Application Note 5 December 1984 Thermal Techniques in Measurement and Control Circuitry

Jim Williams Designers spend much time combating thermal effects in circuitry. The close relationship between temperature and electronic devices is the source of more design headaches than any other consideration. In fact, instead of eliminating or compensating for thermal parasitics in circuits, it is possible to utilize them. In particular, applying thermal techniques to measurement and control circuits allows novel solutions to difcult problems. The most obvious example is temperature control. Familiarity with thermal considerations in temperature control loops permits less obvious, but very useful, thermallybased circuits to be built. Temperature Controller Figure 1 shows a precision temperature controller for a small components oven. When power is applied, the thermistor, a negative TC device, is at a high value. A1 saturates positive. This forces the LT3525A switching
0.02 15V 100M 100k* 100k* 10k 16 9 11 LT3525A 1 2 6 5k 100k* RT 5 0.015 2kHz 20 HEATER 14 2k 13 1k Q1 2N5023 15V

regulators output low, biasing Q1. As the heater warms, the thermistor s value decreases. When its inputs nally balance, A1 comes out of saturation and the LT3525A pulse width modulates the heater via Q1, completing a feedback path. A1 provides gain and the LT3523A furnishes high efciency. The 2kHz pulse width modulated heater power is much faster than the thermal loops response and the oven sees an even, continuous heat ow. The key to high performance control is matching the gain bandwidth of A1 to the thermal feedback path. Theoretically, it is a simple matter to do this using conventional servo-feedback techniques. Practically, the long time constants and uncertain delays inherent in thermal systems present a challenge. The unfortunate relationship between servo systems and oscillators is very apparent in thermal control systems.
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47

0.05

50

STEP TEST 50 0.01C

A1 LT1012

1N914 1N914

THERMAL FEEDBACK

AN05 F01

*TRW MAR-6 RESISTOR RT = YSI #44014 RT = 300k AT 25C

Figure 1. Precision Temperature Controller

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Application Note 5
The thermal control loop can be very simply modeled as a network of resistors and capacitors. The resistors are equivalent to the thermal resistance and the capacitors equivalent to thermal capacity. In Figure 2 the heater, heater-sensor interface, and sensor all have RC factors that contribute to a lumped delay in the ability of a thermal system to respond. To prevent oscillation, A1s gain bandwidth must be limited to account for this delay. Since high gain bandwidth is desirable for good control, the delays must be minimized. The physical size and electrical resistivity of the heater selected give some element of control over the heaters time constant. The heater-sensor interface time constant can be minimized by placing the sensor in intimate contact with the heater. The sensor s RC product can be minimized by selecting a sensor of small size relative to the capacity of its thermal environment. Clearly, if the wall of an oven is 6" thick aluminum, the tiniest sensor available is not an absolute necessity. Conversely, if one is controlling the temperature of 1/16" thick glass microscope slide, a very small sensor (i.e., fast) is in order. After the thermal time constants relating to the heater and sensor have been minimized, some form of insulation for the system must be chosen. The function of insulation is to keep the loss rate down so the temperature control device can keep up with the losses. For any given system, the higher the ratio between the heater-sensor time constants and the insulation time constants, the better the performance of the control loop. After these thermal considerations have been attended to, the control loops gain bandwidth can be optimized. Figures 3A, 3B and 3C show the effects of different compensation values at A1. Compensation is trimmed by applying small steps in temperature setpoint and observing the loop response at A1s output. The 50 resistor and

HEATER

HEATER-SENSOR INTERFACE

SENSOR

AN05 F02

TEMPERATURE REFERENCE (CAN BE A RESISTANCE, VOLTAGE OR CURRENT CORRESPONDING TO TEMPERATURE)

Figure 2. Thermal Control Loop Model

2V/DIV

0.5V/DIV

0.5V/DIV

5 SECONDS/DIV

AN05 F03a

2 SECONDS/DIV

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HORIZONTAL = 0.5 SECONDS/DIV

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B Figure 3. Loop Response for Various Gain Bandwidths

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Application Note 5
switch in the thermistor leg of the bridge furnish a 0.01C step generator. Figure 3A shows the effects of too much gain bandwidth. The step change forces a damped, ringing response over 50 seconds in duration! The loop is marginally stable. Increasing A1s gain bandwidth (GBW) will force oscillation. Figure 3B shows what happens when GBW is reduced. Settling is much quicker and more controlled. The waveform is overdamped, indicating that higher GBW is achievable without stability compromises. Figure 3C shows the response for the compensation values given and is a nearly ideal critically damped recovery. Settling occurs within 4 seconds. An oven optimized in this fashion will easily attenuate external temperature shifts by a factor of thousands without overshoots or excessive lags. Thermally Stabilized PIN Photodiode Signal Conditioner PIN photodiodes are frequently employed in wide range photometric measurements. The photodiode specied in Figure 4 responds linearly to light intensity over a 100dB range. Digitizing the diodes linearly amplied output would require an A/D converter with 17 bits of range. This requirement can be eliminated by logarithmically compressing the diodes output in the signal conditioning circuity. Logarithmic ampliers utilize the logarithmic relationship between VBE and collector current in transistors. This characteristic is very temperature sensitive and requires special components and layout considerations to achieve good results. Figure 4s circuit logarithmically signal conditions the photodiodes output with no special components or layout. A1 and Q4 convert the diodes photocurrent to a voltage output with a logarithmic transfer function. A2 provides offsetting and additional gain. A3 and its associated components form a temperature control loop which maintains Q4 at constant temperature (all transistors in this circuit are part of a CA3096 monolithic array). The 0.033F value at A3s compensation pins gives good loop damping if the circuit is built using the arrays transistors in the locations shown. These locations have been selected for optimal control at Q4, the logging transistor. Because of the array

6 Q4 4 5 2k 500pF 11 10 Q5 12 50k*

1M 1M FULL-SCALE TRIM 0.01

50k DARK TRIM

750k*

0.033 LT1021-10V 15V IN OUT 10k* 10k*

A3 LM301A

3k

1 2 Q2
AN05 F04

2k 33 14 15 Q1 13 7 Q3 9 15V 8 = HP-5082-4204 PIN PHOTODIODE Q1 TO Q5 = CA3096 CONNECT SUBSTRATE OF CA3096 ARRAY TO Q4s EMITTER *1% RESISTOR

Figure 4. 100dB Range Logarithmic Photodiode Amplier

IP

A2 LM107 EOUT LIGHT (900 NANOMETERS) 1mW 100W 10W 1W 100nW 10nW

A1 LT1012 RESPONSE DATA DIODE CURRENT 350A 35A 3.5A 350nA 35nA 3.5nA CIRCUIT OUTPUT 10.0V 7.85V 5.70V 3.55V 1.40V 0.75V
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Application Note 5
dies small size, response is quick and clean. A full-scale step requires only 250ms to settle (photo, Figure 5) to nal value. To use this circuit, rst set the thermal control loop. To do this, ground Q3s base and set the 2k pot so A3s negative input voltage is 55mV below its positive input. This places the servos setpoint at about 50C (25C ambient + 2.2mV/C 25C rise = 55mV = 50C). Unground Q3s base and the array will come to temperature. Next, place the photodiode in a completely dark environment and adjust the dark trim so A2s output is 0V. Finally, apply or electrically simulate (see chart, Figure 4) 1mW of light and set the full-scale trim to 10V out. Once adjusted, this circuit responds logarithmically to light inputs from 10nW to 1mW with an accuracy limited by the diodes 1% error. 50MHz Bandwidth Thermal RMSDC Converter Conversion of AC waveforms to their equivalent DC power value is usually accomplished by either rectifying and averaging or using analog computing methods. Rectication averaging works only for sinusoidal inputs. Analog computing methods are limited to use below 500kHz. Above this frequency, accuracy degrades beyond the point of usefulness in instrumentation applications. Additionally, crest factors greater than 10 cause signicant reading errors. A way to achieve wide bandwidth and high crest factor performance is to measure the true power value of the waveform directly. The circuit of Figure 6 does this by measuring the DC heating power of the input waveform.

0.2V/DIV

HORIZONTAL = 50ms/DIV

AN05 F05

Figure 5. Figure 4s Thermal Loop Response

100k* 0.01 15V 10k* 10k*

90k* 10k

90k*

300* 1F

A1 LT1002

0.01

100k* 10k 0.01

10k*

INPUT

BRN T1 T1A GRN

RED

RED T2

BRN

T1B

T2B GRN

T2A

A2 LT1002

*0.1% RESISTOR T1, T2 = YELLOW SPRINGS INST. CO. THERMISTOR COMPOSITE #44018 1F = MYLAR

1F

Figure 6. 50MHz Thermal RMSDC Converter

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15k

+
20k FULL-SCALE TRIM 1N4148 A4 LT1001 OUT 0V TO 10V
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10k*

A3 LT1001

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Application Note 5
By using thermal techniques to integrate the input waveform, 50MHz bandwidth is easily achieved with 2% accuracy. Additionally, because the thermal integrators output is at low frequency, no wideband circuitry is required. The circuit uses standard components and requires no special trimming techniques. It is based on measuring the amount of power required to maintain two similar but thermally decoupled masses at the same temperature. The input is applied to T1, a dual thermistor bead. The power dissipated in one leg (T1A) of this bead forces the other section (T1B) to shift down in value, unbalancing the bridge formed by the other bead and the 90k resistors. This imbalance is amplied by the A1-A2-A3 combination. A3s output is applied to a second thermistor bead, T2. T2A heats, causing T2B to decay in value. As T2Bs resistance drops, the bridge balances. A3s output adjusts drive to T2A until T1B and T2B have equal values. Under these conditions, the voltage at T2A is equal to the RMS value of the circuits input. In fact, slight mass imbalances between T1 and T2 contribute a gain error, which is corrected at A4. RC lters at A1 and A2 and the 0.01F capacitor eliminate possible high frequency error due to capacitive coupling between T1A and T1B. The diode in A3s output line prevents circuit latch-up. Figure 7 details the recommended thermal arrangement for the thermistors. The Styrofoam block provides an isothermal environment and coiling the thermistor leads attenuates heat pipe effects to the outside ambient. The 2-inch distance between the devices allows them to see identical thermal conditions without interaction. To calibrate this circuit, apply 10VDC to the input and adjust the full-scale trim for 10V out at A4. Accuracy remains within 2% from DC to 50MHz for inputs of 300mV to 10V. Crest factors of 100:1 contribute less than 0.1% additional error and response time to rated accuracy is ve seconds. Low Flow Rate Thermal Flowmeter Measuring low ow rates in uids presents difculties. Paddle wheel and hinged vane type transducers have low and inaccurate outputs at low ow rates. If small diameter tubing is required, as in medical or biochemical work, such transduction techniques also become mechanically impractical. Figure 8 shows a thermally-based owmeter which features high accuracy at rates as low as 1mL/minute and has a frequency output which is a linear function of ow rate. This design measures the differential temperature between two sensors (Figure 9). One sensor, T1, located before the heater resistor, assumes the uids temperature before it is heated by the resistor. The second sensor, T2, picks up the temperature rise induced into the uid by the resistors heating. The sensor s difference signal appears at A1s output. A2 amplies this difference with a time constant set by the 10M adjustment. Figure 10 shows A2s output versus ow rate. The function has an inverse relationship. A3 and A4 linearize this relationship, while simultaneously providing a frequency output (Figure 10). A3 functions as an integrator which is biased from the LT1004 and the 383k input resistor. Its output is compared to A2s output at A4. Large inputs from A2 force the integrator to run for a long time before A4 can go high, turning on Q1 and resetting A3. For small inputs from A2, A3 does not have to integrate very long before resetting action occurs. Thus, the conguration oscillates at a frequency which is inversely proportional to A2s output voltage. Since this voltage is inversely related to ow rate, the oscillation frequency linearly corresponds to ow rate. Several thermal considerations are important in this circuit. The amount of power dissipated into the stream should be constant to maintain calibration. Ideally, the best way to do this is to measure the VI product at the heater resistor and construct a control loop to maintain constant wattage
4"

TOP

BOTTOM 2" 2"

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THERMISTORS

0.5"

Styrofoam BLOCKS

Figure 7. Thermal Arrangement for RMSDC Converter

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Application Note 5
1M* 3.2k** 1M*

15 RHEATER

1M* T1 T2

10M RESPONSE TIME

1F

100k Q1 2N4391 0.1

1N4148

4.7k 15V

300pF

15V LT1004-1.2V

*1% FILM RESISTOR **SUPPLIED WITH YSI THERMISTOR NETWORK YSI THERMISTOR NETWORK = #44201 RHEATER = DALE HL-25

Figure 8. Liquid Flowmeter

FLOW FOR DISTILLED WATER (mL/MINUTE) 280 240 200 160 120 0.05V 80 40 0 FREQUENCY VS FLOW CURVE 0.1V 0.22V 0.44V 0 40 80 120 160 200 FREQUENCY (Hz) 240 0.66V 280
AN05 F10

FLOW IN MIXING GRID PREVENTS LAMINER FLOW SENSOR T1

HEATER RESISTOR

STAINLESS TUBING OUT

AN05 F09

SENSOR T2 15V SIZE TUBING O.D. TO FIT RESISTOR I.D. USE THERMAL COMPOUND FOR GOOD HEAT TRANSFIER

Figure 9. Flowmeter Transducer Details

dissipation. However, if the resistor specied is used, its drift with temperature is small enough to assume constant dissipation with a xed voltage drive. Additionally, the uids specic heat will affect calibration. The curves shown are for distilled water. To calibrate this circuit, set a ow rate of 10mL/minute and adjust the ow calibration trim for 10Hz output. The response time adjustment is convenient for ltering ow aberrations due to mechanical limitations in the pump driving the system.

AN5-6

2.7k

383k*

OUTPUT 0Hz TO 300Hz = 0 TO 300mL/MIN

A3 LT1012

100k

A4 LT1011 4 1 15V 100k

AN05 F08

T1-T2 (A2 OUTPUT) VS FLOW CURVE

Figure 10. Flowmeter Response Data

Thermally-Based Anemometer (Air Flowmeter) Figure 11 shows another thermally-based owmeter, but this design is used to measure air or gas ow. It works by measuring the energy required to maintain a heated resistance wire at constant temperature. The positive temperature coefcient of a small lamp, in combination with its ready availability, makes it a good sensor. A type
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15V

6.25k**

6.25k**

3.2k**

1M*

100k

A2 LT1002 6.98k* 5k FLOW CALIBRATION 1k*

A1 LT1002

Application Note 5
2k Q1 500pF 27 1W 100k AIR FLOW 500k* 150k* 1N4148 2k A1 LT1002 RECOMMENDED LAMP ORIENTATION 33k 1000pF 15V Q2 Q3 2k 12k 3.3k 15V 1N4148 150k* Q5

Figure 11. Thermal Anemometer

328 lamp is modied for this circuit by removing its glass envelope. The lamp is placed in a bridge which is monitored by A1. A1s output is current amplied by Q1 and fed back to drive the bridge. The capacitors and 220 resistor ensure stability. The 2k resistor furnishes start-up. When power is applied, the lamp is at a low resistance and Q1s emitter tries to come full on. As current ows through the lamp, its temperature quickly rises, forcing its resistance to increase. This action increases A1s negative input potential. Q1s emitter voltage decreases and the circuit nds a stable operating point. To keep the bridge balanced, A1 acts to force the lamps resistance, hence its temperature, constant. The 10k-2k bridge values have been chosen so that the lamp operates just below the incandescence point. This high temperature minimizes the effects of ambient temperature shifts on circuit operation. Under these conditions, the only physical parameter which can signicantly inuence the lamps temperature is a change in dissipation characteristic. Air ow moving by the lamp provides this change. Moving air by the lamp tends to cool it and A1 increases Q1s output to maintain the lamps temperature. The voltage at Q1s emitter is nonlinearly, but predictably, related to air ow by the lamp. A2, A3 and the array transistors form a circuit which squares and amplies Q1s emitter voltage to give a linear, calibrated output versus air ow rate. To use this circuit, place the lamp in the air ow so that its lament is a 90 angle to the ow. Next, either shut off the air ow or shield the lamp from it and adjust the zero ow potentiometer for a circuit output of 0V. Then, expose the lamp to air ow of 1000 feet/minute and trim the full ow potentiometer for 10V output. Repeat

these adjustments until both points are xed. With this procedure completed, the air owmeter is accurate within 3% over the entire 0 to 1000 foot/minute range. Low Distortion, Thermally Stabilized Wien Bridge Oscillator The positive temperature coefcient of lamp laments is employed in a modern adaptation of a classic circuit in Figure 12. In any oscillator it is necessary to control the gain as well as the phase shift at the frequency of interest. If gain is too low, oscillation will not occur. Conversely, too much gain will cause saturation limiting. Figure 12 uses a variable Wien Bridge to provide frequency tuning from 20Hz to 20kHz. Gain control comes from the positive temperature coefcient of the lamp. When power is applied, the lamp is at a low resistance value, gain is high and oscillation amplitude builds. As amplitude builds, the lamp current increases, heating occurs and its resistance goes up. This causes a reduction in amplier gain and the circuit nds a stable operating point. The lamps gain-regulating behavior is at within 0.25dB over the 20Hz-20kHz range of the circuit. The smooth, limiting nature of the lamps operation, in combination with its simplicity, gives good results. Trace A, Figure 13 shows circuit output at 10kHz. Harmonic distortion is shown in Trace B and is below 0.003%. The trace shows that most of the distortion is due to second harmonic content and some crossover disturbance is noticeable. The low resistance values in the Wein network and the 3.8nVHz noise specication of the LT1037 eliminate amplier noise as an error term.
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Information furnished by Linear Technology Corporation is believed to be accurate and reliable. However, no responsibility is assumed for its use. Linear Technology Corporation makes no representation that the interconnection of its circuits as described herein will not infringe on existing patent rights.

Q1 = 2N6533 Q2 TO Q5 = CA3046 ARRAY [TIE PIN 13 (SUBSTRATE) TO 15V] *1% RESISTOR

1k ZERO FLOW

LT1004-1.2V

100k*

0.1F A3 LM107 OUTPUT 0V TO 10V = 0 TO 1000FT/MIN

A2 LT1002

500k 1F 2M FULL-SCALE FLOW

AN05 F11

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Application Note 5
At low frequencies, the thermal time constant of the small normal mode lamp begins to introduce distortion levels above 0.01%. This is due to hunting as the oscillators frequency approaches the lamp thermal time constant. This effect can be eliminated, at the expense of reduced output amplitude and longer amplitude settling time, by switching to the low frequency, low distortion mode. The four large lamps give a longer thermal time constant and distortion is reduced. Figure 14 plots distortion versus frequency for the circuit. References 1. Multiplier Application Guide, pp. 7-9, Flowmeter, Analog Devices, Inc., Norwood, Massachusetts.
L2-L5 #1891

2. Olson, J.V., A High Stability Temperature Controlled Oven, S.B. Thesis M.I.T., Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974. 3. PIN Photodiodes5082-4200 Series, pp. 332-335, Optoelectronics Designers Catalog, 1981, Hewlett Packard Company, Palo Alto, California. 4. Y.S.I. Thermilinear Thermistor, #44018 Data Sheet, Yellow Springs Instrument Company, Yellow Springs, Ohio. 5. Hewlett, William R., A New Type Resistance-Capacitor Oscillator, M.S. Thesis, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California, 1939.

100

LOW FREQ (<50Hz) LOW DISTORTION MODE L1 #327 NORMAL MODE

430

*1% FILM RESISTOR 10k DUAL POTENTIOMETERMATCH TRACKING 0.1% MATCH ALL LIKE CAPACITOR VALUES 0.1%

200Hz 2kHz 20Hz-200Hz 0.82 0.082

2kHz 20kHz 0.0082 0.82 0.082

AN05 F12

953* 10k

Figure 12. Low Distortion Sinewave Oscillator

0.050 0.045 0.040 PERCENT DISTORTION 0.035 0.030 0.025 0.020 0.015 0.010 0.005 0 HORIZONTAL = 20s/DIV
AN05 F13

A = 10V/DIV

B = 0.01V/DIV (0.003% DISTORTION)

Figure 13. Oscillator Waveforms

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Linear Technology Corporation

1630 McCarthy Blvd., Milpitas, CA 95035-7417
(408) 432-1900 FAX: (408) 434-0507

www.linear.com

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0.0082 953* 10k NORMAL MODE LOW FREQUENCY LOW DISTORTION MODE 0 20 200 2k FREQUENCY (Hz) 20k
AN05 F14

LT1037 OUTPUT

Figure 14. Oscillator Distortion vs Frequency

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LINEAR TECHNOLOGY CORPORATION 1984