Louis XIV of France

Louis XIV of France

Louis XIV
Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701) Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701) King of France and Navarre Reign 14 May 1643 1 September 1715

Coronation 7 June 1654 Predecessor Louis XIII Successor Regent Spouse Issue Louis, le Grand Dauphin Princess Anne lisabeth Princess Marie Anne Princess Marie Thrse Philippe Charles, Duke of Anjou Louis Franois, Duke of Anjou Full name Louis-Dieudonn de France House Father Mother Born Died Burial Signature House of Bourbon Louis XIII of France Anne of Austria 5 September 1638 Chteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France 1 September 1715 (aged76) Palace of Versailles, Versailles, France Saint Denis Basilica, Saint-Denis, France Louis XV Anne of Austria (until 1651) Maria Theresa of Spain Franoise d'Aubign

Religion

Catholicism

Louis XIV (5 September 1638 1 September 1715), known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi-Soleil), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre.[1] His reign of 72 years and 110 days is one of the longest in French and European history.[2] Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin.[3] An adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings, which advocates the divine origin of monarchical rule, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France and, by compelling many members of the nobility, especially the noble elite, to inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which

Louis XIV of France had participated in the Fronde rebellion during Louis's minority. By these means he became one of French history's most powerful monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution. During Louis's reign France was the leading European power and fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession. There were also two lesser conflicts: the War of Devolution and the War of the Reunions. Louis encouraged and benefited from the work of prominent political, military and cultural figures such as Mazarin, Colbert, the Grand Cond, Turenne and Vauban, as well as Molire, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Lully, Le Brun, Rigaud, Bossuet, Le Vau, Mansart, Charles and Claude Perrault, and Le Ntre. Upon his death just days before his seventy-seventh birthday, Louis was succeeded by his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis XV. All of his intermediate heirs predeased him: his son Louis, le Grand Dauphin; the Dauphin's eldest son Louis, Duke of Burgundy; and Burgundy's eldest son Louis, Duke of Brittany (the elder brother of Louis XV).

Early years
Louis XIV was born on 5 September 1638 in the Chteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. At that time, his parents had already been married for 23 years. His mother had experienced four stillbirths between 1619 and 1631. Leading contemporaries thus regarded him as a divine gift, and his birth a miracle of God. He was often referred to as "Louis-Dieudonn" (Louis the God-given)[4] and also bore the traditional title of French heirs apparent: Dauphin.[5] In the spring of 1643, sensing immiment death, Louis XIII decided to put his affairs in order. Defying custom, which would have made Queen Anne the sole Regent of France, he decreed that a regency council would rule on his son's behalf. His lack of faith in her political abilities was the primary reason. He did, however, make the concession of appointing her head of the council.

Louis, Dauphin of France, in 1643 by Claude Deruet

Louis's relationship with his mother was uncommonly affectionate for the time. Contemporaries and eye-witnesses claimed that the Queen would spend all her time with Louis. Both were greatly interested in food and theatre, and it is highly likely that Louis developed these interests through his close relationship with his mother. This long-lasting and loving relationship can be evidenced by excerpts in Louis's journal entries: "Nature was responsible for the first knots which tied me to my mother. But attachments formed later by shared qualities of the spirit are far more difficult to break than those formed merely by blood."[6]

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Minority and the Fronde

On 14 May 1643, with Louis XIII dead, Queen Anne had her husband's will annulled by the Parlement de Paris (a judicial body comprising mostly nobles and high clergymen). This action abolished the regency council and made Anne sole Regent of France. She then entrusted power to Cardinal Mazarin. In 1648, Mazarin successfully negotiated the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years' War in Germany. Its terms ensured Dutch independence from Spain, awarded some autonomy to the various German princes of the Holy Roman Empire, and granted Sweden seats on the Imperial Diet and territories to control the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser rivers. France, however, profited most from the settlement. Austria, ruled by the Habsburg Emperor Ferdinand III, ceded all Habsburg lands and claims in Alsace to France and acknowledged her de facto sovereignty over the Three Bishoprics Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 of Metz, Verdun, and Toul. Moreover, eager to emancipate themselves from Habsburg domination, petty German states sought French protection. This anticipated the formation of the 1658 League of the Rhine, leading to the further diminution of Imperial power. As the Thirty Years' War came to an end, a civil war known as the Fronde (after the slings used to smash windows) erupted in France. It effectively checked France's ability to exploit the Peace of Westphalia. Mazarin had largely pursued the policies of his predecessor, Cardinal Richelieu, augmenting the Crown's power at the expense of the nobility and the Parlements. The Frondeurs, political heirs of a dissatisfied feudal aristocracy, sought to protect their traditional feudal privileges from an increasingly centralized royal government. Furthermore, they believed their traditional influence and authority was being usurped by the recently-ennobled bureaucrats (the Noblesse de Robe, or "nobility of the robe") who administered the kingdom and on whom the monarchy increasingly began to rely. This belief intensified their resentment. In 1648 Mazarin attempted to tax members of the Parlement de Paris. The members not only refused to comply, but also ordered all of his earlier financial edicts burned. Buoyed by the victory of Louis, duc dEnghien (later known as le Grand Cond) at the Battle of Lens, Mazarin arrested certain members in a show of force. Paris erupted in rioting as a result. A mob of angry Parisians broke into the royal palace and demanded to see their king. Led into the royal bedchamber, they gazed upon Louis, who was feigning sleep, were appeased, and quietly departed. The threat to the royal family prompted Anne to flee Paris with the king and his courtiers. Shortly thereafter, the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia allowed Cond's army to return to aid Louis and his court. Just as this first Fronde (the Fronde parlementaire of 16481649) ended, a second one (the Fronde des princes of 16501653) began. Unlike that which preceded it, tales of sordid intrigue and half-hearted warfare characterised this second phase of upper-class insurrection. To the aristocracy, this rebellion represented a protest

1655 portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as the god Jupiter

Louis XIV of France against and a reversal of their political demotion from vassals to courtiers. It was headed by the highest-ranking French nobles, among them Louis's uncle Gaston, Duke of Orlans, and first cousin Anne Marie Louise d'Orlans, Duchess of Montpensier, known as la Grande Mademoiselle; Princes of the Blood such as Cond, his brother Armand, Prince of Conti, and their sister the Duchess of Longueville; dukes of legitimised royal descent, such as Henri, Duke of Longueville, and Franois, Duke of Beaufort; so-called "foreign princes" such as Frdric Maurice, Duke of Bouillon, his brother Marshal Turenne, and Marie de Rohan, Duchess of Chevreuse; and scions of France's oldest families, such as Franois de La Rochefoucauld. The Frondeurs claimed to act on Louis's behalf and in his real interest against his mother and Mazarin. However, Louis's coming-of-age and subsequent coronation deprived them of their pretext for revolt. Thus, the Fronde gradually lost steam and ended in 1653, when Mazarin returned triumphantly after having fled into exile on several occasions.

Personal reign and reforms

On the death of Mazarin in 1661, Louis assumed personal control of the reins of government. He was able to capitalize on the widespread public yearning for law and order that resulted from prolonged foreign wars and domestic civil strife to further consolidate central political authority and reform at the expense of the feudal aristocracy. Praising his ability to choose and encourage men of talent, the historian Chateaubriand noted that "it is the voice of genius of all kinds which sounds from the tomb of Louis".[7] Louis began his personal reign with administrative and fiscal reforms. In 1661, the treasury verged on bankruptcy. To rectify the situation, Louis chose Jean-Baptiste Colbert as Controller-General of Finances in 1665. However, Louis first had to neutralize Nicolas Fouquet, the Superintendent of Finances, in order to give Colbert a free hand. Louis XIV, King of France, in 1661 Although Fouquet's financial indiscretions were not really very different from Mazarin before him or Colbert after him, his ambition was worrying to Louis. He had, for example, built an opulent chteau at Vaux-le-Vicomte where he entertained Louis and his court ostentatiously, as if he were wealthier than the king himself. The court was left with the impression that the vast sums of money needed to support his lifestyle could only have been obtained through embezzlement of government funds. Fouquet appeared eager to succeed Mazarin and Richelieu in assuming power, and he indiscreetly purchased and privately fortified the remote island of Belle le. These acts sealed his doom. Fouquet was charged with embezzlement. The Parlement found him guilty and sentenced him to exile. However, Louis commuted the sentence to life-imprisonment and abolished Fouquet's post. With Fouquet dismissed, Colbert reduced the national debt through more efficient taxation. The principal taxes included the aides and douanes (both customs duties), the gabelle (a tax on salt), and the taille

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(a tax on land). Louis and Colbert also had wide-ranging plans to bolster French commerce and trade. Colbert's mercantilist administration established new industries and encouraged manufacturers and inventors, such as the Lyon silk manufacturers and the Gobelins manufactory, a producer of tapestries. He invited manufacturers and artisans from all over Europe to France, such as Murano glassmakers, Swedish ironworkers, and Dutch shipbuilders. In this way, he aimed to decrease foreign imports while increasing French exports, hence reducing the net outflow of precious metals from France.

Royal Monogram

Louis instituted reforms in military administration through Michel le Tellier and his son Franois-Michel le Tellier, Marquis de Louvois. They helped to curb the independent spirit of the nobility, imposing order on them at court and in the army. Gone were the days when generals protracted war at the frontiers while bickering over precedence and ignoring orders from the capital and the larger politico-diplomatic picture. The old military aristocracy (the Noblesse d'pe, or "nobility of the sword") ceased to have a monopoly over senior military positions and rank. Louvois in particular pledged himself to modernizing the army and re-organizing it into a professional, disciplined and well-trained force. He was devoted to the soldiers' material well-being and morale, and even tried to direct campaigns.

Louis and his family portrayed as Roman gods in a 1670 painting by Jean Nocret. L to R: Louis's aunt, Henriette-Marie; his brother, Philippe, duc d'Orlans; the Duke's daughter, Marie Louise d'Orlans, and wife, Henriette-Anne Stuart; the Queen-mother, Anne of Austria; three daughters of Gaston d'Orlans; Louis XIV; the Dauphin Louis; Queen Marie-Thrse; la Grande Mademoiselle.

Legal matters did not escape Louis's attention, as is reflected in the numerous "Great Ordinances" he enacted. Pre-revolutionary France was a patchwork of legal systems, with as many legal customs as there were provinces, and two co-existing legal traditionscustomary law in the north and Roman civil law in the south.[8] The 'Grande Ordonnance de Procdure Civile' of 1667, also known as the Code Louis, was a comprehensive legal code attempting a uniform regulation of civil procedure throughout legally irregular France. Among other things, it

Louis XIV of France prescribed baptismal, marriage, and death records in the state's registers, not the church's, and also strictly regulated the right of the Parlements to remonstrate.[9] The Code Louis played an important part in French legal history as the basis for the Napoleonic code, itself the origin of many modern legal codes. One of Louis's more infamous decrees was the Grande Ordonnance sur les Colonies of 1685, also known as the Code Noir ("black code"). Although it sanctioned slavery, it did attempt to humanise the practice by prohibiting the separation of families. Additionally, in the colonies, only Roman Catholics could own slaves, and these had to be baptised.

Patronage of the arts

Louis generously supported the royal court of France and those who worked under him. He brought the Acadmie Franaise under his patronage and became its "Protector". He allowed Classical French literature to flourish by protecting such writers as Molire, Racine and La Fontaine, whose works remain greatly influential to this day. Louis also patronised the visual arts by funding and commissioning various artists, such as Charles Le Brun, Pierre Mignard, Antoine Coysevox and Hyacinthe Rigaud, whose works became famous throughout Europe. In music, composers and musicians such as Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jacques Champion de Chambonnires, and Franois Couperin thrived.
Painting from 1667 depicting Louis as patron of the fine arts.

Over the course of four building campaigns, Louis converted a hunting lodge built by Louis XIII into the spectacular Palace of Versailles. With the exception of the current Royal Chapel (built near the end of Louis's reign), the palace achieved much of its current appearance after the third building campaign, which was followed by an official move of the royal court to Versailles on 6 May 1682.

The Cour royale and the Cour de marbre at Versailles

Royal styles of

King Louis XIV Par la grce de Dieu, Roi de France et de Navarre

Reference style Spoken style Alternative style

His Most Christian Majesty Your Most Christian Majesty Monsieur Le Roi

Louis XIV of France Versailles became a dazzling, awe-inspiring setting for state affairs and the reception of foreign dignitaries. At Versailles, the king alone commanded attention. Several reasons have been suggested for the creation of the extravagant and stately palace, as well as the relocation of the monarchy's seat. For example, the memoirist Saint-Simon speculated that Louis viewed Versailles as an isolated power center where treasonous cabals could be more readily discovered and foiled.[10] Alternatively, there has been speculation that the revolt of the Fronde caused Louis to hate Paris, which he abandoned for a country retreat. However, his sponsorship of many public works in Paris, such as the establishment of a police and street-lighting,[11] lend little credence to this theory. As a further example of his continued care for the capital, Louis constructed the Htel des Invalides, a military complex and home to this day for officers and soldiers rendered infirm either by injury or old age. While pharmacology was still quite rudimentary in his day, the Invalides pioneered new treatments and set new standards for hospice treatment. The conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668 also induced Louis to demolish the northern walls of Paris in 1670 and replace them with wide tree-lined boulevards.[12] Louis also renovated and improved the Louvre and other royal residences. Gian Lorenzo Bernini was originally to plan additions to the Louvre, however his plans would have meant the destruction of much of the existing structure, replacing it with an Italian summer villa in the centre of Paris. Bernini's plans were eventually shelved in favour of Perrault's elegant colonnade. With the relocation of the court to Versailles, the Louvre was given over to the arts and the public.[13] During his visit from Rome, Bernini also executed a renowned portrait bust of the king.

Early wars in the Low Countries

The death of King Philip IV of Spain in 1665 precipitated the War of Devolution. In 1660 Louis married Philip IV's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, as one of the provisions of the 1659 Treaty of the Pyrenees. The marriage treaty specified that Maria Theresa was to renounce all claims to Spanish territory for herself and all her descendants. Mazarin and Lionne, however, made the renunciation conditional on the full payment of a Spanish dowry of 500,000 cus.[14] The dowry was never paid and would later play a part persuading Charles II of Spain to leave his empire to Philip, Duke of Anjou (later Philip V of Spain), the grandson of Louis and Maria Theresa. The War of Devolution did not focus on the payment of the dowry. Rather, Louis's pretext for war was the "devolution" of land. In Brabant, children of first marriages traditionally were not disadvantaged by their parents remarriages and still inherited property. Louis's wife was Philip IV's daughter by Louis XIV in 1670, engraved portrait by Robert Nanteuil his first marriage, while the new King of Spain, Charles II, was his son by a subsequent marriage. Thus, Brabant allegedly "devolved" on Maria Theresa. This excuse led to France's attack on the Spanish Netherlands. Internal problems in the Dutch Republic aided Louis's designs. The most prominent politician in the Dutch Republic at the time, the "Grand Pensionary" Johan de Witt, feared the ambition of the young William III, Prince of Orange, specifically dispossession of his supreme power and the restoration of the House of Orange to the influence it had enjoyed before the death of William II, Prince of Orange. The Dutch were thus initially more preoccupied with domestic affairs than the French advance into Spanish territory. Moreover, the French were nominally their allies against the English in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War. Shocked by the rapidity of French successes and fearful of the future, the Dutch decided to abandon their nominal allies and made peace with England. Joined by

Louis XIV of France Sweden, the English and Dutch formed a Triple Alliance in 1668. The threat of an escalation of the conflict in the Low Countries and a secret treaty partitioning the Spanish succession with Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, the other major claimant to the throne of Spain, induced Louis to make peace. The Triple Alliance did not last very long. In 1670 French gold bought the adherence of Charles II of England to the secret Treaty of Dover. France and England, along with certain Rhineland princes, declared war on the Dutch Republic in 1672, igniting the Franco-Dutch War. The rapid invasion and occupation of most of the Netherlands precipitated a coup that toppled De Witt and brought William III to power. In 1674, when France lost the assistance of England, which sued for peace by the Treaty of Westminster, William III received the help of Spain, the Emperor Leopold I, and the rest of the Holy Roman Empire. Despite these diplomatic reversals, the French continued to triumph against overwhelming opposing forces. Within a few weeks, French forces led by Louis captured all of Spanish-held Franche-Comt in 1674. Despite being greatly outnumbered, Cond trounced William III's coalition army of Austrians, Spaniards, and Dutchmen at the Battle of Seneffe, and prevented him from descending on Paris. Another outnumbered general, Turenne, conducted a daring and brilliant campaign in the winter of 16741675 against the Imperial armies under Raimondo Montecuccoli, driving them back across the Rhine river out of Alsace, which had been invaded. Through a series of feints, marches, and counter-marches in 1678, Louis besieged and captured Ghent. By placing Louis in a military position far superior to his enemies, these victories brought the war to a speedy end. Six years of war had exhausted Europe, and peace negotiations were soon concluded in 1678 with the Treaty of Nijmegen. Although Louis returned all Dutch territory he captured, he retained Franche-Comt and gained more land in the Spanish Netherlands.

Louis XIV crosses the Rhine at Lobith on 12 June 1672; Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin

Louis XIV in 1673

The conclusion of a general peace permitted Louis to intervene in the Scanian War in 1679 on behalf of his ally Sweden. He forced Brandenburg-Prussia to the peace table at the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and imposed peace on Denmark-Norway by the Treaty of Fontainebleau and the Peace of Lund, all concluded in 1679.
Silver coin of Louis XIV, dated 1674

Obverse. The Latin inscription is LVDOVICVS XIIII D[EI] GRA[TIA] ("Louis XIV, by the grace of God").

Reverse. The Latin inscription is FRAN[CI] ET NAVARR REX 1674 ("King of France and of Navarre, 1674").

The successful conclusion of the Treaty of Nijmegen enhanced French influence in Europe, but Louis was still not satisfied. In 1679 he dismissed his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne, because he was seen as

Louis XIV of France having compromised too much with the allies. Louis maintained the strength of his army, but in his next series of territorial claims, Louis avoided using military force alone. Rather, he combined it with legal pretexts in his efforts to augment the boundaries of his kingdom. Contemporary treaties were intentionally phrased ambiguously. Louis established the Chambres des Runions to determine the full extent of his rights and obligations under those treaties. Cities and territories such as Luxembourg and Casale were prized for their strategic position on the frontier and access to important waterways. Louis also sought Strasbourg, an important strategic crossing on the Rhine through which various Imperial armies had invaded France. Although a part of Alsace, Strasbourg was not part of Habsburg-ruled Alsace and was thus not ceded to France in the Peace of Westphalia. Following the determinations of the Chambres des Runions, Louis seized these and other territories. Infuriated by his annexations, Spain declared war, precipitating the War of the Reunions. However, the Spanish were rapidly defeated because the Emperor (distracted by the Great Turkish War) abandoned them, and the Dutch only supported them minimally. By the Truce of Ratisbon in 1684, Spain was forced to acquiesce in French occupation of most of the conquered territories for 20 years.[15] Louis's policy of the Runions may have raised France to its greatest size and power during his reign, but it alienated much of Europe. This poor public opinion was compounded by French actions off the Barbary Coast and at Genoa. First, Louis had Algiers and Tripoli, two Barbary pirate strongholds, bombarded to obtain a favourable treaty and the liberation of Christian slaves. Next, in 1684, a punitive mission was launched against Genoa in retaliation for its support for Spain in previous wars. Although the Genoese submitted and the Doge led an official mission of apology to Versailles, France gained reputation for brutality and arrogance. European apprehension at growing French might and the realisation of the extent of the dragonnades' effect (discussed below) led many states to abandon their alliance with France.[16] Accordingly, by the late 1680s, France became increasingly isolated in Europe.

Non-European relations and the colonies

French colonies multiplied in the Americas, Asia, and Africa during Louis's reign, and French explorers made important discoveries in North America. Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette discovered the Mississippi River in 1673. In 1682, Ren-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, followed the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico and claimed the vast Mississippi basin in Louis's name, calling it Louisiane. French trading posts were also established in India at Chandernagore and Pondicherry, and in the Indian Ocean at le Bourbon.

The Persian embassy to Louis XIV in 1715 (?).

Louis XIV of France

10 Meanwhile, diplomatic relations were initiated with distant countries. In 1669, Suleiman Aga led an Ottoman embassy to revive the old Franco-Ottoman alliance.[17] Then, in 1682, after the reception of the embassy of Mohammed Tenim in France, Moulay Ismail, Sultan of Morocco, allowed French consular and commercial establishments in his country.[18] Louis once again received a Moroccan ambassador, Abdallah bin Aisha, in 1699. He also received a Persian embassy led by Mohammed Reza Beg in 1715.

From further afield, Siam dispatched an embassy in 1684, reciprocated by the French magnificently the next year under Alexandre, Chevalier Siamese embassy of King Narai to Louis XIV in de Chaumont. This, in turn, was succeeded by another Siamese 1686, led by Kosa Pan. Painting by Nicolas embassy under Kosa Pan superbly received at Versailles in 1686. Louis Larmessin. then sent another embassy in 1687 under Simon de la Loubre, and French influence grew at the Siamese court, which granted Mergui as a naval base to France. However, the death of Narai, King of Ayutthaya, the execution of his pro-French minister Constantine Phaulkon and the Siege of Bangkok in 1688 ended this era of French influence.[19] France also attempted to participate actively in Jesuit missions to China. To break the Portuguese dominance there, Louis sent five Jesuit "mathematicians" to the court of the Kangxi Emperor in 1685: Jean de Fontaney, Joachim Bouvet, Jean-Franois Gerbillon, Louis Le Comte, and Claude de Visdelou).[20] Reciprocally, Louis received a Chinese Jesuit, Michael Shen Fu-Tsung, at Versailles in 1684.[21] Furthermore, Louis's librarian and translator Arcadio Huang was Chinese.[22][23]

Height of power
By the early 1680s Louis had greatly augmented French influence in the world. Domestically, he successfully increased the influence of the crown and its authority over the church and aristocracy, thus consolidating absolute monarchy in France. Louis initially supported traditional Gallicanism, which limited papal authority in France, and convened an Assembly of the French clergy in November 1681. Before its dissolution eight months later, the Assembly had accepted the Declaration of the Clergy of France, which increased royal authority at the expense of papal power. Without royal approval, bishops could not leave France and appeals could not be made to the Pope. Additionally, government officials could not be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of their duties. Although the king could not make ecclesiastical law, all papal regulations without royal assent were invalid in France. Unsurprisingly, the pope repudiated the Declaration.[3]

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11

By attaching nobles to his court at Versailles, Louis achieved increased control over the French aristocracy. Apartments were built to house those willing to pay court to the king.[24] However, the pensions and privileges necessary to live in a style appropriate to their rank were only possible by waiting constantly on Louis.[10] For this purpose, an elaborate court ritual was created where the king became the centre of attention and was observed throughout the Louis receiving the Doge of Genoa at Versailles on 15 May 1685, following the Bombardment of Genoa. (Reparation faite Louis XIV par le Doge de Gnes. 15 day by the public. With his excellent mai 1685 by Claude Guy Halle, Versailles.) memory, Louis could then see who attended him at court and who was absent, facilitating the subsequent distribution of favours and positions. Another tool Louis used to control his nobility was censorship, which often involved the opening of letters to discern their author's opinion of the government and king.[24] Moreover, by entertaining, impressing, and domesticating them with extravagant luxury and other distractions, Louis not only cultivated public opinion of him, but also ensured the aristocracy remained under his scrutiny. This, along with the prohibition of private armies, prevented them from passing time on their own estates and in their regional power-bases, from which they historically waged local wars and plotted resistance to royal authority.[25] Louis thus compelled and seduced the old military aristocracy (the "nobility of the sword") into becoming his ceremonial courtiers, further weakening their power. In their place, Louis raised commoners or the more recently ennobled bureaucratic aristocracy (the "nobility of the robe"). He judged that royal authority thrived more surely by filling high executive and administrative positions with these men because they could be more easily dismissed than nobles of ancient lineage with entrenched influence. It is believed that Louis's policies were rooted in his experiences during the Fronde, when men of high birth readily took up the rebel cause against their king, who was actually the kinsman of some. This victory over the nobility may have then in fact ensured the end of major civil wars in France until the French Revolution about a century later.

Personal life
Having been married in 1660, Louis and Maria Theresa of Spain had six children. However, only one child, the eldest, survived to adulthood: Louis, le Grand Dauphin, known as Monseigneur. Maria Theresa died in 1683, whereupon Louis remarked that she had caused him unease on no other occasion. Despite evidence of affection early on in their marriage, Louis did not remain faithful to Maria Theresa for long. He took a series of mistresses, both official and unofficial, among them Mademoiselle de La Vallire, Madame de Montespan, and Mademoiselle de Fontanges. Through these liaisons, he produced numerous illegitimate children, most of whom he married to members of cadet branches of the royal family. Louis proved more faithful to his second wife, Madame de Maintenon. It is believed that they were married secretly on or around 10 October 1683 at Versailles.[26] This marriage, though never announced or publicly discussed, was an open secret and lasted until his death.[27]

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12

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes

It has traditionally been suggested that Madame de Maintenon pushed Louis to persecute Protestants and revoke the Edict of Nantes, which had awarded Huguenots political and religious freedom, but this is now being questioned.[28] Louis himself saw the persistence of Protestantism as a disgraceful reminder of royal powerlessness. After all, the Edict was Henry IV's pragmatic concession to end the longstanding Wars of Religion. Moreover, since the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, the prevailing contemporary European principle to assure socio-political stability was cuius regio, eius religio the religion of the ruler should be the religion of the realm.[29] Responding to petitions, Louis initially excluded Protestants from office, constrained the meeting of synods, closed churches outside Edict-stipulated areas, banned Protestant outdoor preachers, and prohibited domestic Protestant migration. He also disallowed Protestant-Catholic intermarriages where third parties objected, encouraged missions to the Protestants and rewarded converts to Catholicism.[30] This discrimination did not encounter much Protestant resistance; and a steady conversion of Protestants

Louis XIV in 1685, the year he revoked the Edict of Nantes.

occurred, especially among the noble elites. In 1681, Louis dramatically increased his persecution of Protestants. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio generally had also meant that subjects who refused to convert could emigrate, but Louis banned emigration and effectively insisted that all Protestants must be converted. Secondly, following Ren de Marillac's and Louvois's proposal, he began quartering dragoons in Protestant homes. Although this was within his legal rights, the dragonnades inflicted severe financial strain on Protestants and atrocious abuse. Between 300,000 and 400,000 Huguenots converted, as this entailed financial rewards and exemption from the dragonnades.[31] On 15 October 1685, Louis issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, citing the redundancy of privileges for Protestants given their scarcity after the extensive conversions. The Edict of Fontainebleau revoked that of Nantes, and repealed all the privileges that arose therefrom.[3] By his edict, therefore, Louis no longer suffered Protestant groups, pastors or churches to exist in France. No further churches were to be constructed, and those already existing were to be demolished. Pastors could choose either exile or a secular life. And those Protestants who had resisted conversion were now forcibly baptised into the established Church.[32] Writers have debated Louis's reasons for the Edict of Fontainebleau. He may have been seeking to placate the Pope, with whom relations were tense and whose aid was necessary to determine the succession crisis in Cologne. Or he may have acted to upstage Leopold I and regain international prestige after the latter defeated the Turks without Louis's help. Or he may simply have desired to end the remaining divisions in French society dating to the Wars to Religion by fulfilling his coronation oath to eradicate heresy.[33][34] All the same, some have condemned the Edict as gravely harmful to France.[35] In support, they cite the approximately 200,000 Huguenots (roughly one-fourth of the Protestant population, or 1% of the French population) who defied royal decrees and fled France for various Protestant states, taking their skills with them. On the other hand, there are others who see this as an exaggeration. They argued that, notwithstanding the departure of many, most of France's preeminent Protestant businessmen and industrialists converted and remained.[36] What is certain is that reaction to the Edict was mixed. Even while French Catholic leaders exulted, the Pope, still arguing with Louis over Gallicanism, criticised the use of violence. Protestants across Europe were horrified at the treatment of their

Louis XIV of France coreligionists, but most Catholics in France applauded the move. Nonetheless, what is sure is that Louis's public image in most of Europe, especially in Protestant regions, was dealt a severe blow. In the end, however, despite renewed tensions at the end of his reign, Louis may have helped ensure his successor would experience fewer instances of the religion-based disturbances that had plagued his forebears. French society would sufficiently change by the time of his descendant, Louis XVI, to welcome toleration in the form of the 1787 Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance. This restored to non-Catholics their civil rights and the freedom to openly worship.[37]

13

The League of Augsburg

Causes and conduct of the war
The War of the League of Augsburg lasted for nine years from 1688 to 1697. It had two immediate causes which pertained to French influence in the Rhineland. First, in 1685, the Elector Palatine died. All that remained of his immediate family was Louis's sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte. Although ostensibly preventing her succession to the Palatinate, German law was notoriously obscure and arguments could be made in favour of Elizabeth Charlotte. In pressing her claims, Louis hoped for at least a division of the family's personal property to which the princess did have a right.[38] Additionally, in 1688, Max Henry, Archbishop of Cologne died. The Archbishopric had traditionally been held by the Wittelsbachs of Bavaria. However, the Bavarian claimant was at that time not more than 17 years old and not even ordained. Louis sought to install in the meantime his own candidate to ensure the fidelity of this key Rhenish state.[39]
Louis in 1690. Louis's actions during the early 1680s and his subsequent behaviour regarding the succession crises bred growing concern about France. This led to the formation of the 1686 League of Augsburg by the Emperor, Spain, Sweden, Saxony, and Bavaria. The stated intention was to return France to at least the borders agreed to in the Treaty of Nijmegen.[40] For his part, increased isolation and the Emperor's refusal to convert Ratisbon into a permanent treaty amplified Louis's fears that the Emperor would turn on France and attack the Reunions after settling his affairs in the Balkans.[41]

Another event which Louis found threatening was the Glorious Revolution. Although James II was Catholic, his two Anglican daughters ensured the English people a Protestant succession. However, when James II's son, James Stuart, was born, he took precedence in the succession over his elder sisters. This seemed to herald an era of Catholic monarchs. Protestants lords took up arms and called on the Dutch William III of Orange, grandson of Charles I, to come to their aid. He sailed for England with troops despite Louis's warning that France would regard it as a casus belli. Witnessing numerous desertions and defections, even amongst his closest, James II fled England. Parliament declared the throne vacant. It was taken up by James's daughter Mary II and his son-in-law and nephew William III (now also of England). Vehemently anti-French, William III pushed his new kingdoms into war, thus transforming the League of Augsburg into the Grand Alliance. In 1688, however, this was as yet unsettled. Expecting the expedition to absorb William III and his allies, Louis dispatched troops to the Rhineland after his ultimatum to the German princes requiring confirmation of Ratison and acceptance of his demands about the succession crises lapsed. This military manoeuvre was also intended to protect his eastern provinces from Imperial invasion by depriving the enemy army of sustenance, thus explaining the pre-emptive devastation of much of southwestern Germany (the

Louis XIV of France "Devastation of the Palatinate").[42] French armies were generally victorious throughout the war because of Imperial commitments in the Balkans, French logistical superiority, and the quality of French generals such as Cond's famous pupil, Franois Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de Luxembourg. His triumphs at Fleurus, Steenkerque and Neerwinden preserved northern France from invasion and earned him the nickname le tapissier de Notre-Dame for the numerous captured enemy standards he sent to decorate the Cathedral.[43]

14

Louis XIV at the Siege of Namur (1692).

Although the attempt to restore James II failed at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, France accumulated a string of victories from Flanders in the north, Germany in the east, and Italy and Spain in the south, to the high seas and the colonies. Louis personally supervised the captures of Mons and of the reputedly impregnable fortress of Namur. Luxembourg gave France the defensive line of the Sambre by capturing Charleroi. France also overran most of the Duchy of Savoy after the battles of Marsaglia and Staffarde. While naval stalemate ensued after the French victory at Beachy Head and the Allied victory at Barfleur-La Hougue, the Battle of Torroella exposed Catalonia to French invasion, culminating in the capture of Barcelona. Although the Dutch captured Pondichry, a French raid on the Spanish treasure port of Cartagena (in present-day Colombia) yielded a fortune of 10 000 000 livres. Peace was broached by Sweden in 1690. And, by 1692, both sides evidently wanted peace, and secret bilateral talks began, but to no avail.[44] Louis tried to break up the alliance against him by dealing with individual opponents, but this did not achieve its aim till 1696 when the Savoyards agreed to the Treaty of Turin and switched sides. Thereafter, members of the League of Augsburg rushed to the peace table, and negotiations for a general peace began in earnest, culminating in the Treaty of Ryswick.[45]
Marshal de Luxembourg

Louis XIV of France

15

Treaty of Ryswick
The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 ended the War of the League of Augsbury and disbanded the Grand Alliance. By manipulating their rivalries and suspicions, Louis divided his enemies and broke their power. Louis secured permanent French sovereignty over all of Alsace, including Strasbourg, and established the Rhine as the Franco-German border to this day. Moreover, France was returned Pondichry and Acadia, and Louis's de facto possession of Saint-Domingue was recognised as lawful. However, he had to return Catalonia and most of the Reunions. French military superiority and gains might have allowed him to press for more advantageous terms. Thus, his generosity to Spain has been read as a concession to foster pro-French sentiment and may ultimately have induced Charles II to name Louis's grandson, Philippe, duc d'Anjou, as heir.[46] In exchange for financial compensation, France renounced its interests in the Electorate of Cologne and the Palatinate. Lorraine was returned to its duke, albeit with a right of way to the French military. William and Mary were recognised as joint sovereigns of the British Isles, and Louis withdrew support for James II. Lastly, the Dutch were given the right to garrison forts in the Spanish Netherlands which acted as a protective barrier against possible French aggression. Though the final peace may appear a diplomatic defeat for Louis, he in fact fulfilled many of the aims laid down in his 1688 ultimatum.[47] In any case, to him, peace in 1697 was victory.
[48]

War of the Spanish Succession

Causes and build-up to the war
By the time of the Treaty of Ryswick, the Spanish succession had lurked on the minds of European leaders for well over forty years. Charles II ruled a vast, much-prized empire, comprising Spain, Naples, Sicily, Milan, the Spanish Netherlands and numerous colonies. But the ever-sickly man could produce no children and consequently, had no direct heirs. The main claimants to the throne of Spain were French and Austrian and closely linked to Charles II. The French claim was derived from Anne of Austria (Philip III of Spain's eldest daughter) and Marie-Thrse (Philip IV's eldest daughter). Based on the laws of primogeniture, France had the better claim as it originated from eldest daughters in each generation. However, the princesses renunciations to the throne complicated matters; nevertheless, Marie-Thrse's renunciation was considered null and void owing to Spain's breach of the marriage agreement. In contrast, no renunciation tainted the claims of Charles, Archduke of Austria. However, he was only descended Philip V of Spain from Philip III's youngest daughter, Maria Anna, and so, had an inferior claim if judged solely on traditional rules. The English and Dutch feared that a French or Austrian-born Spanish king would threaten the balance of power and thus preferred the Bavarian Joseph Ferdinand. He was Leopold I's grandson through his first wife Margaret Theresa of Spain (Philip IV's younger daughter). In an attempt to avoid war, Louis signed the First Partition Treaty of 1698 with William III. This divided Spain's Italian territories between le Grand Dauphin and the Archduke, awarding the rest of the empire to Joseph Ferdinand. William III consented to the Dauphin's new territories becoming part of France when the latter succeeded to his father's throne.[49] The signatories, however, omitted to consult the ruler of these lands, and Charles II was

Louis XIV of France passionately against his empire's dismemberment. In 1699, he reiterated his 1693 will which named Joseph Ferdinand as his sole successor.[50] Six months later, Joseph Ferdinand died. Therefore, in 1700, Louis and William III again concluded a Partition Treaty. This allocated Spain, the Low Countries and colonies to the Archduke. The Dauphin would receive all Spain's Italian territories.[51] Charles II acknowledged that his empire could only remain undivided by bequeathing it entirely to a Frenchman or an Austrian. Under pressure from his German wife, Maria Anna of Neuburg, Charles II then named the Archduke Charles as sole heir.

16

Acceptance of the will and consequences

On his deathbed in 1700, Charles II unexpectedly changed his will. Past French military superiority, the pro-French faction and even Pope Innocent XII convinced him that France was more likely to preserve his empire intact. He thus offered the Dauphin's second son, Philip, Duke of Anjou, the entire empire, provided it remained undivided. Anjou was not in the direct line of French succession, thus his accession would not cause a Franco-Spanish union.[51] If Anjou refused, the throne would be offered to his younger brother, Charles de France, after which, to the Archduke Charles, and lastly, to the distantly related House of Savoy.[52] Louis was confronted with a difficult choice. He could agree to the partition and hopefully avoid a general war, or accept Charles II's will and alienate much of Europe. Initially, Louis may have inclined towards abiding by the partition treaties. However, the Dauphin's insistence persuaded Louis otherwise.[53] Moreover, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy pointed out that war with the Emperor would almost certainly ensue even if Louis only accepted part of the Spanish inheritance. He emphasized William III's reluctance to assist France in war because he "made a treaty to avoid war and did not intend to go to war to implement the Louis in 1701. treaty".[50] If war was bound to happen, it might be preferable to be in control of the disputed lands. Eventually, therefore, Louis decided to accept Charles II's will. Philippe, duc d'Anjou, thus became Philip V, king of Spain. Most European rulers accepted Philip as King of Spain, though some only reluctantly. Depending on one's views of the war as inevitable or not, Louis acted reasonably or arrogantly.[54] He confirmed that Philip V retained his French rights despite his new Spanish position. Admittedly, he may only have been hypothesising a theoretical eventuality and not attempting a Franco-Spanish union. But his actions were certainly not read as being innocent. Moreover, Louis also sent troops to the Spanish Netherlands, evicting Dutch garrisons and securing Dutch recognition of Philip V. In 1701, he transferred the asiento to France, alienating English traders. As tensions mounted, Louis decided to acknowledge James Stuart, James II's son, as king on the latter's death, infuriating William III. These actions enraged Britain and the United Provinces.[55] Consequently, with the Emperor and the petty German states, they formed another Grand Alliance, declaring war on France in 1702. French diplomacy, however, secured Bavaria, Portugal and Savoy as Franco-Spanish allies.[56]

Louis XIV of France

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Commencement of fighting
Even before war was officially declared, hostilities had commenced with Imperial aggression in Italy. When finally declared, the War of the Spanish Succession would last almost till Louis's death, and proved costly for him and France. It began with French successes, however, the joint talents of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy checked these victories and broke the myth of French invincibility. The duo allowed the Palatinate and Austria to occupy Bavaria after their victory at Blenheim. Maximilian II Emanuel had to flee to the Spanish Netherlands. This victory also won the support of Portugal and Savoy. Later, the Battle of Ramillies delivered the Low Countries up to the Allies, and the Battle of Turin forced Louis to evacuate Italy, leaving it open to Allied forces. Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy met again at the Battle of Oudenarde which allowed them to commence an invasion of France. Defeats, famine, and mounting debt greatly weakened France. In particular, two massive famines struck France between 1693 and 1710, killing over two million people. In both cases, the impact of harvest failure was exacerbated by wartime demands on the food supply.[57] In his desperation, Louis XIV even ordered a disastrous invasion of Guernsey in the autumn of 1704 with the aim of raiding their successful harvest. By the winter of 17081709, Louis became willing to accept peace at nearly any cost. He agreed that the entire Spanish empire should be surrendered to the Archduke, and also consented to return to the frontiers of the Peace of Westphalia, giving up all he had worked for over sixty years of his reign. However, he could not speak for his grandson and could not promise that Philip V would accept these terms. Accordingly, the Allies demanded that Louis should single-handedly attack his own grandson to force these terms on him. This, Louis could not do, and the work continued.[58]

Turning point
The War had shown that, just as surely as France could not retain the entire Spanish inheritance, so the Allies could not maintain the Archduke in Spain. They were definitively expelled from central Spain by the Franco-Spanish victories at Almansa, Villaviciosa and Brihuega. Moreover, French forces remained obdurate despite their defeats. The Allies suffered a Pyrrhic victory at Malplaquet with 21,000 casualties, double that of the French.[59] Eventually, France recovered its military pride with the decisive victory at Denain. Furthermore, the position in Austria had changed. In 1705, Leopold I died. His elder son and successor, Joseph I, followed him in 1711. The Archduke Charles subsequently inherited his brother's Austrian lands. If the Spanish empire then fell to him, it would have resurrected a domain as vast as that of Charles V. To the Maritime Powers, this was as undesirable as the feared Franco-Spanish union.[60]

Road to and conclusion of peace

Accordingly, Anglo-French talks began, culminating in the Treaty Map of France after the death of Louis XIV of Utrecht in 1713 between France, Spain, Britain, and the Dutch. In 1714, after losing Landau and Freiburg, the Emperor and Empire also made peace with France in the Treaty of Rastatt and that of Baden. By the general settlement, Philip V retained Spain and the colonies, Austria received the Low Countries and divided Spanish Italy with Savoy, and Britain kept Gibraltar and Minorca. Louis agreed to withdraw his support for James Stuart, and ceded Newfoundland, Rupert's Land, and Acadia in the Americas to Britain. Admittedly, Britain gained the most from the Treaty, but the final terms were very much more favourable to France than those of 1709 and 1710. France retained le-Saint-Jean and le Royale, and notwithstanding Allied intransigence, was returned most of the captured Continental lands, largely preserving its antebellum frontiers. Louis even acquired additional territory,

Louis XIV of France such as the Principality of Orange, and the Ubaye Valley, which covered transalpine passes into Italy. Moreover, thanks to Louis, his allies, the Electors of Bavaria and of Cologne, were rehabilitated to their pre-war status and returned their lands.[61]

18

Death
After 72 years on the throne, Louis died of gangrene at Versailles on 1 September 1715, four days before his 77th birthday. Enduring much pain in his last days, he finally "yielded up his soul without any effort, like a candle going out" while reciting the psalm Domine, ad adjuvandum me festina (O Lord, make haste to help me).[62] His body was laid to rest in Saint-Denis Basilica, outside Paris. There lay it peacefully for about 80 years at which time it was violently disturbed by Revolutionaries exhuming and destroying all the remains to be found in the Basilica.
Louis XIV (seated) with his son le Grand Dauphin (to the left), his grandson Louis, Duke of Burgundy (to the right), his great-grandson Louis, Duke of Brittany, and Madame de Ventadour, Brittany's governess, who commissioned this painting; busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII in the background.

By the time of his death, Louis had been predeceased by most of his immediate legitimate family. His last surviving son, the Dauphin, died in 1711. Barely a year later, Burgundy, the eldest of the Dauphin's three sons and then heir to Louis, followed his father. Burgundy's elder son, Louis, Duke of Brittany, joined them a few weeks' later. Thus, on his deathbed, Louis's heir was his five-year-old great-grandson, Louis, Duke of Anjou, Burgundy's youngest son. Louis foresaw a minority and sought to restrict the power of his nephew, Philippe d'Orlans, who as closest surviving legitimate relative in France would become the prospective Louis XV's regent. Accordingly, he created a regency council as Louis XIII did in anticipation of his own minority with some power vested in his illegitimate son, Louis Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine.[63]
Pharmacopoeia of Louis XIV, with details. Musum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris.

Orlans, however, had Louis's will annulled by the Parlement de Paris after his death and made himself sole regent. He stripped Maine and his brother, Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse, of the rank of "prince of the blood," which Louis had given them, and significantly reduced Maine's power and privileges.[64]

Louis XIV of France

19

Legacy
According to Philippe de Dangeau's Journal, Louis on his deathbed advised his heir: "Do not follow the bad example which I have set you; I have often undertaken war too lightly and have sustained it for vanity. Do not imitate me, but be a peaceful prince, and may you apply yourself principally to the alleviation of the burdens of your subjects."[65] Some historians point out that exaggerating one's sins was a customary demonstration of piety in those days. Accordingly, in assessing him, they do not place much emphasis on Louis's deathbed declarations. Rather, they focus on his success in placing a French prince on the Spanish throne. This, they contend, ended the threat of an aggressive Spain which historically interfered in domestic French politics. These historians also emphasise the effect of Louis's wars in expanding France and creating more defensible frontiers, preserving France from invasion until the Revolution.[65] Territorial expansion of France under Louis XIV (16431715) is depicted in orange. Arguably, Louis also indirectly applied himself to "the alleviation of the burdens of [his] subjects." For example, Louis patronised the arts, encouraged industry, fostered trade and commerce, and sponsored the founding of an overseas empire. Moreover, the significant reduction in civil wars and aristocratic rebellions are seen by these historians as the result of Louis's consolidation of royal authority over feudal elites.[66] In their opinion, his early reforms centralised France and marked the birth of the modern State. They regard the political and military victories as well as numerous cultural achievements as the means by which Louis helped raise France to Europe's pre-eminent position.[67] Such was the case that France served as an example of political organisation for much of Europe during the Enlightenment. Europe came to admire France for its successes, power and sophistication. And European began to emulate French manners, values, goods and way-of-life. French even became the lingua franca of the European elite. Louis's detractors have argued that his considerable foreign, military and domestic expenditure impoverished and bankrupted France. However, his supporters distinguish the State, which was impoverished, from France, which was not. As evidence in support, they cite the literature of the time, such as the social commentary, Lettres Persanes by Montesquieu.[68] Alternatively, Louis's critics attribute the social upheaval culminating in the Revolution to his failure to reform French institutions while the monarchy was still secure. But, other scholars opine that there was little reason to reform institutions which largely worked well under him. They also maintain that events occurring almost eighty years after his death were not reasonably foreseeable to Louis and that in any case his successors had sufficient time to initiate reforms of their own.[69] Louis has often been criticised for his vanity. Saint-Simon, who claimed that Louis slighted him, criticised him thus: "There was nothing he liked so much as flattery, or, to put it more plainly, adulation; the coarser and clumsier it was, the more he relished it." For his part, Voltaire saw Louis's vanity as the cause for his bellicosity:

Louis XIV of France "It is certain that he passionately wanted glory, rather than the conquests themselves. In the acquisition of Alsace and half of Flanders, and of all of Franche-Comt, what he really liked was the name he made for himself."[70] But, Louis has also received praise. The anti-Bourbon Napoleon described him not only as "a great king," but also as "the only King of France worthy of the name."[71] Leibniz, the German Protestant philosopher, commended him as "one of the greatest kings that ever was."[72] And Lord Acton admired him as "by far the ablest man who was born in modern times on the steps of a throne."[73] Finally, Voltaire also dubbed his reign "an eternally memorable age," calling it "le Grand Sicle" (the "Great Century").

20

Image and depiction

Few rulers in world history have commemorated themselves in as grand a manner as Louis.[74] Louis used the arts and court ritual to demonstrate, augment and maintain his control over France. With his support, Colbert established from the beginning of Louis's personal reign a centralised and institutionalised system for creating and perpetuating the royal image. The King was thus portrayed largely in majesty or at war, notably against Spain. This portrayal of the monarch was to be found in numerous media of artistic expression, such as painting, sculpture, theatre, dance, music, and the almanacs which diffused royal propaganda to the population at large.

Evolution of royal portraiture

Over his lifetime, Louis commissioned numerous works of art to portray himself, amongst which are over 300 formal portraits. The earliest portrayals of Louis already followed the pictorial conventions of the day in depicting the child king as the majestically royal incarnation of France. This idealisation of the monarch continued in later works. These avoided depicting any trace of smallpox, which Louis suffered in 1647. Moreover, by the 1660s, Louis began to be shown as a Roman emperor, Apollo, or Alexander, as may be seen in many of Le Brun's works such as sculpture, paintings and the decor in major monuments. The depiction of the King in this manner focused on the allegorical or the mythological, instead of attempting to produce true likenesses. As Louis aged, so too did his likenesses in portraits. However, the conflict between representing him realistically and representing him in the manner required by royal propaganda continued and was demonstrated in Rigaud's Portrait of Louis XIV of 1701 where a 63 year-old Louis appears to stand on a set of unnaturally young legs.[75]

Le roi gouverne par lui-mme, modello for the central panel of the ceiling of the Hall of Mirrors ca. 1680 by Le Brun, (16191690)

Indeed, Rigaud's portrait exemplified the height of royal portraiture in Louis's reign. Although Rigaud made a credible likeness of Louis, the portrait was neither meant as an exercise in realism nor to explore Louis's personal character. Certainly, Rigaud was concerned with detail and depicted the King's costume with great precision, down to his shoe buckle.[76] However, Rigaud's intention was to glorify the monarchy. Rigaud's original, now housed in the Louvre, was originally meant as a gift to Louis's grandson, Philip V of Spain. However, Louis was so pleased with the work that he kept the original and commissioned a copy to be sent to his grandson. That became the first of many copies, both in full and half-length formats, to be made by Rigaud, often with the help of his assistants. The portrait also became a model for French royal and imperial portraiture down to the time of Charles X, over a century later. In his work, Rigaud proclaims

Louis XIV of France Louis's exalted royal status through his elegant stance and haughty expression, the royal regalia and throne, rich ceremonial fleur-de-lys robes, as well as the upright column in the background, which, together with the draperies, serves to frame this image of majesty.

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Other works of art

In addition to these portraits, Louis also commissioned at least twenty statues of himself in the 1680s to stand in Paris and in provincial towns as physical manifestations of himself to his people. He also commissioned "war artists" to follow him on campaign to document his military triumphs. To remind the people of these triumphs, Louis erected in Paris and the provinces permanent triumphal arches for the first time since the decline of the Roman Empire. Louis's reign also marked the birth and infancy of the art of medallions. Sixteenth century rulers had often issued medals to commemorate the major events of their reigns. Louis, however, struck more than 300, celebrating the story of the King in bronze to be enshrined in thousands of households. He also used tapestries as a main medium of exalting the monarchy. Tapestries were either allegorical, depicting the elements or seasons, or realist, portraying royal residences or historical events. They were amongst the most significant means of royal propaganda prior to the construction of the Hall of Mirrors (French: la Galerie des Glaces) at Versailles.[77]

At Versailles
It was at his great palace, with its gardens, architecture, interior design and works of art, that Louis sought to visually represent the absolute power of the monarchy. The Hall of Mirrors became the setting for court events and became the most prestigious part of the vast complex. Under the King's close supervision, Le Brun finalised the decoration of the Hall of Mirrors, which retraced the important accomplishments of Louis's reign, such as his accession or the War of Devolution. Hall of Mirrors, Palace of Versailles Decorative arches emphasise the significant events during the Dutch War. These decorations were intended to depict Louis's grandeur and understandably omit any mention of French losses and defeats suffered as well as the subsequent diplomatic isolation of France.

Ballet
Louis loved ballet and frequently danced in court ballets during the early half of his reign. In general, Louis was an eager dancer, performing 80 roles in 40 major ballets. This approaches the career of a professional ballet dancer.[78] His choices were strategic and varied. He danced four parts in three of Molire's comdies-balletsplays accompanied by music and dance. Louis played an Egyptian in Le Mariage forc in 1664, a Moorish gentleman in Le Sicilien in 1667, and both Neptune and Apollo in Les Amants magnifiques in 1670. Thus, he sometimes danced leading roles which were suitably royal or godlike (such as Neptune, Apollo or the Sun).[78] At other times, he would adopt mundane roles before appearing at the end in the lead role. It is considered that, at all times, he provided his roles with sufficient majesty and drew the limelight with his flair for dancing.[78] The sheer number of performances and diversity of roles may serve to indicate a deeper understanding and interest in the art form. Ballet may thus not have merely been a tool for manipulation in his propaganda machinery. Perhaps, Louis was indeed passionate about the art and its progress. Regardless, it is clear Louis combined business with art in a mutually beneficial way. Through his work, Louis developed the original concept of balletic grandeur we see today.

Louis XIV of France It bears mention that performances at court and in Paris differed substantially. Performances at court were often accompanied by suitably majestic music, especially for those ballets danced by the King. Moreover, the lyrics usually conveyed royal power and benevolence as the patron of the arts. On the other hand, parts played by the King no longer stood out from those of other performers when performed in Paris. In fact, the plays which most overtly promoted Louis's royal image were not performed at all outside of court. This testifies to Molire's readiness to adapt his plays according to the venue and the audience.[78]

22

Unofficial image
Besides the official depiction and image of Louis, his subjects also followed a non-official discourse, consisting mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumors. This provided an alternative interpretation of the King and his government. They often focussed on the miseries arising from poor government, but also carried the hope for a better future in the event the King escaped the malignant influence of his ministers and mistresses and took the government into his own hands. On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to Louis or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of monarchy. These varying interpretations of Louis abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the idea of monarchy.[79]

Health
Indeed, despite the image of a healthy and virile king that Louis sought to project, evidence exists to suggest Louis's health was not all that good: "The Sun King had many ailments during his lifetime consistent with diabetes: suppurating periostitis (1678), dental abscesses (1696), recurring boils, fainting spells, gout, dizziness, hot flushes, and headaches (cephalalgias). From 1647 to 1711, the three successive archiatres (chief doctors to the king) recorded, in detail, all the health problems of the sovereign in the Journal de Sant du Roi (Journal of the Kings Health), which makes it possible to follow the sovereigns state of health on a day to day basis. Antoine Vallot (1594-1671), Antoine Daquin (~1620-1699), and Guy Crescent Fagon (1638-1718) kept this journal. On 18 November 1686, Louis XIV underwent a successful anal fistula operation, performed by the surgeon Charles Felix de Tassy (1635-1703), who prepared a curved scalpel especially for the occasion. In spite of the success of the operation, the wound took more than two months to heal, and the surgeon needed to drain it three times.[80]"

Louis XIV of France

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Piety and religion

Louis was a pious and devout king who saw himself as the head and protector of the Gallican Church, Louis made his devotions daily regardless of where he was, following the liturgical calendar regularly.[81] Towards the middle and the end of his reign, the centre for the King's religious observances was usually the Chapelle Royale at Versailles. Ostentation was a distinguishing feature of daily Mass, annual celebrations, such as those of Holy Week, and special ceremonies.[82] Louis established the Paris Foreign Missions Society, but his informal alliance with the Ottoman Empire was criticised for undermining Christendom.[83]

Quotes
There is no proof that he ever said "L'tat, c'est moi" ("I am the state"). Louis XIV encouraged Catholic missions Although historians agree that broad decision-making was restricted to Louis through the creation of the Paris Foreign and a small circle of advisers, a careful analysis of how the French monarchy Missions Society. functioned in Louis's day will demonstrate numerous qualifications to the conception of Absolutism as one-dimensional autocratic tyranny. In any case, legal documents clearly distinguished between the monarch as a person and his kingdom.[84][85] In support of this latter interpretation of facts, Louis is recorded by numerous eyewitnesses as having said on his deathbed: "Je m'en vais, mais l'tat demeurera toujours." ("I depart, but the State shall always remain.")[86]

Style and arms

Louis's formal style was "Louis XIV, par la grce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre", or "Louis XIV, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre". His arms were Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orle Or an emerald Proper (for Navarre).

Order of Saint Louis

On 5 April 1693, Louis also founded the Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis (French: Ordre Royal et Militaire de Saint-Louis), a military Order of Chivalry.[87][88] He named it after Louis IX and intended it as a reward for Coat of Arms of France outstanding officers. It is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles and is roughly the forerunner of the Lgion d'honneur, with which it shares the red ribbon (though the Lgion d'honneur is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike).

Louis XIV of France

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Ancestors
Patrilineal descent
Patrilineal descent Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations - which means that if King Louis were to choose an historically accurate house name it would be Robertian, as all his male-line ancestors have been of that house. Louis is a member of the House of Bourbon, a branch of the Capetian dynasty and of the Robertians. Louis' patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son. It follows the Bourbon-Vendme, the Kings of France, and the Counts of Paris and Worms. This line can be traced back more than 1,200 years from Robert of Hesbaye to the present day, through Kings of France & Navarre, Spain and Two-Sicilies, Dukes of Parma and Grand-Dukes of Luxembourg, Princes of Orlans and Emperors of Brazil. It is one of the oldest in Europe. 1. Robert II of Worms and Rheingau (Robert of Hesbaye), 770 - 807 2. Robert III of Worms and Rheingau, 808 - 834 3. Robert IV the Strong, 820 - 866 4. Robert I of France, 866 - 923 5. Hugh the Great, 895 - 956 6. Hugh Capet, 941 - 996 7. Robert II of France, 972 - 1031 8. Henry I of France, 10081060 9. Philip I of France, 10531108 10. Louis VI of France, 10811137 11. Louis VII of France, 11201180 12. Philip II of France, 11651223 13. Louis VIII of France, 11871226 14. Louis IX of France, 12151270 15. Robert, Count of Clermont, 12561317 16. Louis I, Duke of Bourbon, 12791342 17. James I, Count of La Marche, 13191362 18. John I, Count of La Marche, 13441393 19. Louis, Count of Vendme, 13761446 20. Jean VIII, Count of Vendme, 14281478 21. Franois, Count of Vendme, 14701495 22. Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendme, 14891537 23. Antoine, King of Navarre, Duke of Vendme, 15181562 24. Henry IV, King of France and of Navarre, 15531610 25. Louis XIII, King of France and Navarre, 16011643 26. Louis XIV, King of France and Navarre, 16381715

Louis XIV of France

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Issue

Maria Theresa of Spain, wife of Louis XIV, with their only surviving son, Louis le Grand Dauphin.

In fiction
Alexandre Dumas portrayed Louis in novels, first as a child in Twenty Years After, then as a young man in The Vicomte de Bragelonne, in which he is a central character. French academic Jean-Yves Tadi argued that the latter novel really revolves around the beginning of Louis's personal rule.[89] Dumas's novel The Man in the Iron Mask recounts the legend that the mysterious prisoner was actually Louis's twin brother and has spawned numerous film adaptations. In 1910, the American historical novelist Charles Major wrote "The Little King: A Story of the Childhood of King Louis XIV". Louis is a major character in the 1959 historical novel "Anglique et le Roy" ("Anglique and the King"), part of the Angelique Series. The protagonist, a strong-willed lady at Versailles, rejects the King's advances and refuses to become his mistress. A later book, the 1961 "Anglique se rvolte" ("Anglique in Revolt") details the dire consequences of her defying this powerful monarch. A character based on Louis plays an important role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes. While The Taking of Power by Louis XIV, directed by Roberto Rossellini in 1966, shows Louis's rise to power after the death of Cardinal Mazarin, Le Roi Danse (The King Dances), directed by Grard Corbiau in 2000, reveals Louis through the eyes of Jean-Baptiste Lully, his court musician. Julian Sands portrayed Louis in Roland Jaffe's Vatel in 2000.

Louis XIV of France Louis features significantly in Neal Stephenson's Baroque Cycle, specifically The Confusion, the greater part of which takes place at Versailles. In the 39 Clues series universe, it has been noted that Louis was part of the Cahill branch, Tomas. The 15-year-old Louis XIV, as played by the Irish actor Robert Sheehan, was a major character of the short-lived historical fantasy series Young Blades from January to June 2005.

26

Notes
[1] See List of Navarrese monarchs and their family tree. [2] "Louis XIV" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?id=1257052204396412). MSN Encarta. 2008. Archived from the original (http:/ / encarta. msn. com/ encyclopedia_761572792/ Louis_XIV. html) on 1 November 2009. . Retrieved 20 January 2008. [3] "Louis XIV" (http:/ / www. newadvent. org/ cathen/ 09371a. htm). Catholic Encyclopedia. 2007. . Retrieved 19 January 2008. [4] (French)Brmond, Henri La Provence mystique au XVIIe sicle (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cWEaAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA381). Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1908. pp. 381, 382. [5] Franois Bluche (translated by Mark Greengrass (1990). Louis XIV. New York: Franklin Watts. p.11. ISBN0-531-15112-3. [6] Fraser, Antonia. "Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King". Random House, Inc, 2006, pp. 1416. [7] Ian Dunlop, "Louis XIV", (2001) p. xii [8] Merryman, John Henry. "The Civil Law Tradition: An Introduction to the Legal Systems of Europe and Latin America", 2007 Stanford University Press. [9] Antoine, Michel, Louis XV, Fayard, Paris, 1989, p. 33 [10] Louis de Rouvroy, duc de Saint-Simon. "Historical Memoirs of the Duc de Saint-Simon, volume 1 16911709: The Court of Louis XIV" (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ mod/ 17stsimon. html). . Retrieved 19 January 2008. [11] Dunlop, Ian. "Louis XIV", p. 242-251, Pimlico London 2001. [12] Dunlop, p. 247. [13] Bluche, Franois. "Louis XIV", p. 497, Hachette Litteratures, Paris (1986). [14] Dunlop, p. 54. [15] Lynn, John A. (1999). The Wars of Louis XIV (16671714). Longman New York. p.161-171. [16] Meriman, John (1996). A History of Modern Europe. W.W. Norton & Company. p.319. [17] Faroqhi, p.73 The Ottoman Empire and the World Around it (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=oMHwBktE9MMC& pg=PA73& dq=Franco-Ottoman+ alliance& as_brr=3& ei=4BTRSahWk-KQBPSahJQB& hl=en) [18] Bluche, p. 439. [19] Keay, John. "The Honourable Company: A History of the English East India Company", p. 201-204, Harper Collins Publishers, London (1993). [20] Pagani, Catherine, Eastern Magnificence and European Ingenuity: Clocks of Late Imperial China, p.182, (2001) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8bXxHSZkWssC& pg=PA182& dq=Louis+ XIV+ Claude+ de+ Visdelou& sig=cec9-IMB5_zeFd6L2t5tyyjsxqo#PPA182,M1) [21] Sullivan, Michael, The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art Page 98, (1989) ISBN 0-520-21236-3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8pLhEWdaMvEC& pg=PA98& dq=Louis+ XIV+ Couplet+ Michel& sig=x4USX2wQ6& nbsp;lbhEx2pQMX8QCATkoU) [22] Barnes, Linda L. (2005) Needles, Herbs, Gods, and Ghosts: China, Healing, and the West to 1848 Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-01872-9, p.85 [23] Mungello, David E. (2005) The Great Encounter of China and the West, 15001800 Rowman & Littlefield ISBN 0-7425-3815-X, p.125 [24] Sources of Making of the West, People and Cultures, Vol. 2, Since 1340 [25] Coincidentally, at roughly the same time and for the same reasons, Japan adopted a similar policy, called sankin ktai. [26] Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 [27] "Morganatic and Secret Marriages in the French Royal Family" (http:/ / www. heraldica. org/ topics/ france/ morganat. htm). . Retrieved 10 July 2008.: The description of the marriage as morganatic is inaccurate as French law does not define such marriages. [28] For example, see Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 [29] Sturdy, David J. "Louis XIV", St Martin's Press, New York (1998), p. 89-99. [30] Sturdy, p. 92-93. [31] Sturdy, p. 96, citing Pillorget, "France Baroque, France Classique", i, 935. [32] Cathal J. Nolan, Wars of the age of Louis XIV, 16501715 (2008) p. 132 [33] Sturdy, p. 96-97. [34] Bluche, p. 20-21. [35] Columbia Encyclopedia (2007). "Louis XIV, king of France" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 65/ lo/ Louis14Fr. html). . Retrieved 19 January 2008. [36] David J. Sturdy, p. 98, citing W.C. Scoville, The Persection of Huguenots and French Economic Development, 16801720 (1960)

Louis XIV of France

[37] Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Ideals, Edict of Versailles (1787) (http:/ / booking-help. org/ book_338_glava_314_Edict_of_Versailles_(1787). html), downloaded 29 January 2012 [38] Durant, Will and Ariel. "The Story of Civilisation (Volume 8): The Age of Louis XIV", Simon & Schuster, New York (1963), p. 691. [39] Lynn, John A. (1999). "The Wars of Louis XIV (16671714)". Longman New York, p.192. [40] Dunlop, Ian. "Louis XIV", p. 313, Pimlico London 2001. [41] Lynn, John A., p.189-191. [42] Lynn, John A., p.192-193. [43] Lynn, John A. [44] Lynn, John A., p. 232. [45] Lynn, John A., p. 253. [46] Bluche, p. 653. [47] Lossky, Andrew. "Louis XIV and the French Monarchy", New Brunswick, New Jersey (1994), p. 255 [48] Lynn, John A., p. 256. [49] Lynn, John A., p.267. [50] Dunlop, Ian. "Louis XIV", p. 353, Pimlico London 2001. [51] Lynn, p.268. [52] Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice, Yale University Press, p. 6. ISBN 0-300-08718-7. [53] Dunlop, p. 358. [54] Lynn, p.269, see footnote 1. [55] Lynn, p.269-270. [56] Merriman, page 321. [57] Grda, Cormac; Chevet, Jean-Michel (2002). "Famine And Market In Ancient Rgime France". The Journal of Economic History 62 (3): 706733. doi:10.1017/S0022050702001055. PMID17494233. (http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=122547) [58] Lynn, p. 326. [59] Lynn, p. 334. [60] Lynn, p. 342. [61] Lynn, p. 356-360. [62] Dunlop, p. 468. [63] Dunlop, p. 454-455. [64] Antoine, p. 33-37. [65] Bluche, p. 890. [66] See above, section on "Height of Power." [67] Dunlop, p. 433; citing Montesquieu: "Louis established the greatness of France by building Versailles and Marly." [68] Bluche, p. 876, Hachette Litteratures, Paris (1986). [69] Bluche, p. 506 & 877878, Hachette Litteratures, Paris (1986). [70] J.P. Sommerville, The wars of Louis XIV (http:/ / faculty. history. wisc. edu/ sommerville/ 351/ 351-14. htm) [71] Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon's Notes on English History made on the Eve of the French Revolution, illustrated from Contemporary Historians and referenced from the findings of Later Research by Henry Foljambe Hall. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1905, 258. [72] Bluche, p. 926. [73] Durant, Will and Ariel. "The Story of Civilisation (Volume 8): The Age of Louis XIV," p. 721. [74] Burke, Peter (1992). "The fabrication of Louis XIV". History Today 42 (2) [75] Perez, Stanis (2003). "Les Rides D'apollon: L'evolution Des Portraits de Louis XIV [Apollo's Wrinkles: the Evolution of Portraits of Louis XIV]". Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 50 (3): 6295. ISSN0048-8003 [76] See also Schmitter, Amy M. (2002). "Representation and the Body of Power in French Academic Painting". Journal of the History of Ideas 63 (3): 399424. doi:10.1353/jhi.2002.0027. ISSN0022-5037. JSTOR3654315 [77] Sabatier, Grard (2000). "La Gloire du Roi: Iconographie de Louis XIV de 1661 a 1672". Histoire, Economie et Socit 19 (4): 527560. doi:10.3406/hes.2000.2134. [78] Prest, Julia (2001). "Dancing King: Louis XIV's Roles in Molire's Comedies-ballets, from Court to Town". Seventeenth Century 16 (2): 283298. ISSN0268-117x. Fulltext: Ebsco [79] Jens Ivo, Engels (2003). "Denigrer, Esperer, Assumer La Realite. Le Roi de France peru par ses Sujets, 16801750" ["Disparaging, Hoping, Taking on Reality: the French King as Perceived by His Subjects, 16801750"]". Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 50 (3): 96126. [80] French diabetics (http:/ / www. medicographia. com/ 2010/ 01/ famous-french-diabetics/ Famous) by Christian Rgnier, MD, Practicien Attach des Hpitaux de Paris, Socit Internationale dHistoire de la Mdecine [81] John B. Wolf, Louis XIV p. 280. [82] Gaudelus, Sbastien (2000). "La Mise en Spectacle De La Religion Royale: Recherches sur la Devotion de Louis XIV". Histoire, Economie et Socit 19 (4): 513526. doi:10.3406/hes.2000.2133. [83] Tony Claydon, Europe and the Making of England, 16601760 (2007 p 182

27

Louis XIV of France

[84] Tim Blanning, The Pursuit of Glory: The Five Revolutions That Made Modern Europe (2008) p. 286 [85] Peter H. Wilson, Absolutism in central Europe (2000) p. 54 [86] (French) Marquis de Dangeau. "Mmoire sur la mort de Louis XIV (on page 24)" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k55404p. image. r=Mmoire+ sur+ la+ mort+ de+ Louis+ XIV. f27. langFR). . Retrieved 29 November 2009. [87] Hamilton, Walter. "Dated Book-plates (Ex Libris) with a Treatise on Their Origin", P37. Published 1895. A.C. Black [88] Edmunds, Martha. "Piety and Politics", P274. 2002. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0-87413-693-8 [89] J-Y Tadi's annotations to The Vicomte de Bragelonne, Gallimard, 1997

28

Bibliography
Ashley, Maurice P. Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France (1965) excerpt and text search (http://www. amazon.com/Louis-Greatness-France-Maurice-Ashley/dp/0029010802/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books& qid=1202467644&sr=1-22) Beik, William. Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents (2000) excerpt and text search (http:// www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Absolutism-Documents-Bedford/dp/031213309X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8& s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-4) Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration." Past & Present 2005 (188): 195224. online at [[Project MUSE (http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/past_and_present/v188/188.1beik.html)]] Bluche, Franois, Louis XIV, (Franklin Watts, 1990) Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 Burke, Peter. The Fabrication of Louis XIV (1994) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/ Fabrication-Louis-XIV-Peter-Burke/dp/0300059434/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216& sr=1-6) Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV (1908), old, solid articles by scholars; complete text online (http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html#cmh1) Campbell, Peter Robert. Louis XIV, 16611715 (London, 1993) Church, William F., ed. The Greatness of Louis XIV. (1972). Cowart, Georgia J. The Triumph of Pleasure: Louis XIV and the Politics of Spectacle (U of Chicago Press, 2008) 299 pp; focus on opera and ballet Cronin, Vincent. Louis XIV. London: HarperCollins, 1996 (ISBN 0002720728) Dunlop, Ian. Louis XIV (2000), 512pp excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/ Louis-XIV-Ian-Dunlop/dp/0312261969/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-7) Erlanger, Philippe, Louis XIV (Praeger 1970) Fraser, Antonia. Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King. London: Weidenfeld& Nicolson, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-297-82997-1); New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-50984-7) Goubert, Pierre. Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen (1972), social history from Annales School Jones, Colin. The Great Nation: France from Louis XIV to Napoleon (17151799) (2002) Lewis, W. H. The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV (1953) excerpt and text search (http://www. amazon.com/Splendid-Century-Life-France-Louis/dp/0881339210/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books& qid=1202467216&sr=1-2); also online complete edition (http://www.questia.com/read/6019084) Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Ancien Regime: A History of France 16101774 (1999), survey by leader of the Annales School excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/ 0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3) Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 16671714 (1999) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/ Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books& qid=1202467216&sr=1-5) Mitford, Nancy. The Sun King (1995), popular excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/ Sun-King-Nancy-Mitford/dp/0140239677/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-3)

Louis XIV of France Nolan, Cathal J. Wars of the Age of Louis XIV, 16501715: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization . (2008) 607pp; over 1000 entries; ISBN 978-0-313-33046-9 Rowlands, Guy. The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 16611701 (2002) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/105134626) Rubin, David Lee, ed. Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV. Washington: Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992. Shennan, J. H. Louis XIV (1993) online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/108828773) Thompson, Ian. The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, Andr Le Ntre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 ISBN 1-58234-631-3 Treasure, Geoffrey. Louis XIV (London, 2001). Wilkinson, Rich. Louis XIV (2007) Wolf, John B. Louis XIV (1968), the standard scholarly biography online edition (http://www.questia.com/ read/103250721)

29

External links
"Louis XIV." (http://www.louis-xiv.de/) Louis XIV (http://www.history.com/topics/louis-xiv) at History.com "Music and politics in the court of Louis XIV" (http://sinisterfrog.com/writings/louis-xiv) Full text of marriage contract (http://www.smae.diplomatie.gouv.fr/choiseul/ressource/pdf/D16590004. pdf) (PDF), France National Archives transcription (French) "Le sicle de Louis XIV" (http://www.voltaire-integral.com/Html/00Table/14Loui14.html) by Voltaire, 1751 The Story of Civilization VIII: The Age of Louis XIV (http://www.archive.org/details/ StoryOfCiv08_AgeOfLouisXIV) online ebook by historians Will Durant and Ariel Durant. "Louis XIV King of France and Navarre 1643-1651-1715" (http://genealogics.org/getperson. php?personID=I00000061&tree=LEO). Genealogics.org List of films dedicated to Louis XIV and period ( "Louis XIV the Sun King: Louis XIV the Sun King" (http:/ /www.louis-xiv.de/index.php?t=films&a=films). Louis-xiv.de. Retrieved 31 August 2008.) Of particular interest: Documentary on VersaillesThe Visit.

Article Sources and Contributors

30

Article Sources and Contributors

Louis XIV of France Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=536568213 Contributors: *Kat*, .:Ajvol:., 2812, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 4twenty42o, 5 albert square, A Forgotten Shadow, A Nobody, A. Parrot, A3r0, ABF, ABVS1936, ACSE, Abrahami, Acather96, Accurizer, Acroterion, AdRock, Adam Bishop, Adam Keller, Adam sk, Adambiswanger1, Adamolofson, Adashiel, Aditya, AdjustShift, Adminix, Adrienne93, Advs89, Aetheling, Afasmit, Agne27, Agrippina Minor, Aharmon1973, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Akela, Alansohn, Aldaron, Aldebaran69, Ale jrb, Alex S, Alexcoldcasefan, Alexd, Alexius Manfelt, Alicemalice, Alison, Allens, Allstarecho, Allyo, Alphachimp, Alyant97, Amalthea, Amardoyan, Amp71, Anagoria, Anbu121, Anbuikid, Andonic, Andrejj, Andres, Andrew Levine, Andrewpmk, Andy120, Andy85719, Andycjp, Angelafromtheoffice, Angusmclellan, Animum, Anir1uph, Antandrus, Anupamsr, AolxHangover, Apox, Arcenciel4, Ardric47, Arjun01, Arman Cagle, Asians12, Astrale01, Astronautics, AtheWeatherman, Atif.t2, Atropos, Attilios, Auntof6, Aure dryad, Autoerrant, Avatar05, Avoided, AxelBoldt, Aymatth2, AzaToth, Azalea pomp, B-Machine, BD2412, Baa, Backslash Forwardslash, BadgerBadger, Baker28, Bandit5high, Barbatus, Barkjon, BarretB, Barticus88, Bartimaeus, Bathtubducky, Bchaosf, Bcp67, Bcstutz, Beano, Belle-isle, Belligero, Ben Ben, Bender235, Berek, Berrie Leigh, Betacommand, BigJakeSnake, Bigb1234zx, Bigk1234567890, Biker Biker, Bill Thayer, BillWSmithJr, Billinghurst, Binary TSO, Binky, Biosrock, Birdos, Blackbelt106, Blackjays1, Bladetrinity504, Blahblahhh, Blake-, Blanchardb, Blaue Max, Blehfu, BlueSalo, Blueboar, Blurble, BoBo, Bobblewik, Bobo1159, Bobo192, Bodnotbod, BomBom, Bongwarrior, Bookofjude, Boothy443, BorgHunter, Bpersad, Bradynissen, Brian junhui sim, Bricology, Britannic124, BrownBean, Bryan Derksen, Bsf804, Bucketsofg, CAPS LOCK, CThom3, CWY2190, CWii, Cactus.man, CalumH93, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, CanadianLinuxUser, Canglesea, CanonLawJunkie, Canterbury Tail, Canuckian89, Caponer, CardinalDan, Carl Logan, Carpo, Catgut, Catlitter22, Cbies, Cdc, Cenarium, Ceyockey, Cfailde, Charles, Charles Matthews, Charles01, Charvex, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Chatthunder40, Cheesefondue, Chefmonsta, Chicheley, Chick Bowen, Chnou, Choess, Chowells, Chris the speller, ChrisSimpson, Chrislk02, Christopher Parham, Ciaccona, Cjpuffin, Clarince63, ClockworkSoul, Closedmouth, Cmar5692, Cobisusie, Cocoma, Coemgenus, Coinman62, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Connormah, Conversion script, CountingPine, Courcelles, Courtastic, Cowman109, Craigy144, Credema, Cristiano Toms, Crob14, Crypticfirefly, CryptoDerk, Csl, Cube lurker, Cunard, Cutie120, D, D6, DCEdwards1966, DITWIN GRIM, DJ Clayworth, DSRH, DVD R W, DVdm, DW, DWC LR, Daaviiid, Dalv89, Dancer Girl Anni, Daniel Joseph de Bourbon, DanielCD, DanielJDunn, Daniils, Dar-Ape, DarkMousy12777, Darvec, Dave souza, Dave.Dunford, Dave4478, Davewho2, David Diacos, David Eppstein, David Jay Walker, David Lee Rubin, David.Mestel, David.Monniaux, DavidRF, Davidbessler, Dawn Bard, Dcclark, Ddmx, DeadEyeArrow, Deb, Delirium, Deltabeignet, Deor, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Deville, Dewritech, Dgw, Diannaa, Diberri, Diderot, Dillonpaul53, Dimadick, Dinopup, Discospinster, Djordjes, Dkeithley, Dlohcierekim, Dman5555414n52, Do Not Disturb, Doc glasgow, DocWatson42, Docu, Docwombat, Dodoheaddy, Donko XI, Donner60, Dontdoit, Doormatt3500, Doprendek, Doug Coldwell, Dougk, Dougofborg, DougsTech, Download, Downwards, Doyley, Dr.K., DrKiernan, DragonflySixtyseven, Drappel, Dravecky, Dtremenak, Dubbadoo3456, Duffmanusa007, Duncharris, Dwheeler, E0steven, ERcheck, ESkog, EarthPerson, Eastern Son, Ecimino, Edgar181, Editor87, Edivorce, Ehmke, Ekm02001, El C, Elassint, Elighthart, Eliyak, Emc2, EmperadorElijah, Engunneer, Epbr123, Equendil, Eric Bekins, Eric-Wester, EricStyles, Ericamick, Ericbateson, Erik9, ErrantX, Erutuon, EstebanF, Eteru, EuroHistoryTeacher, Eusebeus, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Ewulp, Excirial, Extransit, FF2010, Fabartus, FactStraight, Falcon8765, Faradayplank, Fastifex, Faustus37, Favonian, FayssalF, FeanorStar7, Feektooo, Fenoxielo, Fieldday-sunday, Figaro, Filiep, Final Starman, Find mobius, Firecomet, Firstorm, Flamarande, Flamerule, Flipskater578, FlocciNonFacio, FlyingToaster, Folantin, Folsombiker, Footyfanatic3000, Formeruser0910, Fr33kman, Fraggle81, Frania Wisniewska, Frankenpuppy, Franzy89, Freakofnurture, Freesee, Freeskier ncd, Frietjes, Fry1989, Funnyhat, Funzyland, Fxer, Fyyer, F, Gabbe, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Garion96, Garycompugeek, Gauts99, Geeked, Gene s, Gerard Mulholland, Ghirlandajo, Giganut, Gilliam, Ginsengbomb, Giraffedata, Glacialfox, Glasperlenspiel, Gmaxwell, GoTeamVenture, Godefroy, Gogo Dodo, Good Olfactory, GoodDay, Gracenotes, Grafen, Graham87, Grandhautbois, Grandpafootsoldier, Gravitan, GrayFullbuster, Grayshi, Greentea, Gregbard, Grignan6, Grover cleveland, Grstain, Gruffi, Gtdp, Gurch, GusF, Gusegn, Gwern, Gwernol, H Padleckas, HJ Mitchell, Hadal, Hahablahblah1290, HalfShadow, Hallows AG, Hammer1980, Hamtechperson, Hanacy, HappyCamper, Hardouin, Hawk08210, Hbent, Hdt83, Headbomb, Helgandude, Henning Makholm, Henry W. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Louis XIV of France.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_XIV_of_France.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bjankuloski06en, Bohme, Cecil, Daigaz, Ecummenic, Hailey C. Shannon, Harpsichord246, Itsmine, Krschner, Lna, Mattes, Paris 16, Redtigerxyz, Savh, Shakko, Tancrde, Thorvaldsson, Tony Wills, Washiucho, Wutsje, Xenophon, Zolo, 9 anonymous edits File:Louis XIV Signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_XIV_Signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Connormah File:Bb85790a33.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bb85790a33.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alexcoldcasefan, Shakko File:Europe map 1648.PNG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Europe_map_1648.PNG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: AnRo0002, Badseed, Beliar, Conscious, Cwbm (commons), Decora, Fakirbakir, Herbythyme, Ludde23, Man vyi, Mathiasrex, Nekto, Osado, OwenBlacker, Packare, Roke, Shadowxfox, 9 anonymous edits File:Louis XIV as Child.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_XIV_as_Child.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Carolus, Ecummenic, Goldfritha, Gonioul, Mattes, Morgan Riley, Shakko, Tangopaso, Thomas Gun, 1 anonymous edits File:Louis-xiv-lebrunl.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis-xiv-lebrunl.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Auntof6, Bohme, Boo-Boo Baroo, Bukk, Claus, Ecummenic, Louis le Grand, Meli96, Mu, PKM, Shakko, Thomas Gun, Trizek, 2 anonymous edits File:Royal Monogram of King Louis XIV of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Royal_Monogram_of_King_Louis_XIV_of_France.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Glasshouse File:Jean Nocret - Louis XIV et la famille royale - Google Art Project.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jean_Nocret_-_Louis_XIV_et_la_famille_royale_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Elias223, Songsblame, ~Pyb File:GarnierlouisXIV.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GarnierlouisXIV.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, Louis le Grand, Mattes, Mu, Shakko, Thorvaldsson File:Chateau-de-versailles-cour.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chateau-de-versailles-cour.jpg License: Free Art License Contributors: Harry Image:France moderne.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:France_moderne.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Adelbrecht File:Louis XIV by Robert Nanteuil 1670.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_XIV_by_Robert_Nanteuil_1670.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Robert Nanteuil (1623-1678) File:1680 van der Meulen Louis XIV bei Lobith anagoria.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1680_van_der_Meulen_Louis_XIV_bei_Lobith_anagoria.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: user:anagoria File:Louis le Grand; Harnas.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_le_Grand;_Harnas.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: possibly after Claude Lefebvre or Nicolas Pitau Image:Louis XIV Coin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_XIV_Coin.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Albertomos, Badzil, Louis le Grand, Michael Reschke, RSekulovich, 1 anonymous edits File:Ambassade Perse auprs de Louis XIV.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ambassade_Perse_auprs_de_Louis_XIV.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: COYPEL Antoine (1661-1722) (attribu ) File:SiameseEmbassyToLouisXIV1686NicolasLarmessin.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SiameseEmbassyToLouisXIV1686NicolasLarmessin.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original: Nicolas III de Larmessin; photo: PHGCOM File:Louis14-Versailles1685.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis14-Versailles1685.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Abrahami, Auntof6, Bohme, Bukk, Carolus, Elighthart, Funfood, G.dallorto, LouisPhilippeCharles, Millevache, Mu, Olivier2, PKM, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Songsblame, XIII, 2 anonymous edits File:S21c.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:S21c.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Krschner, Louis le Grand, Shakko File:Louis14-F.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis14-F.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Auntof6, Beria, Ecummenic, Louis le Grand, Shakko File:Equestrian portrait louis xiv 1692.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Equestrian_portrait_louis_xiv_1692.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Countercanter, Ecummenic, Louis le Grand, Mattes, Mike bzh, Pitke, Shakko, 1 anonymous edits File:Marshal luxembourg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marshal_luxembourg.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, Mattes, Polarlys, Sir Gawain, UberCryxic File:Felipe V; Rey de Espaa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Felipe_V;_Rey_de_Espaa.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Boo-Boo Baroo, Carolus, Darwinius, DerekUriel, Ecummenic, Jimmy44, Keegan, Mattes, Paladio, Raymond, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Thorvaldsson, Trasamundo File:Louis le Grand; Rigaud Hyacinthe.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_le_Grand;_Rigaud_Hyacinthe.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Auntof6, Bohme, Boo-Boo Baroo, Carolus, Chmee2, Darwinius, Ecummenic, Outisnn, Shakko, Thomas Gun, Vincent Steenberg, Zolo, 3 anonymous edits File:Philippe Buache Carte de France divisee suivant les quatre departements de Messieurs les secretaires dEtat 07710637.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Philippe_Buache_Carte_de_France_divisee_suivant_les_quatre_departements_de_Messieurs_les_secretaires_dEtat_07710637.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Philippe Buache File:Nicolas de Largillire 003.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicolas_de_Largillire_003.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 2A01:E35:2E2F:5920:5DA2:E52D:3232:59F8, AndreasPraefcke, Auntof6, Bohme, Boo-Boo Baroo, Branor, Carolus, Cortom2, Daniel 1992, Docu, Ecummenic, Edelseider, Goldfritha, Jdsteakley, Jebulon, Johnbod, Louis le Grand, LouisPhilippeCharles, Man vyi, Mattes, Mel22, PKM, Pitke, Rlbberlin, Sammyday, Shakko, Sir Gawain, Songsblame, Tangopaso, Thorvaldsson, 6 anonymous edits File:DrugstoreOfLouisXIVWithDetails.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DrugstoreOfLouisXIVWithDetails.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: PHGCOM File:France 1552-1798.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:France_1552-1798.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was R9tgokunks at en.wikipedia File:Le roi gouverne par lui-mme.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Le_roi_gouverne_par_lui-mme.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Boo-Boo Baroo, Bukk, Claus, Coyau, Ecummenic, Elighthart, Krschner, Lna, Mathiasrex, Olivier2, Shakko, Thorvaldsson, Xenophon File:Chateau Versailles Galerie des Glaces.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chateau_Versailles_Galerie_des_Glaces.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Myrabella File:MEP in Paris.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MEP_in_Paris.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: PHGCOM File:Grand Royal Coat of Arms of France & Navarre.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_France_&_Navarre.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Sodacan File:Marie Terese31.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marie_Terese31.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Akela3, Alexcoldcasefan, Dal89, Foroa, Songsblame, XIII

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