The COCl2 molecule is __________. (Circle one) polar

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polar

nonpolar

nonpolar