Transformers UColorado

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS FOR BUILDINGS
____________________________________________________________________________________

University of Colorado at Boulder
Prof. Krarti

1
Chapter 5
TRANSFORMERS
Moncef Krarti, PhD, PE
CEAE Department, CB 428
University of Colorado
Boulder, CO 80309 USA

(copyright , 2002)

Abstract
This chapter describes some general concepts of electrical transformes. First, a review of basic
characteristics of a transformer operating under alternating current is provided. Then, commonly used
types and connections of electrical transformesr are briefly discussed. Finally, testing procedures to
charaterize some of the properties of transformers are outlined. Throughout this chapter, calculations
exmaples are provided to determine the benefits of selected measures of improving the energy efficiency
of electrical transformers.

5.1 Introduction
The transformer is the device that allows to change the voltage level of an alternating current. In
particular, it is common to use transformer at generating stations to increase the transmission voltages to
high levels (13800 volt) and near or inside buildings to reduce the distribution voltages to low levels for
utilization (480 or 208 volt).

A typical transformer consists of two windings: primary and secondary windings. The primary winding is
connected to the power source while the secondary winding is connected to the load. Between the
primary and the secondary windings, there is no electrical connection. Instead, the electric energy is
transferred through inductance within the core which is generally made up of laminated steel. Therefore,
transformers operate only on alternating current.

There are basically two types of transformers (i) liquid-filled transformers and (ii) dry-type transformers.
In liquid-filled transformers, the liquid acts as a coolant and as insulation dielectric. Dry-type
transformers are constructed so that the core and coils are open to allow for cooling by the free movement
of air. In some cases, fans may be installed to increase the cooling effect. The dry-type transformers are
widely used because of their lighter weight and simpler installation compared to liquid-filled
transformers.

5.2 Review of Basics

A transfomer consists generally of a core made up of laminated steel and two windings. The windings
that are connected to the power source are generally called primary. The other windings are connected to
the load and are generally labeled as the secondary windings. A schematic diagram for a single-phase
transformer is illustrated in Figure 5.1. A three-phase transformer can be constructed from a set of three
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single-phase transformers electrically connected so that the primary and the secondary windings can be
either wye or delta configurations. Figure 5-2 shows a section of three-phase transformer.

The primary windings create a magnetic flux that induces voltage at the secondary windings. The
laminated steel core serves as the path for the magnetic flux to travel from the primary to the secondary
windings. It can be shown that the primary and the secondary voltages, E
p
and E
s
, are directly
proportional to the respective number of turns, N
p
and N
s
, in the windings:

a
N
N
E
E
s
p
s
p
= =
(5.1)
where, a is the turns ratio of the transformer. As indicated by Eq. (5.1), the turns ratio can be determined
directly from the voltages without the knowledge of the actual number of turns on the transformer
windings.

Primary Windings Secondary Windings

Core

E
p
N
p
N
s
E
s

Figure 5.1: Simplified Model for a single-phase transformer.

Figure 5.2: Section of three-phase transformer (Courtesy of Cutler-Hammer)

Transformers are rated by their volt-ampere capacity from the secondary windings. For large
transformers, the power output in kilo volt-ampere or kVA rating is generally used. For single-phase
transformers, the power rating is simply the product of the voltage, E
s
, and the current, I
s
, at the
secondary windings:

1000
.
s s
I E
kVA=
(5.2)

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The power rating for three-phase transfomers can be determined by the following expression:

1000
. . 3
s s
I E
kVA=
(5.3)
where, E
s
and I
s
are respectively the rated line-to-line voltage and the rated line current of the secondary.

Transformers are typically very efficient with energy losses representing only 1-3% of the transformer
capacity. For most design calculations, ideal transformers are considered. For ideal tranformers, it is
assumed that the windings have no resistance and that there is no flux leakage along the core. Thus, ideal
transfomers are 100% efficient. In particular, the power input of an ideal transformer is equal to the
power output. Therefore, the primary and secondary currents can be determined if the transformer rating
is known along the primary and secondary voltages using Eq (5-5) for single-phase transformers:

=
=
s
s
p
p
E
kVA
I
E
kVA
I
(5.5)

And Eq. (5-6) for three-phase transformers:

=
=
s
s
p
p
E
kVA
I
E
kVA
I
3
3
(5.6)

Example 5.1 illustrates the calculation procedure for primary and secondary currents as well as the turns
ratio of both single-phase and three-phase transformers using Eq.s (5.1), (5.5), and (5.6).

Example 5.1:
Problem:
Determine the turns ratio, the primary current, and the secondary current for the following transformers:

a. 20 kVA single-phase transfomer with a primary voltage of 2400 V and a secondary voltage of 120 V.
b. 1,500 kVA three-phase transformer with a primary voltage of 13.8 kV and a secondary voltage of 480Y/277 V.

Solution:
(a) For the single-phase transformer, the turns ratio is determined from Eq. (5.1):

20
120
2400
= = =
V
V
E
E
a
s
p

The primary and secondary current can be estimated from Eq. (5.5);

= = =
= = =
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
s
s
p
p
3 . 83
120
000 , 10
17 . 4
400 , 2
000 , 10

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Note that the ratio Is/Ip is equal to the turns ratio.

(b) for the three-phase transformer, the same Eq (5.1) can be used to determine the turns ratio if the phase
voltages are used:

50
277
800 , 13
= =
V
V
E
E
a
s
p

The primary and secondary current for three-phase transformers can be estimated from Eq. (5.6);

= = =
= = =
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
s
s
p
p
27 . 804 , 1
) 480 ( * ) 732 . 1 (
000 , 500 , 1
3
76 . 62
) 800 , 13 ( * ) 732 . 1 (
000 , 500 , 1
3

Real transformers have inherent power losses in the windings (often called copper losses) and leakage
losses of the magnetic flux in the steel core (also called core losses). The efficiency of real transformers
are defined as the ratio of the power output, P
ou
t (at the secondary windings) over the power input, P
in
(at
the primary windings):

in
outs
P
P
=
(5.7)

It can be shown that the maximum efficiency is obtained when the losses from the windings are equal to
those from the magnetic flux leakage. Manufacturers attempt to design their transformers so the optimum
efficiency is achieved at a specific average load which may not be necessarily the nominal rating.

It is generally cost-effective to invest on high efficiency transformers specially if they are used
continuously at their rated capacity as illustrated in example 5.2.

Example 5.2:
Problem:
Determine the cost-effectiveness of selecting a unit with an efficiency of 99.95% rather than 99.90% for a 500-kVA
rated transformer. Assume that:

The cost of electricity is $0.10/kWh.
The installed costs of 99.0% and 99.5% efficient transformers are respectively $7,000 and $9,500.
The average power factor of the load 0.90.
The no-load losses are the same for both transformers.

For the analysis consider two case for the length of time during which the transformer is used at its rated capacity:
(a) 10 hours/day and 250 days/year,
(b) 16 hours/day and 300 days/year.

Solution:
To determine the cost-effectiveness of installing an energy efficient transformer, a simplified economic analysis
based on the payback period is used. The savings in energy losses in kWh for the high-efficiency transformer can be
calculated as follows:
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|
|
.
|
\
|
=
eff std
h saved
pf kVA N kWh

1 1
. . .

with:
N
s
is the total number of hours (per year) during which the transformer is operating at full-load [for case (a)
N
s
=10*250=2500 hrs/yr; for case (b) N
s
=16*300=4800 hrs/yr].
kVA is the rated transformer power output [500 kVA]
pf is the annual average power factor of the load [pf=0.90]

std
and
eff
are the efficiency of respectively the standard transformer and the efficient transformer [0.990
and 0.995].

The energy savings and the payback period for each case are presented above.

For case (a) Ns=2500 hrs/yr

The energy savings in kWh is calculated as follows:

yr kWh kWh
saved
/ 5710
995 . 0
1
990 . 0
1
* 90 . 0 * 500 * 2500 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Therefore, the payback period, PB, for investing on the efficient transformer is:

years
kWh kWh
PB 0 . 5
/ 07 . 0 $ * 5710
000 , 7 $ 000 , 9 $
=
=

For case (a) Ns=4800 hrs/yr

The energy savings in kWh is calculated as follows:

yr kWh kWh
saved
/ 10964
995 . 0
1
990 . 0
1
* 90 . 0 * 500 * 4800 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Thus, the payback period, PB, for investing on the efficient transformer is:

years
kWh kWh
PB 6 . 2
/ 07 . 0 $ * 10964
000 , 7 $ 000 , 9 $
=
=

It is clear that it can be cost-effective to consider investing in a more energy-efficient transformer especially when the
load is supplied during longer periods of time. It should be noted that additional energy savings can be expected
during no-load conditions for the energy-efficient transformer.

5-3 Tranformer Types:

There are several types of transfomers depending on the applications. Among the transfomers commonly
used in building installations, three categories can be defined:

Power transformers
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For electricity transmission and distibution, power transformers are used. For residential buildings, a
utility-owned power transformer is generally installed outdoors so low-voltages (i.e, 240V or lower) are
available to all neighboring dwellings. For commercial buildings, power transformers are part of unit-
substations to reduce distribution voltage (typically 13.8 kV) to voltages below 600 V (specifically 480 V
in almost all commercial builsings).

Within buildings, there are several appilcations of power transformers. In particular, power transformers
are cost-effective devices to make available voltages needed for lighting applications. For instance, when
the only readily voltage available in an industrial facility is 480-V (which is typically required to operate
three-phase motors), it is better to use power transformers rather than request the utility to voltages of
120-V for lighting connections.

Instrument Transformers
To monitor and meter electricity use, instrument transformers are typically used. There are two basic
types of instrument transformers: voltage or potential transformers (PT) and current transformers (CT).
These instrument transformers allow the measurement of high voltage and current with low-scale
voltmeters and ammeters. Figure 5-3 illustrates the basic construction and operation of potential
transformers [Fig. 5-3(a)] and current tranformers [Fig. 5-3(b)]. Example 5-3 presents the basic
calculation procedure to determine the relationship between actual voltage and current (E
a
and I
a
) and
measured voltage and current (E
m
and I
m
).

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V
Ea
Em
N:1

(a)

A
Ia N:1
Im

(b)

Figure 5-3: Typical connection and operation of (a) potential tranformer (PT) and (b) current tranformer
(CT)

Example 5.3:
Problem:
To determine the electrical energy consumption for a building, a utility may elect to install a meter in the high-
voltage side of the service transfomer. In particualr, potential transfomers and current transformers are insalled to
form wattmeters. One method that is commnly used to measure energy use in buildings (kWh) consists of using
three-wattmeters (one per phase).

turns ratio, the primary current, and the secondary current for the following transformers:

c. 20 kVA single-phase transfomer with a primary voltage of 2400 V and a secondary voltage of 120 V.
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d. 1,500 kVA three-phase transformer with a primary voltage of 13.8 kV and a secondary voltage of 480Y/277 V.

Solution:
(a) For the single-phase transformer, the turns ratio is determined from Eq. (5.1):

20
120
2400
= = =
V
V
E
E
a
s
p

The primary and secondary current can be estimated from Eq. (5.5);

= = =
= = =
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
s
s
p
p
3 . 83
120
000 , 10
17 . 4
400 , 2
000 , 10

Note that the ratio Is/Ip is equal to the turns ratio.

(b) for the three-phase transformer, the same Eq (5.1) can be used to determine the turns ratio if the phase
voltages are used:

50
277
800 , 13
= =
V
V
E
E
a
s
p

The primary and secondary current for three-phase transformers can be estimated from Eq. (5.6);

= = =
= = =
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
A
V
VA
E
kVA
I
s
s
p
p
27 . 804 , 1
) 480 ( * ) 732 . 1 (
000 , 500 , 1
3
76 . 62
) 800 , 13 ( * ) 732 . 1 (
000 , 500 , 1
3

Auto-transformers

To increase the safety of using certain electrical systems such as appliances and lighting fixtures, it is
desirable to operate at low voltages (i.e., lower than 120 V) using small and relatively inexpensive
transformers which consist typically of autotransformers. Typical connections of autotransformers are
illlustrated in Figure 5-4. Unlike normal transformers, autotransformers do not have separate primary and
secondary windings but they are characterized by common windings. Figure 5-5 shows a step-by-step
procedure how a normal single-phase transformer can be changed to an autotransformer.

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Ip
Ic
Is
Ep
Es
Nc
Ns

Figure 5-4: Typical connection for an anuto-transformer

Ip
Ep
Is
Es
Np Ns
O
Ep
Ip
Is
Es
I'p=Is
I'c=Ip
I's=Ip+I
s
Ip
Is
Ip
Is
I'p=Is
I'c=Ip
I's=Ip+I
s
E'p=Ep+Es
E's=Ep
N'c=Np
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)

Figure 5-5: Transition from a single-phase transformer to an auto-transfomer

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Common symbols used to identify different types of transformers are presented in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Commonly used symbols for different types of transformers

Power Transformer
Current Transformer
Potential Transformer
Adjustable Transformer
Magnetic Core
Symbol
Alternative
Symbol
Description

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5-4 Tranformer Connections

There are basically two types of connections for electrical transformers used for building systems:

Single-phase transformers
Three-phase transformers

A typical connection for single-phase transformers is illustrated in Figure 5.1. For three phase
transformers, wye or delta connections can be used for either the primary or secondary windings. Figure
5.6 shows the connections for a delta-wye transformer, that is delta-connected primary windings and
wye-connected secondary windings.

A
B
C
N
C
A
B
(a)
(b)
B
A
C
N
C
B
A

Figure 5.6: Connections for delta-wye three-phase transformer, (a) wiring details, (b) representation of
the connections.
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5-5 Typical Transformer Sizes

Standard sizes for both single-phase and three-phase transformers that are typically used in buildings are
listed in Table 5.2 and Table 5. 3, respectively. In particular, Tables 5.2 and 5.3 provide the averages
values of the percent impdedance and the ration X/R are provided for each transfomer rating. These
values will be required for the short-circuit analysis. The geometric dimensions are useful to determine
the space miminum requirements for the enclosure that houses the transformer. Space and protection
requirements for transformers are outlined in section 450 of the NEC (1999).

Figure 5.7 illustrates the exterior appearance of a general purpose single-phase transformer.

Table 5.2: Typical Ratings of Single-Phase General-Purpose Transformers

Power Rating
(kVA)
Height
(in)
Width
(in)
Depth
(in)
Weight
(lbs)
Average
Impedance
(%Z)
Average X/R
Ration

3.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
15.0
25.0
50.0
75.0
100.0

14.25
15.75
16.00
19.00
23.00
23.00
30.00
37.00
42.00

7.50
9.38
12.00
12.00
16.00
16.00
20.00
20.00
24.00

7.75
9.00
10.63
10.63
15.00
15.00
20.00
20.00
24.00

48
75
102
128
190
230
430
450
665

-
-
-
-
5.2
6.4
5.2
6.1
6.5

3.53
2.64
2.54
2.18
0.60
1.06
1.21
1.64
1.65

Table 5.3: Typical Ratings of Three-Phase General-Purpose Transformers

Power Rating
(kVA)
Height
(in)
Width
(in)
Depth
(in)
Weight
(lbs)
Average
Impedance
(%Z)
Average X/R
Ration

15.0
30.0
45.0
75.0
112.5
150.0
225.0
300.0
500.0
750.0
1000.0

23.00
23.00
26.00
30.00
37.00
42.00
42.00
48.00
58.00
90.00
90.00

22.25
22.25
24.00
30.00
30.00
36.00
36.00
48.00
48.00
72.00
72.00

15.00
15.00
15.00
20.00
20.00
24.00
24.00
29.50
29.50
54.00
54.00

230
285
369
590
690
1050
1350
2000
2700
5200
6000

3.6
6.4
6.6
5.7
6.1
5.5
6.6
3.6
5.0
5.0
5.8

1.94
0.92
1.13
1.38
1.51
1.53
2.00
1.81
2.89
1.98
2.38

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Figure 5-7: General purpose single-phase transformer.

5-6 Testing Methods for Transfomers

The performance of transformers can be evaluated through testing procedures. Some of these testing procedures are
briefly described in this section. While testing is not part of their responsabilities, designers of building electrical
systems need to be familiar with the testing protocols required for transformers. In particular, tests to measure
transfomer efficiency, percentage impdance, and transformer regulation are often required before and during the
installation of transformers.

Transformer Efficiency

The power output from any trabsformer is always less than an input power. The transformer power losses
are due typically to copper losses and core losses. The copper losses, also known as windings losses or I
2

R losses, are attributed to the electrical resistance of the transformer windings. To overcome the
resistance of the transformer windings, some power losses are unavoidable. Almost all the copper losses
is dissipated in the form of heat. The core losses are the result of the leaks in the magnrtic fluxes within
the core of the transformer. Thus, core losses are always present independently of the transfomer loading.
To determine the transformer efficiency, both core and copper losses need to be measured as illustrated
in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5-7(a) indicated the basic test commonly used to measure core losses. The test required an open
circuit in the secondary windings of the tarnsformer:

1. The rated voltage is applied at the source (i.e., primary windings)
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2. The power loss is obtained by multiplying the voltmeter ann ammeter readings as shown in Fig.
5-7(a) (or using wattmer connected near the voltage source). The measured power is the core
losses.

The copper losses are estimated using the short-ciruit test as illustrated in Fig. 5-7(b):

1. The voltage source is adjusted until the ammeter connected in the short circuited windings (i.e.
secondary windings) indicates the rated current for the secondary windings.

2. The power used by the primary windings are measured by multiplying the voltmeter and
ammeter readings as shown in Fig. 5.7(b) (or using wattmeter connected near the variable
voltage source). This power measurement represents the copper losses.

AC
Rated Source
Voltage
V
Open Circuit V
A

(a)

AC
Variable Source
Voltage
A V
Short-Circuit
Adjust Source Voltage Until
Rated Currentis Obtained

(b)

Figure 5.7: Measurement of the transformer efficiency (a) Test for core losses and (b) test for copper
losses.

The efficiency of the transformer can be estimate from it power output rating Pout and both core losse, P
core
, and
copper losses, P
copper
, as follows:

copper core out
out
out
out
P P P
P
P
P
+ +
= =
(5-3)

Example 5.4 illustrates the procedure for estimating transfomer efficiency based on the results of the test
measurements of copper and core losses.

Example 5.4:
Problem:
Determine the efficiency of 10-kVA, single-pahse transformer based on the following test results:

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15
The open test indicates a core loss of 170 W.
The short circuit test provides a copper loss of 162 W

Assume a power factor of unity for the transformer load.

Solution:
By definition, the transformer efficiency is the ratio of the power out over the power in as indicated by Eq. (5-3). The
power out is 10 kVA or 10,000 W for a load with a power factor of unity:

% 78 . 96
162 170 000 , 10
000 , 10
=
+ +
=
+ +
=
W W W
W
P P P
P
copper core out
out

Tranfomer Regulation

Typically, the output voltage of transformers vary slightly with the load. The ability of a transfomer to maintain
constant voltage is measured by its regulation. The transfomer regulation is expressed as a percentage and is defined
as a function of the secondary voltages at no-laod and load conditions as shown in Eq.(5-4):

% 100
) (
) ( ) (
Re x
load no E
load E load no E
gulation
s
s s

=
(5-4)

Figure 5-8 illustrates a test that measures the transformer regulation. The procedure the regulation test is
summariized below:

1. The rated source voltage is applied at the primary windinds.

2. The voltage obtained at the secondary windings is measured using the voltmeter as shown in Fig. 5-8 both
under no-load conditions ( whe n the switch is open) and under loading conditions (when the switch is
closed).

3. The percent regulatioin is then calculated using Eq. (5-4).

In general, the regulation is tested under full-load conditions but other loads can be considered. Example 5-5
illustrates the estimation procedure of the percent regulation of transformer.

AC
Rated Source
Voltage
V

Figure 5-8: Regulation Test for Transformers

Example 5.5:
Problem:
Determine the perecent regulation of a transformer based on the following test results:
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The secondary voltage for no-load conditions is 120 V
The secondary voltage for full-load conditions is 114 V.

Solution:
Using Eq. (5-4), the percent regulation of the transformer can be calculated:
% 0 . 5 % 100
120
114 120
% 100
) (
) ( ) (
Re =

= x
V
V V
x
load no E
load E load no E
gulation
st
s s

Tranfomer Percent Impedance

To estimate the short ciircuit current under fault conditions in both the primary and secondary windings of any
transformer, its percent impedance should be obtained. Figure 5-9 illustrates a simple test commonly used to measure
the percent impedance (often indicated by %Z on transformer nameplate):

1. The variable source voltage in the promary windings is increased until the rated current at the
secondary windings (short-ciruit) is obtained and is indicated in the ammeter.

2. The percent impedance is then estimated as the ratio of the voltage indicated in the ammeter in
step 1 over the rated primary source voltage:

% 100
) (
) (
% x
rated E
circuit short E
Z
p
p

=
(5-4)
The calculation of the percent impdedance is shown in Exampe 5-6.

Example 5.6:
Problem:
Determine the perecent impedance of a transformer based on the following test results:

The rated primary voltage is 240 V
The short circuit test provides a primary voltage of 10 V.

Solution:
Using Eq. (5-4), the percent impedance of the tested transformer can be easily calculated:
% 17 . 4 % 100
240
10
% 100
) (
) (
% = =
= x
V
V
x
rated E
circuit short E
Z
Pt
p

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AC
Variable Source
Voltage
A V
Adjust Source Voltage Until
Rated Currentis Obtained

Figure 5-9: Percent ImpedanceTest for Transformers

5-7 General Design Recommendations

For building applications, two types of transformers are typically used:

Dry-type transformers for indoor locations
Oil-filled transformers for outdoor locations

The dry-type transformers are more expensive, typically by more than 200 %, than the oil-filled
transformers. However, oil-filled transformers can create a severe fire and explosion hazard and
therefore have to be mounted outdoors unless fireproof and explosionproof vaults are used for indoor
installations.

There are several issues that need to considered when installing the transformers indoors. Among these
issues are:

Noise problems:
To reduce noise problems, it is recommended to specify transformers with minimum sound level (50
decibel or lower). Moreover, it is desirable to place the transfomer in the least valuable space of the
building away from any quiet areas. In some cases, the electrical room where the transformer is located
may need to be sound proofed using adequate acoustical materials.

Vibration Problems:
To reduce the vibration associated with the operation of transfomers., isolators should be placed beneath
the tranformer mounting pads. Moreover, flexible conduits should be installed to house the secondary and
primary feeders of the transformer. Without these measures, vibration may be transferred to other
building parts and cause structural damages.

Heat Problems:
Heat is dissipated by transformers as part of the copper losses. This heat can represent 0.5 to 2% of the
total transformer power rating depending of the transformer efficiency. To avoid overheating of the
transformer and the room housing the transformer, ventilation should be provided or adjustable louver
should be installed in the wall or the door adjacent to the transformer.

NEC (1999) provides several general principles to the design and the installation of transformers. In
particular, NEC indicates that no separate room is required for transformers with a power rating that is
less than 112.5 kVA. However, even for transformers with a rating less than 112.5 kVA, the designer has
to provide at least 12-in separation from any combustible wall unless a fire-resistant heat-insulated barrier
is used. For high voltage transformers (above 35 kV), NEC requires a vault to protect the general public.

5.8 Summary

____________________________________________________________________________________

Prof. Krarti

18
In this chapter, basic characterictics of electrical transformers are outlines.. In particular, commonly
available types of transformers and their connections are presented. Throughout the chapter, examples are
provided to illustrate procedures for estimating performance indicators of electrical transformers.
Moreover, illustrative examples are presented to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of selected energy
efficiency measures. For instance, it was shown that the use of energy efficient transformers can provide
signifant energy savings and thus can be cost-effective.

5.9 References

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 1996, Lighting Controls: Patterns for Design, EPRI TR-107230, Pleasant
Hill, CA.

Fuchs, E.F., and Fei, 1996, A New Computer-Aided Method for the Efficiency Measurement of Low-Loss
Transformers and Inductors under Nonsinusoidal Operation, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. PWRD-
11, No.1, pp. 292-304.

NEC, 1996, National Electrical Code, published by the National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA.

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