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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1) | Electronic Devices and Circuits

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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1)

Q. 1. What are conductors, insulators and semiconductors? Ans. Any material that allows the free movement of electric charges, such as electrons, to provide an electric current is known as conductors. So conducting materials are good conductors of electricity. Examples of good conductors are copper, silver, aluminium etc. A material that does not allow conductor to flow when voltage is applied, because of its high resistance is known as insulator. Examples of insulators are porcelain, glass, quartz, rubber, bakelite etc. There is another group of materials, such as germanium and silicon. These are neither good conductors nor good insulators. At room temperature these materials have conductivities considerably lower than that of conductors, but much higher than that of insulators. It is for this reason that these materials are known as semiconductors. Q. 2. Explain different energy bands in solids. Ans. In a solid, the orbit of an electron is influenced not only by the charges in its own atom but by nuclei and electrons of every atom in the solid. Since each electron occupies a different position inside the solid, no two electrons can see exactly the same pattern of surrounding charges. As a result, the orbits of the electrons are different.

The energy band diagram is shown. There are millions of electrons, belonging to the first orbits of atoms in the solid. Each of them have different energy. The closely spaced energy levels differ very slightly in energy of first orbit electrons form a cluster or band. Similarly the second orbit and higher orbit electrons also form bands. The diagram shows energy bands in silicon, atomic no. of which is 14. Each of its atom has only four electrons in the outermost orbit, so it becomes valence band. This shell is also not completely filled as others are. An additional band called conduction band is also there above the valence band. The third energy band of a solid silicon is completely filled because in solid silicon each atom positions itself between four other silicon atoms and each of these neighbours share an electron with the central atom. No electron in a filled band can move. Thus an electron in a completely filled band cannot contribute to electric current. The conduction band represents the next larger group of permissible energy levels. There is energy gap, , between the valence band and the conduction band. An electron can be lifted from the valence band to conduction band by adding some energy. This energy must be more than . The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is called the forbidden energy gap. For silicon = 1.12 eV and for Germanium it is 0.72 eV.
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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1) | Electronic Devices and Circuits

The electron in the conduction band does not belong to any particular atom. But, it moves randomly throughout the solid. So these electrons in conduction band are called free electrons. Q. 3. Explain the difference in metals, insulators and semi-conductors using the energy band diagram. Ans. The free electrons that exist in conduction band move randomly inside a solid can carry charge from one point to another, when an external field is applied. The free electrons thus work as charge carriers. A metal such as copper or silver contains a large number of free electrons at room temperature. Infact there is no forbidden energy gap between valence and conduction band. The two bands actually overlap as shown in diagram. The valence band energies are the same as the conduction band energies in the metal. It is very easy for a valence electron to become a conduction (free) electron. Therefore, without supplying any additional energy such as heat or light, a metal already contains a large number of free electrons and that is why it works as a good conductor.

An insulating nateria1 has an energy band diagram with a very wide forbidden energy gap (5eV or more). Because of this, it is practically impossible for an electron in the valence band to jump the gap, to reach the conduction band. Only at very high temperatures or under very stressed conditions, can an electron jump the gap. At room temperature, an insulator does not conduct because there are no conduction electrons in it. In semi conductors, the forbidden energy gap is not wide. It is of the order of 1eV. The energy provided by the heat at room temperature is sufficient to lift electrons from the valence band to the conduction band. Some electrons might jump the gap and go to the conduction band. Therefore, at room temperature, semi conductors are capable of conducting some electric current. Q. 4. Explain the intrinsic semi conductors. Ans. Semi conductor devices are made from a single crystal of semiconductor material (germanium or silicon). To make a semiconductor device, thus, the sample of material should be in its purest form. Such a semiconductor (in a pure form) is called intrinsic semiconductor.

When the electrons are liberated on breaking of covalent bonds, they move randomly through the crystal lattice. These free electrons are neither attracted by the atoms nor repelled by the electrons bound by covalent bonds because their electrical effects are
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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1) | Electronic Devices and Circuits

fully engaged in maintaining the covalent bond. When external electric field is applied to intrinsic semiconductor, the conduction through the semiconductor is by both free electrons and holes. The free electrons in the conduction band move towards the positive terminal of the battery while the holes in the valence band move towards the negative terminal of battery i.e. holes and the electrons move in opposite directions. As the holes reach the negative terminal, the reaching there combine with the holes and holes are destroyed. At the same time, the loosely held electrons near the positive terminal are attracted away from their atoms into the positive terminal of the battery. New holes are created which again go towards the negative terminal. The electric current flows through the intrinsic semiconductor in the same direction as in which holes are moving. The total current is thus the sum of currents owing to free Q. 5. Explain drift and diffusion currents. Ans. There are two mechanism in which and and holes move through a semiconductor. and holes.

One is drift and other is diffusion. When the movement of charge carriers is under the influence of an applied electric field. are attracted towards the positive terminal of battery and the holes towards the negative terminal. As holes reaching the negative terminal, combine with and thus are destroyed. The loosely held at positive terminal are attracted away from their atoms. New holes are created which again drift towards the negative terminal. The electric current flows in the same direction as in which the holes are moving. This current is known as drift current. A second type of current, called the diffusion current also exists. in semiconductor. The diffusion of charge carriers is as a result of a gradient of carrier concentration i.e. difference of carrier concentration from one region to another. In this case concentrations of charge carriers either or holes tend to distribute themselves uniformly throughout the semiconductor crystal. This movement continues until all the carriers are evenly distributed throughout the material. This type of movement of charge carriers is called diffusion current. Diffusion current occurs when charge carriers diffuse from a point of concentration, to spread uniformly throughout the volume of piece of material. Both drift and diffusion occur in semiconductor device simultaneously. Q. 6. Why semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance? Ans. At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons of intrinsic semiconductor are tightly held by their atoms and it behaves as an insulator. When material is heated, break away from their atoms and move from the valence to conduction band. This produces holes in the valence band and free in the conduction band. Conduction can then occur by movement and by hole transfer. With increase in temperature the rate of generation of hole pairs is increased. This in turn increases the rate of combination. Thus with increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers increases. As more charge carriers are made available, the conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases with the increase in temperature. Hence, resistivity decreases with increase of temperature in pure semiconductor. Thus, there is negative temperature coefficient of resistance for pure semiconductor. Q. 7. What Is meant by Fermi level in semiconductor? Derive the expression for it. Ans. Fermi level in semiconductor can be defined as the maximum energy that an semiconductor have at zero degree absolute. in a

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Assumption is the width. of energy bands are small in comparison to forbidden energy gap between them, all levels in a band have the same energy, energies of all levels in valence band are Now no. of and energies of all levels in conduction band are . may be determined by in conduction band,

where P ( ) represents probability of an e having energy Fermi-Dirac probability distribution function ..(1) where P(E) is probability of finding an So having energy E.

Now no. of

in valence band, being found in the valence band with zero energy can be

The probability P(0) of an

determined by putting E = 0 in (1).

So

Or i.e. in an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies midway between the conduction and valence bands. Q. 8. What are extrinsic semiconductors ? Explain its types also. Ans. Intrinsic semiconductor has little significance as it has little current conduction capability. However, the electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor can be increased many times by adding very small amount of impurity to it in the process of crystallization. This process is called doping and doped material thus formed is called the impurity or extrinsic semiconductor. Germanium and silicon are tetravalent. So. doping material should be either trivalent or pentavalent. According there are two types of extrinsic semiconductors. When a small amount of valent impurity such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal growth; the resulting crystal is called P-type semiconductor. When a small amount of pentavalent impurity such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorus is added in a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called N-type semiconductor. Q. 9. Explain N-type semiconductor with energy band diagram. Ans. When a pentavalent or a donor impurity is added to silicon, the impurity atoms form covalent bonds with the silicon atoms; but since intrinsic semiconductors have only four and four holes in their valence band shells, one spare valence shell is produced for each impurity atom added. Each of this spare enters the conduction band of pure semiconductor as a free . The pentavalent impurity is called the donor type impurity as it donates one to the conduction band of pure semiconductor. Though each impurity provides only one free e yet it provides enough atoms to supply millions of free . The energy band diagram for N-type semi conductor is shown below:

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When donor impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor, allowable energy levels are introduced at a very small distance below the conduction band. The new discrete allowable energy level is only 0.05 eV (for Si) below the conduction band and therefore at room temperature almost all the excess are raised into the conduction band and conductivity of the materials increases considerably. Q. 10. Explain P-type semiconductors with their energy band diagram. Ans. When a small amount of trivalent impurity such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium is added to a pure semiconductor crystal it is known as P-type semiconductor. These impurity atoms form covalent bonds with four surrounding intrinsic semiconductor atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole. Such impurities make available positive carriers because they create holes which can accept . These impurities are known as acceptor or P-type impurities. The effect of this doping process on relative conductivity can be shown by energy band diagram:

When acceptor impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor, they produce an allowable discrete energy level which is just above the valence. band Since a very small amount of energy is required for an to leave he valence band and occupy the acceptor energy level, the holes are created in the valence band by these . The holes so created constitute the larger number of carriers in the semiconductor material. Q. 11. Explain what do you understand by doping, diffusion, donor impurity, acceptor impurity in extrinsic semiconductor? Ans. Doping: Addition of impurity atoms to intrinsic semiconductor crystal is called the doping and impurity used for doping is called the dopant. Diffusion : The process of doping a semiconductor with impurities is known as diffusion. Donor : Arsenic, antimony or phosphorus or any other pentavalent impurity used as dopant to produce N.-type semiconductor is called donor type impurity. Acceptor: Boron, gallium, indium or any other trivalent impurity used as dopant to produce a P-type semicondi4ctor is called acceptor type impurity.
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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1) | Electronic Devices and Circuits

Q. 12. What is the effect of temperature on extrinsic semiconductors ? Ans. Addition of a small amount of impurity (donor or acceptor) produces a large number of charge carriers in an extrinsic semiconductor. In fact, this number is so large that the conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is many times that of an intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature. If temperature is now raised, the additional thermal energy increases the thermally generated carriers. As a result, the concentration of minority carriers increases. Eventually, a temp. is reached when the number of covalent bonds that are broken ii very large called the critical temperature. At this temp. the no. of holes becomes approximately the same as the no. of an intrinsic semiconductor. Q. 13. Distinguish between majority and minority charge carriers. Ans. In the intrinsic state, the no. of free in Si or Ge is due to only those few in the . The extrinsic semiconductor now behaves like

valence bond that have acquired sufficient energy from heat or light sources to break the covalent bond. The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding structure represent very limited supply of holes. In an N-type material, the no. of holes has not changed significantly from this intrinsic level and the no. of material, (both added and thermally generated) for outweighs the number of thermally generated holes. Hence in a N-type are majority charge carriers and responsible for flow of current.

The reverse is true for P-type material i.e P-type material have holes as majority carriers and free as minority carriers.

Q. 14. Explain drift and diffusion of charge carriers in semiconductors. Derive an expression for the e current due to drift and diffusion. Ans. When a steady electric field E volt/metre is applied to a metal, the move to the positive terminal of The applied voltage In their way, they continuously collide with the atoms and rebound in random fashion After the collision, are accelerated and gain certain component of velocity in the direction opposite to that of applied electric field and lose their energy at the next collision. Thus the applied electric field does not stop collisions and random motion but makes the drift towards the positive terminal. The gain average drift velocity v in the direction opposite to that of applied electric field. where is drift velocity, mobility (av. particle drift velocity per unit electric field) and E is expressed in . This steady flow of in one direction caused by the applied electric field constitutes an electric current called drift current. Current density, Where is the conductivity of the medium in and is given as :. The conductivity of of the semiconductor due to in conductidn band is given by where n is the no. of per unit volume of the conductor, e is the charge and is the electron mobility. Similarly, the conductivity , due to holes. where p is the number of holes per unit volume and
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, is hole mobility.
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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1) | Electronic Devices and Circuits

Since in semiconductors, the conduction is by free given as

and holes, so total conductivity

is

In intrinsic semiconductor n = p =

, so intrinsic semiconductor conductivity

E is applied electric field, V is applied potential difference across the two ends of the conductor and a is cross-sectional area of the conductor. In case of N-type semiconductor hole concentration is negligible and e concentration So conductivity of N-type semiconductor similarly for P-type semiconductor Total current density due to drift of and holes on application of electric field E, J = Current density due to hole + Current density due to

The carrier currents are also due to concentration gradients in the doped material which leads to diffusion of carriers from high concentration to low concentration region. When a concentration gradient of carriers exists in a material, the charge carriers tend to move from tile region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. The process is called diffusion and the current due to this process is called diffusion current. The current density due to diffusion of holes is given as where is diffusion constant = is mean free-time between collisions. is is mean free path at a reference plane x and Similarly current density due to diffusion of

Total current in semiconductor in the sum of drift and diffusion current due to potential gradient and due to charge carrier concentration gradient respectively.

Q. 15. What do you mean by Fermi level ? Derive the expression for Fermi level and sketch the position of intrinsic, P-type and N-type semiconductor. Ans. Fermi level can be defined as the maximum energy that an have at zero degree absolute. Fermi Dirac probability function where K is boltzmann constant and is the Fermi level in eV. Concentration of free (it) and of holes (P) are given as in a semiconductor

where is the no. of in conduction band, lowest energy in conduction band in eV and eV.
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is the no. of in the valence band, is the is the maximum energy of valence band in
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The only parameter that changes with the addition of impurity is fermi level concentrations of free and holes.

In an intrinsic semiconductor it lies in the middle of the energy gap, indicating equal

When donor type impurity is added to the crystal, then at a given temperature and assuming all donor atoms, the first difficult for of states in the conduction band be filled. Hence it is from valence band to bridge the energy gap by the thermal generation. No. and fewer

hole pairs thermally generated are reduced. EF must be more closer to conduction

band to indicate that many of energy states in that band are filled by donor Similarly

holes exist in valence band. This is the position for fermi level in N-type semiconductor. must move down from the centre of the forbidden gap closer to the valence band for a P-type extrinsic semiconductor. Q. 16. What is a p-n junction? Ans. The contact surface between the layers of P-type and N-type semiconductor pieces placed together so as to form a p-n junction. Most semiconductor devices employ one or more P-N junctions. The P-type and N-type has free holes and boundary into n-type material and some of free . respectively. On the formation of p-n junction some of the holes from P-type material tend to diffuse across the Similarly diffuse into the P-type material. This happens due to density gradient. The process is also known as diffusion.

Q. 17. Explain barrier potential in a p-n junction? Ans. On the formation of p-n junction some of the holes from p-type material tend to diffuse across the boundary into n-type material and some of free similarly diffuse into the p-type material. This happens due to diffusion.

Free crossing the junction create negative ions on the p side by giving some atoms one more than their total no. of protons. The leave positive ions behind them on n-side. As negative ions are created on p-side of the junction1 the P-side acquires negative potential. Similarly the positive ions and the n-side acquires a positive potential. The negative potential on p-side prevents migration of any more from the n-type material to p-type material. Similarly the positive potential on the n-side prevents any further migration of
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holes across the boundary. Thus, initial diffusion of charge carriers creates a barrier potential at the junction. The region around the junction is completely ionised. As a result there are no free mobile carriers it is called depletion region1 space charge on transition region. Q. 18. Explain p-n junction as a diode. Explain its forward and reverse biasing. Ans. The essential electrical characteristic of a p-n junction is that it constitutes a diode which permits the easy flow of current in one direction but restrains the flow in the opposite direction. The diode can be forward or reverse biased p-n junction in forward biasing When an external field, with p-region connected to positive terminal and nregion to negative terminal of the battery, is applied across the junction is known to be forward biased. The holes on p-side being positively charged particles are repelled from the positive bias terminal and driven towards junction. Similarly, the on the n-side are repelled from the negative bias terminal and driven towards the junction. The result is that the depletion region is reduced in width, and the barrier potential is reduced. If the applied bias voltage is increased from zero, the barrier, potential gets progressively smaller and smaller until it effectively disappears and charge carriers can easily flow across the junction. on nside and near these are holes on p-side. Since the region around the junction is depleted of

from the n-side are then attracted across to the positive bias terminal on the p-side and holes from the p-side flow across to the negative bias terminal on the n-side. Thus a majority carrier current flows. Since barrier potential is very low (O.3V for Ge and O.7V for Si), Therefore, a small forward voltage is sufficient to eliminate the barrier completely. Once the barrier is eliminated by the application of forward voltage, junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established in entire circuit. This is forward current. The current in n-type material is due to movement of whereas in ptype region it is carried by holes. However, in external circuit, the current is carried by p-n junction is reverse biasing : If an external bias voltage is applied with positive terminal to n-side and negative terminal to the p-side of a p-n junction. The junction then is reverse biased.

In this arrangement from n-side are attracted to the positive bias terminal and holes from p-side are attracted to negative bias terminal. Thus holes from impurity atoms on the p-side of the junction are attracted away from the junction and the are attracted
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from the atoms on the n-side of the junction. Thus the depletion region is widened, and the barrier potential is increased by the magnitude of applied bias. With the increased barrier potential, there is no possibility of majority carrier current flow across the junction. Thus p-n junction is in non-conduction state. The junction offers very high resistance called reverse resistance, to the flow of current called leakage or reverse current.

Q. 19. How do transition region width and contact potential across a p-n junction vary with applied bias voltage? Ans. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the transition region width is reduced, and the contact potential is also reduced with the increase in applied bias voltage. When the junction is reverse biased, the transition is widened, and the contact potential is increased with the increased applied bias voltage. Q. 20. What is a diode ? Why is Si preferred over Ge in the manufacture of semiconductor devices? Ans. The diode is a true electrode device. A semiconductor diode is simply a p-n junction with connecting leads or terminals on the two sides of the p-n junction. p-n junction is also called crystal diode because p-n junction is grown out of crystal. A diode is unidirectional device permitting the easy flow of current in one direction but opposes the flow in opposite direction. The circuit symbol and symbol of a diode are as shown.

The p-side is positive terminal for forward bias and is called anode, while n-side is negative terminal when device is forward biased also known as cathode. The semiconductor diode can be of either Si on Ge. But Si has different properties than that of Ge. Si is usually used as semiconductor material. (a) The peak inverse voltage (Ply) for Si can be as high as 1000 V whereas for Ge it is near about 400 V. (b) Si can be operated at temperatures upto about 200C compared with about 75C for Ge. (c) The forward voltage drop is approximately double of that of the corresponding Ge diode. It is typically of the order of 0.7 V for commercially available Si diodes and 0.3 V for Ge diodes. (d) The reverse current at a given temp. and voltage is approximately a hundredth of that of the corresponding Ge diode, but there is little sign of current saturation as in case of Ge. In fact, the reverse current of a Si diode is approximately proportional to the square root of the voltage until breakdown is approached. (e) The reverse current of a Si diode, for a given voltage, practically doubles for every 8C rise of temp., compared with 10C for Ge. Q. 21. Explain the zener and avalanche breakdown in p-n junction diodes. Also give the volt-ampere characteristics of p-n junction diode. Ans. The graph shows the volt-ampere characteristics of a p-n diode.

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Chapter 1 : Diode Circuits (Part 1) | Electronic Devices and Circuits

Forward Characteristics : When external voltage is zero i.e. when circuit is open, the potential barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current and therefore current is zero. With forward bias to p-n junction very little current called forward current flows until the forward voltage exceeds the junction barrier potential (0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si). As the forward voltage increases to the knee of the characteristic, the barrier potential is progressively reduced to zero, allowing more and more majority charge carriers to flow across the junction. So beyond this knee, the barrier is totally eliminated, forward current thus increases almost linearly. The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly is called knee or cut-in voltage. Reverse Characteristics : When the reverse bias is applied, the potential barrier at junction increases, thus junction resistance becomes high. There is opposition to flow of majority carriers. But still minority carriers flow across a reverse biased junction. Hence reverse circuit is very small. It is almost independent of the voltage applied. However if reverse bias is increased, a point is reached when the junction breaks down and reverse current increases abruptly. For suitably designed diode, the breakdown voltage is very stable over a wide range of reverse currents. The critical value of voltage, at which breakdown of a p-n junction diode occurs is called breakdown voltage. It depends upon the width of the depletion region, which in turn depends on doping level, junction offers zero resistance at the breakdown point.
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There are two mechanisms by which breakdown occur at a reverse biased p-n junction: avalanche and zener breakdown. The minority carriers under reverse biased conditions, flowing through the junction acquire a kinetic energy which increases with the increase in reverse voltage. At a sufficiently high reverse voltage (5V or more), the kinetic energy of minority carriers becomes so large that they knock out from the covalent bonds of the semiconductor material. As a result of collision, the liberated in turn liberate more and the current becomes very large leading to breakdown of crystal structure itself. The phenomenon is known as avalanche breakdown. The breakdown region is the knee of the characteristic curve. Now the current is not controlled by the junction voltage but rather by external circuit. Under a very high reverse voltage, the depletion region expands and the potential barrier increases leading to a very high electric field across the junction. The electric field will break some of covalent bonds of the semiconductor atoms leading to a large number of free minority carriers, which suddenly increase the reverse current. This is zener effect. The breakdown occurs at a particular and constant value of reverse voltage called the breakdown voltage. It is found that zener breakdown occurs at electric field intensity of about . Either of the two may occur independently, or both of these may occur simultaneously. Diode junctions that breakdown below 5V are caused by zener effect. The breakdown around 5V or more are caused by avalanche effect. Q. 22. What is the effect of temperature on Zener and avalanche breakdown voltages? Ans. With the increase in junction temperature zener breakdown voltage is reduced while the avalanche breakdown voltage increases. The zerier diodes have a negative

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temperature coefficient which avalanche diodes have a positive temperature coefficient. Diodes that have breakdown voltage around 5V have zero temperature coefficient. Q. 23. Explain quantitative theory of p-n diode current. Show that reverse saturation current Ans. In quantitative theory of p-n diode the total current will be delivered as a function of the applied voltage with the assumption that depletion layer thickness is negligible. When a p-n junction is forward biased, holes are injected from p-region into n-region. The concentration of holes in n-region is increased above its Thermal equilibrium value The hole concentration in n-region (1) where Ln is diffusion length for holes in n-type material and x is the distance from the junction where concentration is considered.

The injected, or excess, concentration of holes at

is given as

The graph shows that concentration on p0(x) falls exponentially with distance x into the ntype material. The diffusion hole current in n-type region is

where a is area of material in

is diffusion constant for holes in

, e is magnitude of

charge on holes. Using Boltzmann relationship of Kinetic gas Theory,

The total diode current I at x = 0 is given as where by is the current caused by holes entering n region and is the current caused

entering p region.

For a. reverse bias voltage exceeding reverse saturation current. Concentration of holes in n-type region,
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(= 26 mV) at room temperature current

is

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and concentration of in p-type region, where and are concentrations of donor and accepter atoms.

where

is voltage numerically equal to the forbidden energy gap

is volt

equivalent temperature For Si diode, diffusion current is negligible in comparison with transition layer charge generation current which is given approximately by For Ge, the diffusion constants Hence vary approximately inversely proportional to temp. T.

where K1 is a constant independent of temperature T.

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