Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology

Volume 13, Number 1

."

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FIELD METHODS IN

PALAEONTOLOG Y

by
SAMUEL J. NELSON
University of Alberta
Calgary, Alberta, Canada

1965
 FIELD METHODS IN P ALAEONTOLO Gy l
S AM U EL J. NELSON
University of Alberta
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
T A BLE OF CONTEN TS
P ag e
ABSTRACT ___________ ___ ___ ___ ___ ____ ________ __ ___________ ______ ________ __ 1
INTR,oDUCTION 1
-.
M,oRPH,oL,oGIC P ALAEONTOL,oGY ___________ ______ ___ _________ __________ 5
Phylum Protozoa _________ ________________________ ________________ _ 5
Phylum Porifera ____________ ______ _______ _______ ___ ___________ ____ _ 5
Phylum Coelenterata _____________ _________ _________________________ 6
Stromatoporoids ____ _____ ____ ____ ____ __________ ____________ _ 6
Graptolites __________ __ ______________________ ___ ___________ _ 7
Corals ___ _____ _______________________________________ _____ _ 9
Tabulate Corals __ _____________ __________ ____ ___ __ __ 9
S eptate Corals ___ _____ ____________________ ____ _____ 11
Phylum Brachiopoda ____ ______ ____ _______ ____ ________ ______ _______ _ 12
Inarticulate Brachiopods ____ _____ ___________ ____ ____ ____ ____ 13
Articulate Brachiopods ___________ ___ ________ ______________ _ 13
,orthids ________ _______ _____________________________ _ 13
Dalmanellids ______ _____ ____ ______ ________ ____ __ __ _ 13
P entamerids _______ ___ ____ _____________ ______ _____ _ 14
Strophomenids ____ ______ ______ _____ ___________ ___ __ 14
Productids ____ __________ __________________________ _ 14
Rhynchonellids _____________________ _________ ______ 15
Spiriferids ______ ______ ___________ ____________ _____ _ 16
Punctospiriferids _______________ ___________________ _ 16
Rostrospiriferids __ ___ ___ ______________ ______ ______ _ 17
Atrypids __________________ ____________ _____ _______ _ 17
T er ebratulids ____ ___ __________ ______ __ ____ ____ ____ _ 17
Phylum Bryozoa CPolyzoa) __ ______ _________________________ ___ ___ _ 18
_Phylum E chinodermata __ __ ________ ___ ___ __ _________________ _______ 18 •
Phylum Mollusca _____ _______ __ ________________ __________ _________ _ 19
Gastropods _____ ______ ______ ______ _ ________ _____________ __
~
19
P elecypods ____ ____ __ ____ ____ ________________ _____ _________ _ 20
Cephalopods ____ ______ ___ _____ __ ______ _______ _________ ____ _ 21
Nautiloids ______ ________ __________ ____ _____ _______ _ 21
Ammonoids _______________ ____________________ ____ _ 22
B elemnoids ______ ____ __ ____ __ ______ __ ______ ______ __ 23
Phylum Arthropoda ________ _________ _______ ____________ ____ ___ ___ __ 23
Trilobites ____ ______ __________________ ____ __ ________________ 23
,ostracods ____ __ __ ________________________ _____________ ___ __ 24
Phylum Chordata __________ ____ _____________ _____ __________________ 25
Marine Plants __________ ____ ________ __ ____________ ____ ____ _______ __ 25
STRATIGRAPHIC PALAEONTOLOGY - - - - - - - - --------- ------ -------------- 25
Cambrian System __________ _______ ___ __________ _____ ______ __ __ __ __ _ 25
,ordovician and Silurian Systems _____________________________ ____ __ 26
Shaly Facies ______ __ __ ____ __ __ __ _______ ___________ 26
Shelly Facies ________ _______ ______ ______ ____________ 27
Devonian System __ ______ ______________ __ __ __ __ __ ______ ____________ 27
P ermo-Carboniferous Systems - ---------------------------- --------- 28
Triassic System _______ _____ ____ ____________ ____ ____________ __ _____ _ 29
Jurassic System ____ ______ ___ _____ ___ _____ _____ _____ ___ ___ __________ 30
Cretaceous System _______ ~-- - - -- - --- - --- - ---- - -- -- -- - - -- -- - -- -- -- - - 30
T ertiary and Quaternary Systems ---------- ---- -------- ---- - - - - - --- 30
ANN,oTATED REFERENCES - ------------------- -------------------- ----- - 39
INDEX _______________________________________ _______ ______ __---------------- 136

I Manuscript r eceived ,october 16, 1964.

Inquiries concerning orders of this r eprint - should be addressed t o Riley's
R eproductions Ltd., 631 - 8th Ave. S.W., Calg ary, Alberta.
ii.
 'ill

ILLUSTRATIONS

PLATES Pages
1_ Protozoa - fusulinids _________________________________________ ________ 53
2. Porifera - archaeocyathids, Receptaculites and sponge spicules ________ 55
3. Porifera - Receptaculites __ _______________________________________ ___ _ 57
4. Coelenterata - stromatoporoids (including Amphipora) ___ __ ____________ 59
•
5. Coelenterata - stromatoporoids ___________________ _____ _____________ __ 61
6. Coelenterata - graptoloid graptolites _________ __________________________ 63
7. Coelenterata - graptoloid graptolites ____________________ ______________ 65
8. Coelenterata - graptoloid and dendroid graptolites ___ ______ _______ _____ 67
9. Coelenterata - halysitid corals _________ ______ __________________ ____ ___ _ 69
10. Coelenterata - favositid corals __ ______ ____________________________ ____ _ 71
11. Coelenterata - favositid, heliolitid and syringoporid corals _____________ 73
12. Coelenterata - solitary septate corals __________________________________ 75
13. Coelenterata - colonial septate corals __________________________________ 77
14_ Brachiopoda - inarticulates, orthids and dalmanellids ___________________ 79
15. Brachiopoda - pentamerids and strophomenids __________________ _______ 81
16. Brachiopoda - productids (dictyoclostids) and strophomenids _____ ______ 83
17. Brachiopoda - productids (linoproductids and dictyoclostids) ___________ 85
18. Brachiopoda - productids (horridonids and linoproductids) _____________ 87
19. Brachiopoda - productids (horridonids and echinoconchids) __ __ ________ 89
20. Brachiopoda - productids (waagenoconchids, productellids) and rhyn-
chonellids _______________________ _______________________ _____________ 91
21. Brachiopoda - rhynchonellids (including leiorhynchids) _____________ ____ 93
22_ Brachiopoda - spiriferids _______________________________ ___________ ___ 95
23. Brachiopoda - spiriferids and punctospiriferids ______________________ ___ 97
24. Brachiopoda - rostrospiriferids and terebratulids ___________ ____________ 99
25. Brachiopoda - atrypids (Atrypa) _________________ ____ ________ ____ __ __ _ 101
26. Brachiopoda - terebratulids 103
27. Bryozoa and Echinodermata - Archimedes, fenestellids and crinoid stems 105
28. Mollusca - gastropods (including tentaculitids) and pelecypods ______ _ 107
29_ Mollusca - pelecypods 109
30_ Mollusca - nautiloid cephalopods 111
31. Mollusca - nautiloid cephalopods 113
32. Mollusca - nautiloid cephalopods 115
33. Mollusca - goniatite, ceratite and ammonite cephalopods ______________ 117
34. Mollusca - ammonite cephalopod _______________________ ____ __________ 119
35. Mollusca - ceratite cephalopods and belemnites _____________ ____ _______ 121
36. Arthropoda - trilobites _______ __ ___ _____________ _____ ___ _________ ____ 123
37. Arthropoda - trilobites ______ _________________ _______ ___ _________ ____ 125
38. Arthropoda - trilobites ______________________________________________ 127
39_ Arthropoda - trilobites 129
40. Arthropoda - trilobites and ostracods _________________________ _______ _ 131
41. Chordata - fish remains _____________________________________ ________ _ 133
42. Marine plants 135
• ••
lll.
 •

FIGURES Pages
1. Geologic time table of the Phanerozoic Eon ________________ ____________ 4

2. Range chart for protozoa, porifera, stromatoporoids and graptolites ___ _ 31

3. Range chart for tabulate corals ______ ________________________ _________ 32

4. Range chart for septate corals ____ _______________________ ___ __________ 33

5. Range chart for inarticulate and articulate brachiopods ___ ___ ___________ 34

6. Range chart for articulate brachiopods ____________ ____ ___ ________ ______ 35

7. Range chart for bryozoa, gastropods and pelecypods ___ _____ _____ ______ 36

8. Range chart for nautiloid, ammonoid and belemnoid cephalopods ___ ___ _ 37

9. Range chart for trilobites, ostracods, chordates and marine plants _____ _ 38

iv.
 ABSTRACT
Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic guide fossils, chronologically important
within the areas of western and northern Canada and Alaska, are described and
illustrated. Most generalizations can also be applied to eastern Canada and the
United States. Emphasis is upon fossil groups rather than genera and species,
and particularly upon those which a geologist may identify in the field with
minimum chances for error. The groups stressed are fusulinid foraminifera.
stromatoporoids, graptolites, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, cephalopods and
trilobites. Finer divisions are established for most of these groups, alone with
trends, genera and species, which can safely be used in correlation.

INTRODUCTION
The philosophy of this article is perhaps best expressed by quoting the
writer's remarks to the National Advisory Committee in 1962:
"In this modern era of helicopters the geologist in a single day often runs
the gamut of geological systems ranging from Cambrian to [those of the]
Mesozoic or Cenozoic. I have found that many of these scientists are well
versed in morphology, being able to recognize graptolites, brachiopods and
the like, but all too often are ignorant of their stratigraphic significance.
Usually they prefer to wait for age identifications by professional palaeontol-
ogists rather than make their own rough determinations in the field where
it will do the most good.
"In part, the blame for this situation can be laid on the palaeontology or
stratigraphy courses of Canadian universities where the emphasis is on
morphology and memorization of genera and species rather than on the
stratigraphic significance of the various fossil groups. For example, many
geologists can recognize at a glance Tetragraptus or Olimacograptus but how
many know that the former indicates Lower Ordovician; and the latter (or
the various biserial types) indicate Middle or Upper Ordovician, if present in
abundance? How many are inclined to call the first chain coral they see
Halysites without realizing that there is a very abundant fauna of related
but easily differentiated genera in the Upper Ordovician? ...
"I think this ignorance can be counteracted in two ways. The first is that
the palaeontology and stratigraphy collections of the universities should con-
tain much more fragmentary material such as tiny pieces of generically un-
identifiable graptolites, productid shells and belemnites, etc. with instructions on
how to use this material. After all, this is often the way fossils are pre-
served in the field!
"The second is that a pamphlet with suitable illustrations should be prepared,
describing, with a minimum of technical language, how to use fossils for
horizon identification throughout the Phanerozoic* . . . Tips that branched
Favosites are likely Middle Devonian; graptolite fragments Ordovician or
Silurian; colonial corals with a lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium are probably
Permo-Carboniferous (and almost always Mississippian) in western Canada;
and that belemnite fragments suggest Jurassic strata could be included, along
with more specific information."
In the past decade numerous publications have appeared covering the prin-
ciple fossils of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic (Frebold, 1964a; J eletzky, 1964a,
1964b; McLaren et aZ., 1962; Nelson, 1959, 1961a, 1961b, 1962c; Norford,
1962b; Tozer, 1962 ; Warren and Stelck, 1956) and the reader is urged to refer
to these both for more specific information and as a supplement to the present
article. Most have been directed toward the specialist and the emphasis has
been on pictorial representation of genera and species, rather than the crit-
ical and cautionary data needed to identify them. The present article is

-
*Italicized for the present article.
1
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2

orient d toward the field geologist with only basic training in palaeontology
and the information given is that which he should use in the field when dating
rocks. It was written specifically for the unexplored and relatively un-
explored portions of North America comprising much of Alaska, western and
northern Canada. Most generalizations presented, however, can be applied to
eastern Canada and the United States.
Emphasis is thus on the use of marine fossil groups in chronology. Some
genera and species are described but only those very diagnostic and easy to
identify. Formal taxonomic break-down into classes, orders and families has
been avoided so that the article can be used to supplement palaeontology
courses, without being at odds with the instructor's classification. For this
reason a geologic time table (Fig. 1) is also enclosed: the numerous technical
time-rock terms like Cincinnatian, Eifelian, Osagean, Leonardian, Scythian and
the like are included because both the student and field geologist are bound
to deal with these terms if they study the palaeontology of any system in
depth.
The article reflects the writer's personal opinion as to which are the crit-
ical fossils needed to date rocks in the field. Although at first glance there
may appear a definite bias toward fossils of the Palaeozoic it should be first
of all remembered that the Palaeozoic does contain the majority of Phanero-
zoic systems and is areally the most widespread in Canada. Secondly it is
the writer's o.p inion that there are many more Palaeozoic fossil groups capable
of accurate field analysis by the geologist than in the Mesozoic or Cenozoic.
For example such an individual can probably make intra-Palaeozoic delimita-
tion between the orthid and spiriferid brachiopod groups. In contrast dis-
tinction between the various groups of Mesozoic pelecypods or ammonites is
usually so uncertain and dangerous that the services of a specialist are re-
quired- an individual to whom the present article is most emphatically not
directed.
Certain time-honoured genera like Hallopora, F'isi1{lipora, Retiolites, Pentre-
mites, Astraeospongia, Streptelasma, Zaphrentis, Caninia, Strophomena, L ep-
taena, Rhynchotrerna, Athyris, Calymen.e Ogygopsis, and Arcestes are either
totally ignored or given short shrift. Although excellent and indispensable
in the teaching of palaeontology their value is almost nil in Canadian and
Alaskan correlation because of their rarity or uncertain identity. In addi-
tion many highly diagnostic genera have been ignored because, in the writer 's
opinion, a non-specialist can so easily misidentify and confuse them with
similar ap;pearing fossils of other systems. Regrettable as it may be, genera
like Palaeophyllu'Yll) F'avistella, Utaratuia, H exag1onar·ia, Ekvasophyllurn, Elm-
thina, Scaphites and Arctica have thus been deliberately excluded from this
article. Hence the meaning of the term "index" or "guide fossil," in its
classical sense defined as being (1) common, (2) easily recognizable and (3)
with short stratigraphic range, is used with more fluidity in this article. Al-
though all three attributes are deemed highly desirable, number 2 is consid-
ered most important, followed in order by numbers 1 and 3.
It must be clearly and firmly stressed that the information given here is
not a panacea which will guarantee one-hundred percent accuracy in the field.
All identifications should be checked later by a professional palaeontologist.
Some generalizations are going to Ib e changed with new information. They
have, however, been applied by the writer during a period of nearly twenty
years in field areas extending from Newfoundland to Vancouver Island and
from the International Boundary to the Arctic Islands and Alaska. The
fossils stressed are those which he has found to be readily identifiable and,
 -
3

on a statistical basis, to occur most commonly both in his own collections and
in those of numerous oil companies.
The fossil illustrations on plates 1 to 42 were based, wherever possible, upon
the writer's collections. In most instances these show both idealized preserva-
tion, and the actual preservation to be expected in the field. Unless otherwise
stated the size shown is the normal one for the fossil. Whenever there is any
uncertainty in the reader's mind regarding his generic or specific identifica-
tions he should always refer to a palaeontology text. Particularly recom-
mended are "Invertebrate Fossils" by Moore, Lalicker and Fisher, "Prin-
ciples of Invertebrate Paleontology" by Shrock and Twenhofel, "Inverte-
brate Paleontology" by Easton, "The Fossil Book" by Fenton and Fenton,
, , Text-Book of Palaeontology" by Zittel, and the perennially useful "Index
Fossils of North America" by Shimer and Shrock. Highly specialized, but
nevertheless useful references in depth are the treatises on invertebrate palaeon-
tology currently being produced hy the Geological Society of America in
cooperation with various palaeontological societies. As this article went to
press the following volumes, pertinent to the text, had been published:
"Part C Protista 2" (Foraminifera) by Loeblich and Tappan (1964).
"Part E Archaeocyatha and Porifera" by Okulitch and Laubenfels (1955).
"Part F Coelenterata" by Bayer et al. (1956).
"Part G Bryozoa" by Bassler (1953),
"Part I Mollusca I" (Gastropods et al.) by Knight et al. (1960).
"Part K Mollusca 3" (Nautiloid Cephalopods) by Teichert et al. (1964).
"Part L Mollusca 4" (Ammonoid Cephalopods) by Arkell et al. (1957).
"Part 0 Arthropoda I" (Trilobites) by Harrington et al. (1959).
"Part Q Arthropoda 3" (Ostracods et al.) by Benson et al. (1961).
"Part V Graptolithina" (Graptolites) by Bulman (1955),
"Part W Miscellanea" (Tentaculitids et al.) by Hass et al. (1962).
The main body of the text is divided into two broad, somewhat overlapping
sections which go under the resounding titles of Morphologic Palaeontology
and Stratigraphic Palaeontology. In the first emphasis is on recognition of
fossils by shape. Stratigraphic Palaeontology, on the other hand, is concerned
with how to use these fossils to determine horizon within the Phanerozoic-
Cambrian, Devonian, Triassic and the like-and wherever possible how to
recognize intra-systemic divisions. Figures 2 to 9 show the stratigraphic
ranges of the fossils discussed in this text. These ranges can generally be
divided into : (1) the overall distribution; and (2) those in which the fossils
are most abundant and thus likely to ,be collected by the field geologist. This
text is concerned primarily with the second, indicated by thick lines on the
figures.
Concepts and opinions presented in this article are the soJ.e responsibility
of the author and have been the basis of stratigraphy and palaeontology courses
given by him during the past twelve years. The writer expresses his grati-
tude to Dr. H. S. Armstrong of the University of Alberta, Calgary for assist-
ance from the President's Fund and the California Standard Company for
•
help which enabled completion of the article. It goes without saying that
a great debt is due the illustrators of this text: Mr. D. Grant and Miss R.
Grant of Edmonton, Misses A. Haeseker, A. Mansell and Mr. K. Samuelson
of Calgary. Mr. Harry Kiyooka of the Department of Fine Arts greatly
assisted the writer in securing completion of the illustrations.
Very special thanks are due Mrs. Loraine McKerron for her kindness and
patience dUTing all typographical phases of this stUdy.
 •
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I

IE IE ' PERIOD DIVISIONS AG E IN

~~
FOR TH E PA L AE OZOIC ERA AND QUATERNARY PERI OD "'" I ION'

SYSTEM EUROPE AN DIVI SIONS ARE L EFT, AND AM ERI CAN

DI VISION S RI GHT OF THE DOUBLE LI NE .
OF
YEARS

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ORDOVICIAN MIDDLE ORDOVI CIAN

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Fig. 1.-Geologic time table of the Phanerozoic Eon.

 •

PART I.
MORPHOLOGIC 'PALAEONTOLOGY
PHYLUM PROTOZOA
(Plate 1)
As fossils the microscopic single celled protozoans are represented mainly
by foraminifera. Although they can be very good age indicators in the hands
of micropalaeontologists, their extremely small size almost always precludes
field use. One group, the easily recognizable fusulinid, does attain large
sizes and is diagnostic for Pennsylvanian and particularly Permian strata
in western, northern Canada and Alaska. A well preserved fusulinid is gen-
m"ally between one-quarter and three-quarter inches long and resembles a
grain of wheat or rugby ball (PI. 1, Fig. 5). They often occur in swarms on
a rock face and are easy to identify when the matrix has a different colour.
More commonly they are almost indistinguishable from the rock matrix and
only a magnifying glass will bring out the characteristic structure of finely
concentric to spiralling lines. If the field geologist suspects he is on Permo-
Pennsylvanian strata, he is advised to spend considerable time looking at fresh
rock surfaces-both wet and dry-for fusulinid structures like those shown
in Fig. 6 of PI. 1. In the laboratory a much more accurate age date should be
obtained.
PHYLUM PORIFERA
(Plates 1-3)
Poriferans (sponges) are almost useless as index fossils. Either the animal
•
will decompose upon death so that spicules are spread far and wide over the
sea floor (PI. 2, Fig. 3) j or else the skeleton may cohere; but be such a non-
descript shapeless blob that identification is very uncertain and probably
meaningless.
•
It is an anomaly that the two groups of sponge-like animals about which
strongest disagreement exists regarding affinities, are the best index fossils
for the phylum. These are the archaeocyathids or pleosponges, and the
receptaculitids.
Archaeocyathids are excellent Lower Cambrian index fossils and superfi-
cially resemble cup corals. In simplest form an archaeocyathid consists of
inner and outer conical walls joined by vertical septal-like plates called
parieties. Both walls and parieties are perforated by pores which specialists
interpret as indicating affinities with sponges.
In the field usually all one finds are poorly preserved archaeocyathid cross-
sections like those shown on Fig. 2 of PI. 2: a vague outer and inner wall
joined by radial parieties which are often quite irregular. Although this is
about the best that can be expected it is good enough to indicate Lower Cam-
brian. The reader is warned to be very certain about the presence of an
inner wall, otherwise the fossil he is examining may turn out to be a cross-
section of one of the ubiquitous and chronologically perfidious cup corals of
younger strata.
The genetic affinities of the receptaculitids are even more debatable than
.'- those of the archaeocyathids. Receptaculites is the most common genus of
this group in western Canada and is popularly referred to as the "sunflower
coral. " Its structure is peculiar in that is consists of quadrangular calcite
plates arranged in a spiral pattern. Two layers of these plates are present,
joined by hollow, spicule-like columns. Most R e.ceptacuZites are poorly pre-
served so that all one will see are the spirally arranged quadrangular plates,
or more often cross-sections of the hollow columns. The latter can be mis-
 •
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6

taken for the coral genus Syringopora, but the spiral pattern is sufficient to
distinguish Receptaculites (see PI. 3, Fig. 1).
Receptaculites ranges from Middle Ordovician to Devonian but in western
Canada the chances are very strong that the containing strata are late Middle
or early Late Ordovician, coeval with the Red River Formation of southern
Manitoba. Locally they occur in older and younger rocks such as the Middle
Ordovician Sunblood Formation and the Middle Devonian Hume Formation
of the Nahanni River area.
When Receptaculites is .part of the Red River interval, one should expect
to find associated chain corals (e.g. Cate1tipora) and large cephalopods and
gastropods.
PHYLUM COELENTERATA
The Phylum lC~oelenterata includes a diverse group of animals represented
by hydrozoans, jelly-fish, sea anemones, stromatoporoids, corals and grapto-
lites of which only the last three are important as fossils. At present grapto-
lite affinities are subject to considerable debate: some authorities think they
should be removed from the coelenterates and .p laced with the hemichordates
-a primitive vertebrate group. They will arbitrarily be discussed here under
the coelenterates.
Stromatoporoids
(Plates 4-5)
Stromatoporoids are an extremely difficult group with which to work,
because of the uncertainty as to what qualities ,define true species and genera.
They cannot be ignored, however, because they are locally very abundant and
often are important Silurian and Devonian reef formers.
Stromatoporoids are of two distinct types, referred to as the labechids and
the stromatoporids.
Although not common labechids are easy to identify and typically define
strata coeval with the Stony Mountain Formation of southern Manitoba.
This interval is considered very high in the Ordovician, probably Richmondian
or Gamachian. Experience has shown that Silurian strata sl10uld be expected
several hundred feet higher in sections where labechids occur.
A typical labechid is columnar and six inches to a foot long, and one to
two inches wide. The surface will be either longitudinally or spirally fluted
as in Aulacera or nodose as in B eatricea. When well preserved a central
canal is present, surrounded by finely concentric calcite layers.
Often Ordovician and Silurian strata carry poorly preserved orthocone
cephalopods which, except for having a smooth surface, closely mimic labe-
chids. Thus the field geologist should be certain that his specimen is nodose
or fluted before assigning it to the hlihechids.
Stromato,p orids are the most common representatives of the stromatoporoids,
and in nearly all cases indicate the Silurian to lower Upper Devonian interval.
For practical purposes they are absent from younger strata but do occur
rarely in the Middle and Upper Ordovician.
It is difficult to succinctly describe stromatoporid external shape because
it is so variable. To say that they are shapeless would p erhaps be a better ,
but nevertheless dangerous, generalization. They can, however, vary from
spheroidal down to encrusting amorphous masses with dimensions typically
less than one foot. Since stromatoporids apparently liked turbulent water,
the colonies often break into fragments and this is probably part of the reason
for their common lack of form.
 7

To identify a stromatoporid one must examine internal structure with a

high powered magnifying glass. In cross-section it consists of very finely con-
centric lines joined by small pillar-like structures. This is the basic stromato-
porid pattern but variation should be expected, even as far as a vesicular ono.
Field differentiation of genera and hence age on the basis of this pattern are
not advised. All that should be assumed is that containing strata are Silurian
or Devonian.
Commonly stromatoporoids are dolomitized or silicified, and most internal
structure destroyed. Thus all one sees is external outline, with vague sug-
gestions of interior concentricity. In such cases one should suspect a Siluro·
Devonian interval but be on his guard in case the fossils are long ranging
algal structures. A dangerous generalization, but one that does seem valid
in many instances, is that Silurian stromatoporids are more commonly silicified
than Devonian ones.
A11'''phipora is a small rod-like fossil usually occurring in swarms. Each
rod is about an inch long and one-quarter inch wide, and has as internal
structure a hollow axis surrounded >by rather vesicular tissue. The genetic
affinities are questionable, being considered neither labechid nor stromatoporid.
Most authorities, however, do consider that it belongs somewhere within the
stromatoporoids. Whatever its systematic position it is a good index fossil
for Middle and law Upper Devonian.
Because of their rather similar outlines, poorly preserved Amphipora and
fusulinid foraminifera may be confused. In such cases the field worker
,- should make a determined attempt to identify internal structure, fundament-
ally different in both groups (cf. Fig. 1, PI. 4 and Fig. 6, PI. 1).
Graptolites
(Plates 6-8)
To most geology students graptolites must appear as very vague fossils
hardly deserving of the professorial rapture which often accompanies their
description. Their teacher's enthusiasm, however, is merited because they are
usually extremely good index fossils even in the hands of a cautious amateur.
To begin with they are confined to the Ordovician and Silurian systems.~'
Thus they indicate only two periods and, as the reader may remember, occur
nearly always abundantly in black shale of these ages. Their absence from this
lithology should be regarded with suspicion and after a prolonged but un-
successful search for them in such shale, the hypothesis should be entertained
that the rock is either pre-Ordovician or post-Silurian.
Graptolites are divided into two broad groups: dendroids and graptoloids.
Dendroid graptolites are poor index fossils and should be used only to
indicate Siluro-Ordovician, although they agpear with most frequency in the
Lower Ordovician. As the name implies the colony has a rather bushy
appearance with branches typically dichotomizing in a rather irregular man-
ner. Because of their plant-like appearance dendroids may indeed be con-
fused with post-Silurian plant fossils, and unless preservation is excellent,
considerable difficulty may ensue in distinguishing them. One should take
environment into account: whether other marine fossils are associated, or

"' Graptolites actually range into the Mississippian System but are exceedingly
rare-almost nonexistent- beyond the Silurian. In their lower range graptolites
do not make significant appearance until Tremadocian time. In Europe this time
is interpreted as Late Cambrian, and in North America as Early Ordovician
(see Figure 1).
 •
I 8

profoundly lacking, and so on. Fenestellid hryozoans may also be confused

with dendroids but lithology should indicate which is which (see page 18).
The reader may be aware of the peculiar inorganic sedimentary structures
called manganese dendrites. These will closely mimic dendroid graptolites.
Typically, however, they occur in sandstone, while the graptolites favour shale.
Graptoloid graptolites are the most useful group in correlation. Unlike the
complexly and densely branched dendroids, they usually are simple unbranched
stipes which are monoserial (PI. 7, Figs. 8-10), biserial (PI. 7, Figs. 5-7), or
quadriserial (PI. 6, Figs. 4-5). When stipes do branch it is with regular
dichotomy, and produces a rather o.pen colony.
The last type of graptoloid is diagnostic for Lower Ordovician. Tetragrap-
tns shows the simplest pattern in which only one pair of dichotomy has occur-
red. Goniograptns and Zygograptns show the kind of colony resulting when
more than one set of dichotomy occurs. There are many generic names
applied to such graptoloids, but whatever the name, if branching is simple
and regular the containing rocks are Lower Ordovician. Even a fragment
of a dichotomizing colony is sufficient for dating.
Middle and Upper Ordovician rocks are grouped here because their grapto-
lite fauna is genetically related. By far the most characteristic and abundanL
elements are biserial graptoloids like Climacograptns, Diplograptns and Ortho-
graptns. These genera do occur in the Lower Ordovician and Silurian, but
it is only in the Middle and U,pper Ordovician that they are so abundant as
to dominate the graptolite assemblage. Hence several biserial graptoloids are
not enough; they should be found in swarms before the rocks are assigned to
this part of the Ordovician.
Silurian strata are dominated by monoserial graptoloids like Monograptns.
Again abundance is important as biserial ones do occur, albeit rather rarely,
in this system. Caution should be used in determining Monograptns as broken
stipes of Ordovician genera like Tetragraptns, Goniograptns, and Dicellograp-
tttS will also show a monoserial pattern.
Certain monoserial graptoloids can be used for finer Silurian delimitation.
Spiral" Monograpttts spiralis" indicate strata near the Lower-Middle Silurian
boundary.'x, If one finds rather simple straight Mon.ograptns in which the
distal or lower ends consistently have a rather simple twist then the chances
favoul' a Middle Silurian age (see PI. 7, Fig. 10) .
The above graptoloid trends- multibranched for Lower; biserial for Middle
and Upper Ordovician; and monoserial for Silurian-will hold in nearly all
cases if one uses abundance as a criterion. Certainly easily recognizable
genera described below which do not show the above trends can also be used
in correlation.
Phyllograptns is a Lower Ordovician quadriserial graptoloid, i .e., thecae
or tubes arranged in four rows. With ·b urial the colony is almost invariably
flattened to give a leaf-like carbonaceous film. The genus is abundant and
should be associated with multibranched graptoloids and Isograptns.
Is.ograptns, another Lower Ordovician genus, is usually preserved as a
small fan-like structure which represents the early growth stages. Mature

*On Fig. 1 it will be seen that the very highest part of the British Lower Silurian
(Llandoverian) is equivalent to the lower part of the American 'Middle Silurian
(Niagaran). Graptolite specialists often refer to the British section in identifica-
tion. Hence their Lower Silurian designation for a graptolite fauna may actual-
ly be Middle Silurian in American terminology. The reader is advised to query
when uncertainty exists.
 9

colonies, which preserve rather rarely, have the V-shaped appearance shown
on Fig. 3 of PI. 7.
Dicmnograptus starts biserally later splitting into two monoserial branches.
Although rare in western Canada, it is important because it can be identified
with certainty in the field. It appears most diagnostic for Middle Ordovician.
Dicellograptus defines Middle and Upper Ordovician. The shape is that
of a "V" with a fiat base. Any variation away from such shape should be
considered with caution as it could be mistaken for the Lower and Middle
Ordovican Didymograptus. Dicellograpttts is reclined (stipes bend back from
point of earliest growth) while Didymograptus is pendent (stipes bend in
direction of earliest growth). Both genera look like mature Isograptus, but
have much thinner stipes.
Although rare, Cyrt.ograptus is an excellent Silurian guide. Essentially it
is a broad spiral from which branches, occasionally dichotomous, extend out
at intervals. It is important to remember the spiral pattern otherwise the
genus could be confused with Lower Ordovician multibranched forms like
Goniograptus and Zygograptus.
Corals
(Plates 9-13)
In western Canada corals are very abundant in carbonate or shaly carbonate
rocks and almost always indicate strata from Middle Ordovician to Permian.
They are very rare in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. It is im,portant to remember
that Cambrian and Lower Ordovician strata do not bear corals. Hence a
profound absence of them may be significant.
There are two broad groups of corals:
1. Tabulate (Aseptate) corals. These are without septa and always colonial.
As basic structure they have thecal wall and tabulae. In growth pattern
the corallites may be fasciculate (organ-pipe), halysitoid (chain-like) or
cerioid (honey-comb). The genera Syringopora, Halysites and Favosites,
respectively, show these patterns (see PIs. 9-11) .
2. Septate corals. As the name implies these corals bear septa-vertical radiat-
ing plate-like partitions. Along with septa, they have a thecal wall, tabulae
and often other structures like dissepiments, columella, and fossula. Septate
corals are either solitary (cup or horn corals) or colonial. The latter are
mosly cerioid or fasciculate; halysitoid forms are rare.
Tabulate Corals
Halysitid or chain-corals indicate Upper Ordovician and Silurian strata.
Two distinct groups are recognized. The first identifies mainly Upper Ordo-
vician and has the individual corallites directly appressed against adjacent
ones. Thus corallite outline is sub-oval or quadrangular. Catenipora has
the corallites in single rows, and Manipom in rather irregular multiple rows.
It is im,portant to identify the chain-like growth pattern in Manipora, other-
wise it may mistaken for a cerioid coral. Manipom feildeni (PI. 9, Fig. 7)
has tiny, almost circular corallites which are usually in single rows. The
r eader is cautioned against mistaking it for H alysites as the chains may show
a pinching and swelling effect because of the corallite shape. This species is
n early always well preserved, however, so that the corallites can tbe seen
abutting directly against each other.
The second group is represented by the single genus H alysifies. Small
tubules (see PI. 9, Fig. 9) intervene between oval corallites imparting a
• noticeable pinching and swelling effect to the rows .
To distinguish these two groups a magnifying glass should not be necessary
to tell Ordovician from Silurian. If the rows shows only a weak pinch and
 •
r
10

swell effect the containing rocks are Ordovician (PI. 9, Fig. 1). If the effect
is strong then Silurian is indicated (PI. 9, Fig. 5).
Occasionally Catenipom extends into the Silurian (see Jull, 1962, Figs. 1
and 2). When it does, however, the corallites are always strongly oval im-
parting a noticeable pinch and swell effect to the rows. Thus the genus may
be incorrectly identified as Halysites, but still be correctly dated.
The writer wishes to stress that chain corals are an abundant element of
the Ordovician fauna in western and northern Canada. For many years it
was assumed that all chain corals occurred only in Silurian. For this reason
much of our Ordovician (e.g. Ronning Group) was originally called Silurian,
an assignment that is still being sorted out.
Cerioid tabulate corals or favositids are practically confined to the Middle
Ordovician-Devonian interval and are represented by a host of genera, of
which only the pore bearing Palaeofavosites and Fav,osites are useful for field
delimitation.
Palaeofavosites has mural pores in the wall angles and is very characteristic
of the high Upper Ordovician interval represented by the Stony Mountain
Formation of southern Manitoba (see Nelson, 1959, 1963) .
Favosites is practically identical with Palaeofavosites and like that genus
corallite size will vary from a fraction to over 5 mm. Favosites is indicative
of Silurian and Devonian strata and has as its distinguishing feature mural
pores in the walls with none or very few in the wall angles.
With both Palaeofavosites and Favosites it is necessary to develop "mural
pore eyes" a difficult but rewarding talent if one wishes to distinguish Ordovi-
cian from Siluro-Devonian. These pores will rarely appear as discrete open-
ings. They are nearly always filled and flush with the wall. The geologist
should look for regularly arranged and sized discoloured spots, perhaps using
a wet surface under differing light intensities and angles. As pores are often
destroyed during fossilization they may be preserved only on a small portion
of the colony, or not at all. In the latter case it is advisable to find another
colony and begin again. Occasionally these favositid genera fracture giving
a crisp, well preserved transverse surface. The pores will then appear as
wall breaks like those shown on Figs. 2 and 6 of PI. 10.
Most cerioid tabulate corals grew as massive or hemispherical colonies.
Occasionally Favosites or related genera will develo,p a branching habit, like
"Favosites limita1"is" (PI. 11, Figs. 1-3)" Such a growth habit is very char-
acteristic of Middle or low Upper Devonian, even when the genus is not
Favosites. Such genera as Coenites and T.hamnopora (PI. 11, Fig. 1) exhibit
this pattern and almost always indicate Devonian.
Alveolites is an aberrant cerioid coral in that corallites are oval rather than
polygonal. It is necessary to use a magnifying glass for identification because
corallites are commonly only a millimetre or so wide. Alveolites indicates
Silurian or Devonian.
Fasciculate tabulate corals, the syringoporids, are represented by one main
genus, Syringopom the organ-pipe coral which is not a good guide because
it ranges from Upper Ordovician to Permian. In some instances, however, it
can be very useful for intra-systemic correlation (see Nelson, 1961b, 1962a).
Syring'op,ora col'umbiana Wilson, (PI. 11, Fig. 3) very easy to identify because
of the extremely small and compact corallites, is the one specific representative
worthy of note. It appears characteristic of high Upper Ordovician strata.
Heliolitids are a special group commonly placed with tabulates, but which
bear little relationship to the normal halysitoid, cerioid or fasciculate types.
 j

11

They include many genera of which H eliolites, LyelZia, Plasrnopora and Cala-
IJOecia are most common. The characteristics of this group are larger, gen-
erally round corallites (macrocorallites) surrounded by much smaller ones
(microcorallites) or occasionally vesicular tissue. It is not advisable to
attempt generic identification in the field. Assume only that the containing
strata are Upper Ordovician to Devonian, with chances favouring the Siluro-
Devonian interval.
Septate Corals
Any septate coral found in western Canada is almost invariably Palaeozoic,
and within the Middle Ordovician to Permian range. Mesozoic and Cenozoic
representatives are so rare as to be practically museum pieces.
Solitary septate corals, popularly called cup or horn corals because of their
conical shape, are very dangerous fossils with which to correlate and even
after laboratory study conflicting results often occur. 'rhere is proba,bly
only one trend useful in the field: the presence of a dissepimentarium (see
PI. 13, Figs. 1-2) . If the coral contains one then the containing rocks are
probably post-Ordovician. Absence of this structure cannot ibe relied upon
to indicate only Ordovician as many Silurian and later corals bear no dissepi-
mentarium.
Of the myriads of Palaeozoic cup corals in western Canada only four
species or genera should be relied upon in the field: LobocoraZZiurn (Stnptel-
asma) trilobaturn, Bighornia, CystiphyZZurn and H eliophyZZurn. LobocoraZZiwn
trilobaturn (Whiteaves), as the trivial name suggests has a tri-lobed thecal wall
as outstanding feature. The species is easy to recognize even with fragments
and is widespread over northern and western North America, occurring in
high Upper Ordovician strata coeval with the Stony Mountain Formation of
southern Manitoba.
Bighornia is diagnosed by the flattened thecal wall, occasionally with a spoon
shaped depression. It occurs in high Upper Ordovician strata but the associa-
tion of Loboc.oraZZiurn trilobahlrlt, Palaeofavosites, etc., should be sought as
some post-Ordovician cup corals tend to become flattened.
CystiphyZZttrn is a bizarre genus in which nearly all septa are lost and
tabulae develop an irregular vesicular or cystose habit. The specimen should
be ,broken to determine the cystose interior as ghost septa may appear on
weathered calices. CystiphylZu1n is confined to the Silurian and Devonian
systems.
H eliophyZZ'Urn is probably one of the few cup coral genera that the geologist
will remember from his school days. The characteristic feature is the small
carinae on the septa (see Fig. 7,Pl. 12) giving an appearance somewhat like
the diagrammatic representation of sun rays. The genus is diagnostic for
Middle Devonian strata.
Colonial corals are similar to solitary corals in that they are characteristic
of the same Middle Ordovician to Permian interval in western Canada and
contain very few genera trustworthy in field correlation. Here, however, the
similarities end for many colonial corals turn out to be excellent index fossils
when subjected to laboratory analysis. Thus they should be assiduously
sought and collected.
Several trends are reliable:
1. Dissepimentarium. Like cup corals a dissepimentarium (PI. 13, Fig. 1)
suggests a post-Ordovician interval. Absence, however, does not necessarily
indicate Ordovician only. A special kind is a lonsdaleoid dis sepim entariu1n,
highly diagnostic for Permo-Carboniferous, particularly MissiSSippian
 ..
I 12

rocks, which usually shows up only on transverse sections (PI. 13, Fig. 4).
Here the septa appear to retreat to central portions of the corallites, leav-
ing peripheral areas with dissepimentarium. It is stressed that the interior
of the colony be examined for these structures. Often weathered surfaces
will show ghost septa extending out to the periphery like 'Fig. 4 of PI. 13.
2. Breaking Habit. If a cerioid coral breaks with columnar habit the chances
favour Devonian (see PI. 13, Fig. 2). It goes without saying that this
generalization is dangerous. Verification should be sought in the associated
fauna.
Although laboratory analysis of colonial corals will usually yield significant
results, there are only three genera which should be relied upon in the field:
Py.cnostylus, Billingsastraea and Lithostrotionella.
Pycnostylus is a loosely branching fasciculate colony which might be mis-
taken for a tabulate coraL Septa are very short or lacking and as a result
tabulae dominate the interior. They are unlike those in other corals in that
they are widely and unevenly spaced. The genus is rare, but very diagnostic
for Silurian.
Billingsastraea (Phillipsastraea) is a cerioid coral without walls, and thu3
septa from adjacent corallites appear confluent. The weathering habit is such
that it mimics heliolitid tabulate corals in transverse section. Hence close
attention should be paid to structure. Corallite size may help in distinguish-
ing the two : those of Billingsastraea are usually quite large (5-10 mm.) while
heliolitids are typically tiny. Billingsastraea is confined to the Middle and
Upper Devonian.
Lithostrotionella, diagnostic for Permo-Carboniferous, is cerioid with a
lonsdaleoid dissepimentarium. As mentioned previously this latter structure •
should be sought on fresh, not weathered surfaces. Facies relationships are
such that if the genus is found in Alberta and British Columbia its age is
probably Mississippian. In the Yukon and Northwest Territories, including
the Arctic Islands, it is more likely Permo-Pennsylvanian.
PHYLUM BRAOHIOPODA
Brachiopods by reason of their shear abundance are among the most im-
portant of all Palaeozoic fossils. With them there is no smooth syrup for
field identification. They are difficult. The field worker must realize this
and be prepared to make mistakes. The various component groups such as
spiriferids, orthids, terebratulids and the like can be used with caution in
the field to delimit broad portions of the geologic column. Fortunately la,bora-
tory analysis usually will yield more finite correlations and hence collections
should be as complete as possible.
In the following discussion of the various brachiopod groups, representative
genera will be listed. These may help in prompting the reader's memory and
in directing him to palaeontology text books for supplementary information.
The r eader should remember the ease with which a brachiopod can be mis-
taken for a pelecypod. In the former the beak is central with mirror image
on either side. In pelecypods the beak is usually off-centre, giving an assymet-
rical appearance to the shell. In profile the valves of hrachiopods are generally
of differing size and/ or convexity, while those of pelecypods are equaL
The phylum Brachiopoda is divided into two broad classes: Inarticulata
and Articulata. The inarticulates, so called because they lack artiCUlating
teeth are very poor index fossils and extend from Cambrian to Recent. Since
their shell is often chitinous they may be blackish or greyish when fossilized.
Articulates, on the other hand, have teeth and thus a simple muscle systejm.
Their shell is mainly calcite and they often preserve with a light colour.
 •

13

Inarticulate Brachiopods
(Plate 14)
The most common inarticulate is Lingula (s.l.) which ranges from Cambrian
• to Recent. Locally it can be useful in western Canada. For example if the
geologist knows he is on Triassic strata, and finds abundant Lingttla) the
chances favour a Middle Triassic assignment.
Orbiculoidea is a brachiopod that looks like a small gramophone record .
• In western Canada it appears restricted mainly to Permo-Carboniferous,
particularly Permo-Pennsylvanian.
Articulate Brachiopods
(Plates 14-26)
Articulate ,brachiopods, by far the most common and useful members of
this phylum, nearly always indicate strata extending from Ordovician to Per-
mian, and particularly from Middle Ordovician onward. Locally they may
be common in portions of the Triassic System but represented by restricted
groups.
For the various articulate groups discussed below - orthids, spiriferids,
terebratulids and the like-it must be stressed that internal characters are
usually very important in definition; external shape is often secondary. In
the field, however, it is necessary to depend almost entirely on external shape
and hence mistakes may be made. Laboratory examination of internal struc-
tures may later rectify such error.
For field purposes the writer recognizes eleven articulate brachiopod groups:
- orthids, dalmanellids, pentamerids, strophomenids, productids, rhynchonellids,
spiriferids, punctospiriferids, atrypids, rostrospiriferids, and terebratulids.
Orthids
• Orthid hrachiopods are fairly large with wide hinge, subquadrate outline
and rather coarse ribs. In profile the valves are gently bi-convex, or with one
valve nearly plane. They are indicative of Ordovician and Silurian strata,
particUlarly the former. If an orthid has about the same shape and size as
the Plaesiomys o.ccidentalis, shown on Figs. 3 to 6 of PI. 14, a very late
Ordovician horizon should be suspected, one roughly coeval with the Stony
Mountain Formation of southern Manitoba. Such orthids are ubiquitous in
this horizon over much of western Canada, and confirming evidence should
be sought in associated fauna (see p. 27).
Typical genera are Dinorthis) Plaesiomys, If eberteZZa, Platystrophia and
Ifesp er.or this .
DalmaneZZids
Dalmanellid brachiopods are typically small with oval outline, fine ribs and
cardinal area. In profile they are gently biconvex or may have one valve
nearly plane. They are not reliable field fossils because an immature orthid
may be confused with a dalmanellid. Palaeontology text books all stress that
dalmanellids are punctate, and orthids impunctate. For practical purposes,
nowever, it is impossible to distinguish the two. .
Representative genera are DalnwneZZa, Rhipid.omeZZa, Schizophoria, If eteror-
this, Diceronvyonia and Resserella.
Small dalmanellids, usually one-half inch or less wide, are characteristic
• of Ordovician and Silurian. Large specimens, those which may be three-quar-
ters to one inch in width, like RhipidomeZZa, are more common in the upper
Palaeozoic.
r "1

14

PentamC1'ids
Pentamerid brachiopods are large, typically elongate, medium to strongly
biconvex with a surface either smooth or ribbed. Virgiana, Pentamerus, Oon-
chidium and Gypidula are typical genera. The elongate shape and large size
are most important in identifying well preserved individuals. One of the
most characteristic pentamerid structures is a spondylium, an elongate trough-
like muscle platform on the interior of the valve. Well preserved shells may
indicate this structure by a long line near the beak.
Very often pentamerids are preserved as dolomitized internal moulds. When
this happens the spondylium and opposed septa are weathered out as pro-
nounced elongate cracks near the heaks (see PI. 15, Fig. 3). If such speci-
mens are large they can be assumed to belong to the pentamerid group and
indicate Silurian. It is rather anomalous, but such poorly preserved penta-
merids are safer to identify in the field than well preserved ones. The overall
range of the pentamerid group is Ordovician to Devonian, but they are most
common and characteristic in the Silurian System.
Str-ophomenids
Strophomenid brachiopods, although a group readily identifiable, are indiv-
idually extremely unreliable index fossils. All that should be assumed is that
containing strata are in the Middle Ordovician to Permian interval. They
have a wide hinge with cardinal area, semi-circular outline and fine ribs, occa-
sionally almost striae. The most distinguishing feature is valve convexity:
one valve is gently convex, and the other gently concave. The living animal
must have been almost paper-thin. Familiar genera are Rafinesquina, Stro-
phomena, S chtl,chertella, Leptaena and Ort7wtetes.
About the only strophomenids which can he used in the field for more
r efined correlation are those belonging to genera like lIiesolobus and Oh,onetina.
Their characteristic is a pronounced, narrow fold and sinus-structures lacking
on typical strophomenids. Such genera are Permo-Pennsylvanian, particularly
Permian in western Canada.
Productids
Pro.ductid brachiopods, distant relatives of strophomcnids, are important
field fossils because they are easy to identify and indicate Permo-Carboniferous;
a rather limited range for a brachiopod order. Valve convexity is the most
im,portant classificatory feature: the ventral is highly convex and the dorsal
fiat or concave. The outline of the shell is rather variable, although the hinge
tends to be fairly wide and is always without cardinal area.
Most productids have a ribbed surface although a few, like the horridonid
group, are smooth. One of the more diagnostic productid features are spines.
These may cover the entire valve surface or be restricted to certain areas.
Almost always the spines are not preserved; only their base remains which
leaves a bump on the valve surface (see PI. 18, Fig. 5).
The reader is referred to a recent publication by Muir-Wood and Cooper
(1962) which describes in detail the myriads of productids. For field pur-
poses only six productid groups are recognized here: dictyoclostids, linopro-
ductids, horridonids, waagenoconchids, echinoconchids and productellids.
Dictyoclostids are the most common group among the productids. Typically
they have a rather wide hinge and (most important) coarse, rather irregular
ribs. The latter are very distinctive in that they commonly show a rough
pinching and swelling effect due to interruption by growth lines. The reader
should learn to r ecognize such ribs as even small valve fragments (PI. 16, Fig.
3) are sufficient to indicate Permo-Carboniferous.
 I

15

Linoproductid brachiopods are much like dictyoclostids in size range and

outline. Their distinctive feature is numerous fine regular ribs. A Mississip-
pian linoproductid looks much like a Permian one, and hence they should be
relied upon only to indicate the Permo-Carboniferous interval. Only one
genus is useful for accurate calibration. This is the Permian genus Muir-
woodia. It is a rather atypical linoproductid in that it is transversely elongate.
It is of medium size and may have a sinus. It appears in fair abundance in
• northern Canada where it indicates Lower Permian strata .
Horridonid brachiopods are very common over northern Canada, but occur
only in local pockets to the south. They are an extremely useful field fossil
in that they are easy to identify and indicative of Permo-Pennsylvanian strata.
The group characteristic is a nearly smooth valve surface. There are no ribs
although often rude irregular rib-like protuberances appear on anterior por-
tions of the valves.
Although externally identical there are actually two diverse horridonid
genera in northern Canada. The first, indicative of Pennsylvanian, is prob-
ably a new genus with spine bases along the ventral (hinge) cardinal margin
and none along the dorsal. The valve surface is poorly preserved but appears
lamellose.
The second, occurring much more commonly, likely belongs with the genus
H orridonia and is indicative of Lower and lower Upper Permian strata. It
has spine bases along the dorsal cardinal margin and none along the ventral.
Shell surface is typically pustulose. The reader is referred to Nelson (1962c)
for a more detailed discussion of these horridonids. In the field it is partic-
>
ularly important to maintain a search until specimens with preserved cardinal
spine bases are found. They are destroyed or obscured in the vast majority
of specimens.
Waagenoconchid brachiopods lack ribs and are variable in shape and size.
Their diagnostic feature is that the entire valve surfaces are covered with
minute spines arranged diagonally. When broken the spine bases show a
very characteristic pattern like that on Figs. 1-3 of PI. 20. Waage1wconcha,
the most common genus, is important because a small fragment of a valve is
sufficient for determination (PI. 20, Fig. 4). The genus and the group are
indicative of Permian and Pennsylvanian strata in western Canada, particular-
ly the former.
Echinoconchid productids have valves with concentrically arranged bands
bearing minute spines. The banding is the most apparent and diagnostic
feature as bases of these spines are often hard to discern. Echinoconchid
species are difficult to identify and in the field all that should be assumed
is that containing strata are Permo-Carboniferous.
Productellids are a special group of productids which, except for bearing
spines, might be ,p laced with the strophomenids on the basis of outline and
valve convexity. The group is mentioned here solely because of one abundant
and striking species-Productella (Quadratia) hirstdifonnis Girty, a fairly
large brachiopod with typically irregular rugose valve surfaces. Spine bases
are rarely seen. Productella hirsutifonnis is probably a facies fossil but so
far it appears restricted to the Upper Mississippian of northern British Colum-
bia, the Yukon and the Northwest Territories (Nelson, 1961a). The association
of L eiorhynchus carboniferum Girty should be verified (see page 16 and PI.
20, Fig. 7, this paper).
• Rhynchondlids
Rhynchonellid brachiopods are very poor index fossils because they are long
ranging and show little morphological difference from system to system. The
 ----------- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - , .

16

reader may remember the difficulty he had distinguishing the Ordovician

Rhynchotre?1'ia from the Silurian Camarotoechia: a problem still plaguing pres-
ent-day students (and professors). With most of this group about all that
should be assumed is that containing rocks are Middle Ordovician to Jurassic,
with chances favouring the Palaeozoic portion.
Perversely, the rhynchonellids are among the easiest to identify of all
brachiopod groups. They are of small or medium size with a subtriangular
outline, narrow hinge, coarse ribs and generally a well-defined fold and sinus.
In profile the valves tend to be quite biconvex. The overall aspect of a
rhynchonellid brachiopod is thus somewhat like a hazelnut.
Leiorhynchid brachiopods are a special kind of rhynchonellid in which the
ribs on lateral areas are absent or weakly defined. They are represented by
a host of genera among which Leiorhynchus, Pugnoides, Hypothryidvna and
Uncinulus are perhaps best known. The leiorhynchids are better age indi-
cators than the average rhynchonellid in that they should indicate Upper
Palaeozoic. The reader is referred to the rather large "Leiorhynchus" sp.
on Figs. 10 to 12 of PI. 21 with two to three very coarse ribs in the fold and
sinus. This brachiopod is larger and less biconvex than the normal leiorhyn-
chid and appears to define Wolfcampian (Lower Permian) strata in northern
Canada.
Leim-hynchtlS car-b,oniferum Girty is a rather nondescript medium-sized
leiorhynchid, mentioned here only because it is commonly found as the asso-
ciate of Productella hirsutiformis Girty (PI. 20, Fig. 7). In northern Can-
ada the two define Upper Mississippian strata (see page 29).
Spiriferids
Spiriferid brachiopods are one of the most common elements in Upper
Palaeozoic faunas. Their most diagnostic feature is in the interior where
•
the dorsal valve bears laterally directed spiralia. These are rarely preserved
but do tend to impress a transversely-elongate outline upon the shell, often
with pointed or acute lateral extremities. Spiriferids have well-defined ribs, .
a .p alpable fold and sinus which mayor may not hear ribs, and a rather
broad cardinal area with triangular delthyrium. The profile is usually mediumly
biconvex.
Identification of the spiriferid group should be made only if it conforms
to the above description. There are many genera with great varieties of
shapes and often departing radically from this norm. The more typical genera
are SpirifC1", N eospirifer, Cyrtospirif:er, Brachythyris and Platyra,chella.
Rib pattern can be useful in making more discrete correlations within the
Up,p er Palaeozoic if caution is used. Bundled ribs like those shown on Figs.
5 to 7 of PI. 22 are characteristic of the genus N eospirifer and highly diag-
nostic for Permo-Pennsylvanian strata. This bundling can be more suhtle
than shown, and commonly tangential light is needed before it is apparent.
It should be stressed that normal spiriferids with unbundled ribs are often
common in the Permian and Pennsylvanian, as well as the Devonian and
Mississippian systems.
Spirifer.elZa is a most atypical spiriferid in that it is commonly longer than
wide. Ribs are coarse and rather rudely bundled. All these manifest fea-
tures make the genus easy to identify. Spiriferella is a good index fossil for
the Permian System, particularly in northern Canada and Alaska.
Punctospiriferids
Punctospiriferids are rather small spire-bearing brachiopods having a punc-
tate shell (see PI. 23, Fig. 7). Although not common they can be confused
 •

17

with the spiriferids which many mimic in external shape (e.g. Punctospirifer,
Cyrtina, Spiriferina). Still others have shapes approaching the atrypid and
rhynchonellid groups (e.g. Eurnetria, H orneospira) . The overall range of this
rather difficult group is Silurian to Triassic. The latter genera are best iden-
tified in the laboratory. It is the former which have spiriferid shapes that
may cause trouble. The reader is advised to examine closely the shell surface
.. of any small spiriferid. If it is punctate he should be aware that the con-
taining rocks may be Triassic rather than Palaeozoic.
Rostr.o spiriferids
Rostrospiriferid brachiopods are diagnosed by outward directed spiralia -
very similar to those of the spiriferid group. Here, however, the similarity
ends for rostrospiriferids are small- to medium-sized, smooth, biconvex shells,
with rather narrow hinge. Composita, Cleiothyridina, Athyris and Whitfield-
ella are the more common genera. The group is quite abundant and easy to
identify. However, its long range-Middle Silurian to Jurassic-makes it of
minor value in correlation, especially since individual genera are rather hard
to sort out. Nevertheless rostrospiriferids are most abundant in the Permo-
Carboniferous. The reader should be aware of the differences between the
rostrospiriferids and the externally similar terebratulids described below.
Atrypids
Atrypid brachiopods, represented by numerous genera, range from Middle
Ordovician to Lower Mississippian. The external shape of the group is rather
variable; the basic feature is the rarely ,p reserved atrypid spiralia-spires
usually directed inward and toward the floor of the dorsal valve. The variation
in external form necessitates identifying the group by genera-Atrypa, Zygo-
spira, Atrypella, Lepf}ocoelia, etc.-and hence its use in field correlation is
limited. The reader is strongly advised to recognize Atrypa, characterized by
a sub-pentagonal to semi-circular outline, with nearly flat ventral, and convex
dorsal valves. Ribs are present and may vary from fine to coarse. Plate 25,
Figs. 1-10 show the various aspects of this genus. Atrypa is a ubiquitous,
common and very diagnostic Devonian fossil.
In northern Canada high Silurian strata often contain very small Atrypa
in the order of one-quarter inch. When such Atrypa are in abundance with-
out signs of larger individuals, the geologist should be sus,p icious of a Silurian
rather than Devonian interval.
Terenratulids
Terebratulids are externally very similar to rostrospiriferids in being bicon-
vex. with narrow hinge. The shell surface is also typically smooth, although
~ome genera do have ribs. Diagnostic features of the group are punctatc
shell ~urface (PI. 24, Figs. 16 and 17) and looped brachidium. Unfortunately
both are rarely preserved leaving the geologist in a quandary as to whether
his specimen~ are terebratnlids or rost.rospiriferids. This is something that
can be solved only in the laboratory. It is especially important for the field
, worker to be aware of the differences in range of the two groups. Where
•• rostrospiriferids are exclusively Palaeozoic, terebratulids extend from U,p per
Silurian to Recent. Hence the possibility exists that when such smooth bi-
convex brachiopods occur without helpful associated fauna, the rocks may be
. Mesozoic or Cenozoic, rather than Palaeozoic .
Of the numerous terebratulid genera like Terebratulina, Cranaena, I1.ingena,
Rensselandia, Stringocephalus and Dielasma, only the last three are useful in
field correlation.
,

18

Rensselan,dia is a rather large, elongate terebratulid with fine ribs. Punctae

are rarely preserved. The genus is not common but appears typical of the
Middle Devonian Ramparts Formation in northwestern Canada. Rensselandia
may be confused with a pentamerid-the relatively fine ribs are then most
helpful in identification. These are not preserved on PI. 26.
Stringocephalus is a rather atypical terebratulid because of the large size it
sometimes reaches-occasionally three or four inches. Aside from this it is •
like most terebratulids in being biconvex, smooth and narrow-hinged. Interiors
of both valves have septa which weathering may cause to form ~pondylium­
like grooves. Hence the large size and grooves often cause Stringlocephalus
to be mistaken for Silurian pentamerids. There is no easy way of separating
the two in the field (the diagnostic punctae are rarely preserved in Stringo-
cephalus). Shell outline may help if one is fortunate enough to find good
specimens; that of Stringocephalus is typically about as wide as long, where-
aspentamerids are typically longer than wide.
Dielasma is a small- to medium-sized smooth terebratulid quite useful for
determining Permo-Carboniferous. 'rhe shape is elongate-oval with a gently
biconvex profile, commonly made weakly biconvex by compression. Punctae,
for some reason, are nearly always preserved and generic identification should
not be made without them.
PHYLUM BRYOZOA (POL YZOA)
(Plate 27)
Bryozoans, the "moss-animals" are an abundant element of Palaeozoic rocks
•
but are often passed over because of their rather insignificant size. They
occur in strata ranging from Middle Ordovician to Recent but not in Cambrian
01' Lower Ordovician. In Canada, probably because of facies relationships,
they are nearly all found in Palaeozoic rocks . Individual bryozoans are
minute and the shape of colonies they build so diverse that no generalization
-
can be made here. The reader is referred to his palaeontology text book for
a more complete coverage of the phylum. Genera like Batostoma, Prasopora,
II aZlopora, Fenestrellina, Fistulipora, Archimedes, Stenopora, will indicate
the great diversity of shapes in this phylum.
Bryozoans are not good index fossils, either in field or laboratory. They
are very difficult to identify and only two should be trusted. The first is the
genus Archil1wdes and the second are the fenestellids-a rather large group
with numerous genera.
Archi11'/'edes should be familiar to most readers because of the spiral portion
of the colony which resulted in the generic name. The genus is Permo-Car-
boniferous. Facies relationships are such that it indicates Mississippian in
southern Canada, and Permo-Pennsylvanian in northern Canada.
Fenestellid bryozoans have a trellis-like colony and are usually indicative
of Permo-Carboniferous. It should be realized that such colonies can occur
in Silurian and Devonian rocks, albeit rather rarely. Fenestellid bryozoans
may be confused with the dendroid graptolite Dictyonema. When in doubt
lithology may help as the latter usually occurs in shale, while fenestellids
prefer a carbonate facies.
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
(Plate 27)
To the phylum Echinodermata belong the familiar eleutherozoans-starfish,
brittlestars and sea urchins-and the less familiar but geologically more im-
portant pelmatozoans - crinoids, blastoids, cystoids and edrioasteroids. AI-
 i

19

though diverse in shape all these animals tend toward radial symmetry with
five-fold plan of organization, and have a skeleton made up of discrete hut
usually closely appresscd calcite plates. Each of the latter is minutely porous
but made up of optically continuous calcite; in other words each is a calcite
crystal. Death almost always results in these plates separating from each
other and being spread as broken fragments far and wide over the sea floor.
. For this reason a complete or relatively complete echinoderm fossil is a rare
thing indeed.
We have reason to believe that echinoderms, probably pelmatozoans were
among the most abundant of all animals during the Palaeozoic Era. This is
because of the large amounts of crystalline calcite that by itself forms thick
deposits of "crinoidal" limestone (perhaps more accurately called pelmato-
zoan limestone) or goes toward helping form other sedimentary rocks, partic-
ularly the carbonates.
As useful index fossils then, echinoderms can be almost completely dis-
counted because they nearly always fragment before burial. Mention should,
however, be made here of the Jurassic crinoid Pentacrint~s which has a stem
usually with five sides like that shown on Figs. 5 and 6 of PI. 27. When five-
sided columnals are found the reader should look about for corroborating evi-
dence that he is on Jurassic strata. Similar columnals are known from earlier
rocks but are not so characteristic.
In northern Canada strata considered Lower Devonian occasionally yield
crinoid stems with two axial canals, rather than the single one found in the
• vast majority of crinoids. Thus columnals like those shown on Figs. 3 and 4
of PI. 27 should be suspiciously regarded as Lower Devonian. ~:,
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
The phylum Mollusca is a diverse and important assemblage of animals to
" which belong the geologically significant gastropods, pelecypods and cephalo-
pods. Molluscs have been important throughout nearly the whole of the
Phanerozoic Eon, and today continue to form a significant segment of the
earth's animal assemblage.
Gastropods
(Plate 28)
Gastropods do not appear in abundance until Ordovician and have main-
tained their numbers through to the present. Thus Cambrian rocks should
be expected to yield f ew or no gastropods.
They are very poor index fossils being extremely difficult to identify gener-
ically and specifically. Maclurit,es is the only genus which can be trusted in
the field. In western Canada it indicates Middle and low Upper Ordovician
strata in the interval of the Sunblood and Red River formations, and should
be associated with Receptactdites) Catenipora and the like. One side is flat
and the other gently sloping. To identify MacZt~rites the specimen should be
large-between three and six inches in diameter-and oriented with flat side
up. If the aperture is on the left then the genus is MacZurites . If, however,
the aperture is on the right an entirely .d ifferent genus is represented-possibly
the Middle Devonian BucheZia.
Tentaculitids are a problematical group of animals variously referred to as
coelenterates, annelids, cephalopods or gastropods. They are arbitrarily dis-

* Apparently these axial canals may approach each other and join so as to form
a figure eight in cross-section. The writer is indebted to T. Potter Chamney of
the Geological Survey of Canada for data on these Lower Devonian crinoids .
 ..

20

cussed here under the last and may actually have been swimming forms like
present-day pteropods. The shell is very small-in the order of one-quarter
inch in length-and acutely conical with transverse ornamentation. Tentacu-
litids commonly occur in swarms on bedding planes of strata ranging in age
from Ordovician to Devonian. In western Canada they nearly always indicate
Silurian or Devonian.

Pelecypods
(Plate 29)
Pelecypods, like gastropods, are rather unreliable fossils although there are
more useful field genera. For all practical purposes pelecypods are absent
from Cambrian and Lower Ordovician strata; and are generally rather rare ·
elements of the fauna from Middle Ordovician to Permian. With the near
extinction of brachiopods at the end of the Palaeozoic, pelecypods apparently
stepped into the vacated ecological niche and became common members of
Mesozoic and Cenozoic faunas. Thus when one finds pelecypads to be ubiqui-
tous, rather common and without associated brachiopods or corals, he should
suspect strata of post-Palaeozoic age.
Pectinoid pelecypods or the "pectens," rather easy to identify with their
well developed wings, coarse ribs and typically sub-central beak do not make
any significant appearance until the Mississippian Period. Although they
may be abundant in local pods of Permo-Carboniferous rocks-particularly
in the Mississippian of the Yukon Territory--even then they do not achieve
any degree of constancy until Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
The Lower Triassic PseudomO'notis and the Upper Triassic Mon.otis, rather
atypical pectinoids in that beak is somewhat off centre, are good indicators
for Triassic strata. Because they are so difficult to distinguish, however, the
geologist should not attempt intra-systemic division on the basis of morphology.
Along with the sub-central beak both genera have strong ribs which may
alternate in size. Monotis appears with more frequency than Pseud01nonotis
and is generally preserved like the ribbed valves shown on Fig. 6 of PI. 28.
The reader should familiarize himself with these ribs as fragments can some-
times be used to determine Triassic.
Three other pectinoid Triassic genera rather similar to Monotis and Pseudo-
manotis, but possessing finer ribs, are O~araia, H a~obia and Daonella. These
three are difficult to tell apart. Only D(f)onella is shown on the illustrations.
Buchia (Atu;ella) and Inoceramus are two mytiloid pelecypods often very
difficult to distinguish. Both have elongate valves with sub-triangular outline,
beaks off to one side and the surface covered by rather coarse, concentric rugae.
,Vhen both valves are preserved (which is rare) Buchia is inequivalved and
Inoc ercwntts equivalved. For field purposes the following size criterion can
be used: if the shells are consistently rather small, i.e. in the order of one to
two inches in length, then they are likely Bnchia of Late Jurassic or very
Early Cretaceous age. If the shells are larger, then the chances favour
Inoceran/,us of mainly Cretaceous age. -.
The ostreoids (oysters) do not appear with any abundance until the Creta-
ceous Period. A typical oyster lacks pelecypod symmetry and has one valve
rather deep and the other nearly :flat. The outline of both is quite variable
and rather amorphous, and the surface is covered by coarse, very irregular
rugae. Oysters are not good guide fossils in that they indicate only a Creta-
ceous to Recent interval. As environmental indicators, however, they are
often useful in that they occur near old shore lines, or on very shallow banks.
 'I

21

Cephalopods
(Plates 30-35)
The vast majority of fossil cephalopods are represented by nautiloids, am-
monoids and belemnoids.
Nautiloids
Nautiloid cephalopods range from Ordovician to Recent but are most com-
mon in Ordovician and Silurian rocks. In shape they vary from orthocone
(straight cone) through to a curved one (cyrtocone) and finally to a coiled
cone (nautilicone)"'. The most diagnostic nautiloid feature is the transverse
partitions called septa. These plates are rather simple, so that the resulting
suturest are simple.
Orthocones are the most common fossil nautiloids. Individual genera and
species are very difficult to identify for accurate horizon and all that should
be assumed is that containing rocks are likely Ordovician or Silurian, espe-
cially if the shells are fairly large. Occasionally a few small orthocones~
at most about four inches long and one half inch wide-occur higher than
Silurian, especially in the Upper Devonian Fort Creek shale of northwestern
Canada (see Pl. 30, Fig. 3) .
Often the siphuncle of orthocones and other nautiloids will swell strongly
between septa and result in a beaded structure similar to that on Figs. 1 and
3 of PIs. 30 and 31, respectively. Such siphuncles often break completely
free of the shell and have caused geologists considerable perplexity as to their
OrIglll. They are common, easy to recognize and almost always confined to
Upper Ordovician and Silurian.
The genus Diestoceras is a special type of squat orthocone, technically
termed brevicone. In western Canada these are common in Upper Ordovician
. across both the interval of the Red River and Stony Mountain formations.
Similar hrevicones, although generically different, also occur in Silurian strata
but are relatively much rarer.
Cyrtocone nautiloids are less common than orthocones, and rather difficult
to identify in the field. The writer draws the reader's attention to two com-
mon Upper Ordovician guide fossils-with considerable trepidation, however,
as similar forms occasionally occur in Silurian rocks. One of these is W inni-
pegoceras with a fairly straight living chamber and curved phragmocone.
The other is Cyrtogomphoceras, a rather squat, slightly curved cyrtocone. It
is important to note the position of siphuncle in identifying the last because
it is close to the nearly straight, not the curved side as in the great majority
of curved cephalopods. Winnipegoceras occurs over the interval correspond-
ing to both the Red River and Stony Mountain formations, whereas Cyrt,o-
gomphoceras appears confined to strata coeval with the former unit.
Nautilicone nautiloids are rare and essentially collector's items. They ap-
pear most frequently in Ordovician and Silurian strata but can be expected
sporadically in any younger system. The present day pearly Nautilus of the
south seas is a member of this group.
• Billingsites isa special kind of nautiloid impossible to classify as orthocone,
cyrtocone or nautilicone. The genus starts as a cyrtocone then later adds on

*The term "nautili cone" is used here in a very broad sense for any cephalopod
shell that is coiled, whether involute, advolute or convolute.
tSutures will appear on a cephalopod shell only after the outer wall has broken
off. See Figs. 1 and 2 of PI. 33 for examples.
 •

22

an ellipsoid or egg-shaped shell called an ascocone. The cyrtocone is nearly

always lost: only the ellipsoid remains with its peculiar flexed sutures. Al-
though not a common fossil by any means Billingsites has to be mentioned
because
. it is so easy to recognize and such a good indicator for Upper O~dovi -
Clan.
A11'Lnwnoids
Ammonoids are one step up the cephalopod evolutionary ladder in that
septa and thus sutures are crenulated. Why it was advantageous to develop
such a pattern has never been properly explained. Whatever the reason suture
crenulation has given field geologists a good tool for broad age determination,
and ammonoid specialists are usually able to follow this up with a very
accurate dating. Thus these fossils should be sought and extensively collected.
The ammonoid group ranges from Devonian to Cretaceous. Unlike nautil-
oids, which are rather variable in shape, most ammonoids are nautilicone.
Those of the Palaeozoic are typically small-less than the size of a golf ball.
Mesozoic ammonoids can attain much larger sizes. Based upon suture pattern
the earliest and simplest members are the goniatite ammonoids. These were
later followed by the more complex ceratite and finally by the most complex
of all, the arn.monite ammonoids. It is recommended that the field geologist
content himself only with recognizing goniatites, ceratites and ammonites.
Except for the few genera described below, any attempt at field generic or
specific identification may ibe misleading. Ammonoids are a vast group with
many pitfalls for the unwary.
Goniatite ammonoids extend from Devonian to Permian and are distin-
guished by sutures forming simple saddles and lobes. * They are very rare
in Canada although occasionally the Permo-Carboniferous of northern Can-
ada will yield them.
Ceratite ammonoids range from Mississippian to Triassic and represent a
further evolutionary stage in that lobes are minutely crenulated- so muC'h
so that a magnifying glass is needed. Saddles remain smooth as in the gonia-
tites. In Canada ceratites are practically confined to Triassic strata.
Natho1"stites is Middle Triassic and one of the few ceratite genera easy to
identify. It is small to medium sized, smooth and with a pronounced ventral
keel. Sutures rarely show on Nath;o1"stites-external shape has to be used
alone.
Ammonites represent the culmination of ammonoid evolution in that both
saddles and lobes are crenulated.t Usually the crenulations are so complex
and flowery that it is difficult to distinguish the saddle portion from the lobe.
Ammonites are exclusively Mesozoic, extending from Triassic to Cretaceous.
It should be emphasized again that sutures will appear on cephalopods,
whether they be nautiloids or ammonoids, only after the outer wall has peeled
off. Many cephalopods, particularly ammonites maintain this wall and thus
inhibit field dating. A tool that can be used--a dangerous one-is surface
ornamentation. Most nautiloids, goniatites and ceratites have a fairly smooth
exterior as do many ammonites. Some ammonites, however, have developed •
nodes, ridges, keels and the like. Thus an ornamented cephalopod may very
well be a Mesozoic ammonite.
*Such saddles and lobes can also occur in nautiloids; by definition a goniatite
must have small ventral lobes. For field purposes, however, saddles and lobes
nearly always are restricted to goniatites.
tSome of the ammonites regressed in the Cretaceous and developed ceratite
sutures. -Fortunately these are very rare.
 23

About the only trustworthy ammonite genera are N eogastroplites and the
rather bizarre Baculites. Both are Cretaceous; the former identifies Lower
and the latter the Upper part of the System. N eogastroplites is large and has
the surface covered by pronounced knobs. In early life Baculites is nautili-
cone but later becomes orthocone. Only the latter is usually preserved and
sutures will mark it as an ammonite.
B elernnoids
Where nautiloids and ammonoids evolved in such a way as to crenulate septa
and sutures, the belemnoid group went a totally different direction and made
the shell internal. The advantages to this should be obvious. Instead of hav-
ing to carry around a cumbersome, feelingless shell as did the nautiloids and
ammonoids an internal shell is covered with external flesh with all the myriad
nerve endings. Thus a definite sense of touch and a greater awareness of
potential danger is gained.
Belemnoids or belemnites appeared first in the Mississippian and died in
the Eocene. Except for Jurassic occurrences they are exceedingly rare in
Canada and Alaska. During this period they underwent such an abrupt
expansion that it is often called the" age of belemnites."
A typical belemnite shell preserves two main structures, a phragmocone
and a guard (rostrum). The phragmocone indicates its ancestral heritage as
early representatives of the animal may have began life essentially as orthocone
nautiloids. Shortly thereafter they made this phragmocone internal and pro-
ceede.d to deposit fibrous calcite in layers upon it. This calcite makes up the
• guard, often the only part preserved, which is cigar-shaped and generally no
more than three or four inches long and about one half inch wide. In trans-
verse section the fibrous calcite is arranged radially-often mimicing the septal
pattern of cup corals. To experienced eyes, however, these fibres are so
• unique that even a small fragment is sufficient to determine Jurassic strata.
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
Although arthropods today are one of the most important animal groups
their fossil record is disappointing and consists mainly of trilobites and ostra-
cods. Crabs, shrimp, lobsters, spiders, insects and the like are very rare
fossils and should be collected intensively when found-not for their value in
correlation, which is almost nil, but for the purpose of adding to scientific
knowledge.
Trilobites
(Plates 36-40)
Trilobites are confined to the Palaeozoic and range from lowest Cambrian
to the highest Permian. Most are in Lower Palaeozoic and consist of cephala,
thoraxes and pygidia, either joined together to form a nearly complete trilo-
bite carapace or more commonly separate because these animals moulted. Upper
Palaeozoic, for some reason yields mainly pygidia and thus a field method arises.
It goes without saying that this is a dangerous one and should be used only
in desperation.
Trilobites, because of their rather enigmatic appearance and aesthetic
• appeal vividly remain in a student's mind, often long after university, and
thus an exaggerated sense of their importance sometimes grows. The profes-
sional palaeontologist, however, is well aware that the value of trilobites, both
in field and laboratory correlation, is quite limited and that really they are
useful mainly for the Cambrian System.
Trilobites are represented by at least fourteen hundred genera, the great
majority of which are difficult to identify accurately, unless one is a specialist.
 •

24

There are only five genera which the non-specialist should use and hope to
come anywhere near an accurate correlation. 'l'hese are OlenelltlS, Albertelw)
Olenoides, Encrinurus, and Scutellum. •
Olenell1.ls is an excellent guide for Lower Cambrian. The cephalon is most
commonly preserved and fortunately is most diagnostic and hard to mis-
identify. Important features are the large crescentic eyelobes and the glabella
which is rather bulbous at the anterior end. The kind of Olenelltls shown on
Fig. 1 of PI. 36 occurs in both the North Atlantic and Pacific faunal realms.
Other Lower Cambrian genera such as TVanneria, Fre?1wntia and Paedeumias
have pygidia and thoraxes considerably different from Olenellus, but with
almost identical cephala. Thus it is possible to misidentify a cephalon but
still reach the correct age!
Albertella is a rather small Middle Cambrian trilobite distinguished by
three pairs of abnormally long spines. The first pair is on the cephal on, the
second on the third thoracic segment, and the third on the pygidium. Moult-
ing commonly causes the shell to break up, and most Albertella are represented
by pygidia like that shown on Fig. 1 of PI. 37.
Olenoides (Neolenus) is a rather nondescript medium to large trilobite with
short spines along the edge of the pygidium. It is a fairly common Middle
Cambrian genus.
Encrinurus is distinguished chiefly by the rapidly tapering pygidium, almost
pointed at the posterior end. These small pygidia are usually all that is pre-
served and are rare but highly characteristic of the Silurian.
Scutellum. is another rare trilobite, again highly diagnostic for Silurian and
represented mainly by pygidia. These are fairly large, semi-circular with
very short axial lobes and radiating pleurae.
About the only other trilobites which can be depended upon with any
degree of reliability are those belonging to the bumastid, agnostid and eodiscid
groups.
The chief bumastid (asaphid) characteristic is the weakly defined or absent
axial lobe. This imparts a smooth appearance to cephalon and pygidium, and
regular segmentation to the thorax. Fragments of the last have occasionally
been mistaken for nautiloid sutures (see PI. 39, Fig. 2). The term "humastid"
is used broadly here and encompasses a host of genera among which are
Bumastus, Isotelus, Illaenus, I[irkella, Trimeus and Dipleura. These are an
Ordovician to Devonian assemblage, but in western and northern Canada occur
mainly in Siluro-Ol~dovician, particularly the latter.
Agnostids and eodiscids are exceedingly small trilobites usually less than
one-half inch in length. Some authorities think their morphology indicates
an extra-trilobite classification. Agnostids have cephalon and pygidium of
equal size and proportionally large. The thorax has two segments. Eodiscids
are very similar to agnostids and the main difference is that they possess three
thoracic segments. Most agnostids occur in the Middle and Upper, and the
eodiscids in the Lower and Middle Cambrian Series.
Ostracods
(Plate 40)
Ostracods are bivalved arthropods which look very much like tiny clams.
They are not good field fossils but are often abundant particularly in the
Silurian (PI. 40, Fig. 3). The overall range is Ordovician to Recent with
most fossils occurring in the Palaeozoic.
 •

25

Typical ostracods are between one-eighth and one-quarter of an inch in

length but in northern Canada one should look for an extraordinarily large
form between one-half and three-quarters of an inch. It appears confined to
Middle Devonian.
PHYLUM CHORDATA
(Plate 41)
The Phylum Chordata contains animals with a notocord at some stage in
their life. In the vast majority this structure is replace.d and covered by
bone material giving rise to the older name of the phylum, "Vertebrata."
Marine vertebrates are so rare as to be almost non-existent as fossils in
Canada and Alaska. If found, likely they will be represented by fishes, and
aqueous reptiles such as turtles, ichthyosaurs, and plesiosaurs. Any locality
with well preserved vertebrates should be accurately located, photographed
and described so that this information can be given to vertebrate palaeontol-
ogists. The geologist is not advised to attempt extensive collecting unless the
locality is extremely isolated-this should be left to the specialist who has
the time and methods for extracting verte.brate remains without undue frag-
mentation.
For the purposes of this article the only marine vertebrate remains which
are likely to be found are bone fragments and fish plates. Typically these
have a light bluish hue because of the phosphatic bone material. Such remains
are exceedingly rare and nearly always indicate the Devonian to Recent
interval. In other words they are generally lacking in Lower Palaeozoic
strata.
'MARINE PLANTS
(Plate 42)
"Spirophyton" is an abundant and easily recognizable fossil in northern
. Canada. Although long ranging it makes such a forceful appearance in Early
Permian strata of approximately Leonardian Age that it is an excellent
guide for that stage. The origin of the genus, which also goes under the
names Spirofurbt(,S, Spirophycos and Zoophycos is an enigma. It is thought
to be some sort of seaweed marking.
The most characteristic shape is that of a cone upon which grooves spirally
radiate away from the apex. The cones range from over four feet in diameter
down to several inches and the shape from obtusely to acutely conical. Often
"Spirophyton" markings lack the conical shape and all one will see are
swirl-like markings on bedding planes like those on Fig. 2 of PI. 42. With
these one should be suspicious of Permian strata but strongly advised to look
for supplementary evidence.
PART II.
STRATIGRAPIDC PALAEONTOLOGY
CAMBRIAN SYSTEM
Recognition of Cambrian strata should be based upon a profusion of trilo-
bites, particularly agnostids and eodiscids, to the exclusion of nearly all other
fauna, excepting a few Lingula s. l. and primitive articulate brachiopods.
• Corals, graptolites, stromatoporoids and bryozoans, common in younger por-
tions of the Palaeozic, are never found in Cambrian rocks, and cephalopods,
gastropods and articulate brachiopods should !be absent or extremely rare.
For field purposes the Cambrian System can be divided by trilobite fauna
into two broad divisions: Lower Cambrian, and Middle through Upper Cam-
brian.
 I

26

Olenellid trilobites are by far the best and most diagnostic indicators for
Lower Cambrian. Cephala are most common and recDgnized mainly by the
large crescentic eye IDbes. Other trilobite grDups are exceedingly rare. Arch-
aeDcyathid sponges are very diagnostic fOol' LDwer Cambrian but shDuld have
neither the abundance nDr lateral ubiquity Df the olenellids. MDSt occur in
carbDnate rDck as IDcal reefal pDds.
Whereas Lower Cambrian is dDminated almost solely by closely related
Dlenellid trilDbites like Olenellus, Paedewnias and Wan1veria the Middle and
Upper Cambrian are characterized by diversity of trilDbite fauna. It is
stressed that diversity in shape is the key fOol' identification of this interval,
and this shDuld be expected tOo range thrDugh the mDrphDIDgic spectrum dis-
played by Albertella and Olenoides figured in this article, thrDugh tOo other
unillustrated genera like Zacanthoides) Pagetia, Parad,oxides, Wann,eria, Bris-
coia, Cedaria and Ptychaspis.
ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN SYSTEMS
OrdDvician and Silurian rDcks can be referred tOo as a shaly 001' a shelly facie"
The fDrmer facies is dominated almost exclusively by graptolites and, as its
name implies, is mainly shale-typically dark grey tOo black. The shelly facies
is lithDIDgically more heterDgeneDus although carbDnates and shaly carbDnates
are typical. It derives its name frDm the shelly animals like brachiopDds,
pelecypDds and gastrDpDds which, alDng with cDrals, bryozDans, echinDderms,
trilDhites and cephalDpDds, form the bulk of the fauna.
BOoth the shelly and the shaly facies are amenable to three-fDld divisiDn
by fauna: Lower Ordovician, Middle thrDugh Upper OrdDvician, and Silurian. •

Because these facies are almDst mutually exclusive, however, they will be
discussed separately.
Shaly Facies
Regularly dichDtDmizing, multibranched graptoloids like l Tetragraptus,
Zyg,o graptus and Goniograptus identify LOower OrdDvician. CDmplete speci-
mens Df the last tWD types are so rare that the reader must be prepared to
work with small fragments. Generic identificatiDn is nDt necessary- recDgni-
tiDn Df the regular multibranched trend is sufficient tOo date Lower OrdDvician.
Phyllograpttbs and Is.ograptus are tWD readily identifiable genera not cDnfDrm-
ing tOo the trend, but nevertheless very diagnDstic fOol' LDwer OrdDvician.
Middle and Upper Ordovician strata are dominated by a multiplicity Df
biserial graptoloids of which Climacograptus, Orthograptus and Dip~ograptus
are most CDmmDn. It is emphasized that these biserial fDrms shDuld be bOoth
a CDmmDn and a dDminant element Df the graptolite fauna befDre identifica-
tiDn of this interval is certain. They dD Dccur, albeit rather rarely, in bOoth
LDwer OrdDvician and LDwer Silurian.
Whenever dDubt exists as to identificatiDn Df Middle and Upper OrdOovician the
genera Diceloograptus and Dicrwnograptus ShDUld be sDught. These are rare,
but very diagnDstic for this interval.
Silurian is indicated by a prepDnderance of monDserial graptDIDids like
Monograptus having straight stipes. Spiral stipes of the Monograptus spiralis
grDup identify the interval about the Lower-Middle Silurian bDundary and
straight mDnDserial graptDloids with a "twist in the tail" appear mDst char-
acteristic of the Middle Silurian Series (see PI. 7, Fig. 10). About the Dnly
Dther graptDIDid useful in identifying Silurian is the rather rare Cyrtograptus.
The reader is cautioned against mistaking it for the multibranched fDrms of
the LDwer OrdDvician.
 I

27

Shelly Facies
Lower Ordovician is extremely difficult to recognize and is best done by
noting absence of certain groups: stromat,oporoi.ds, corals, and bryozoans do
not appear in this interval. It goes without saying that such a negative
criterion should be applied only after prolonged search. Gastropods, nautiloid
cephalopods, trilobites and a few articulate brachiopods occur in the Lower
Ordovician but unfortunately there are no safe generalizations which can be
used to distinguish them from their younger Ordovician counterparts.
Middle and Upper Ordovician are identified by a profusion of solitary and
colonial corals, bryozoans, orthid, dalmanellid, strophomenid and rhynchonel-
lid brachiopods, nautiloid cephalopods, and gastropo.ds. Trilobites may he
common locally but, except for the bumastid group, are not morphologically
distinct.
Over western Canada this interval is amenable to division into Middle to
low Upper Ordovician; and high Upper Ordovician. The former represents
strata spanning the interval of the Sunblood and Red River formations; and
the latter the Stony Mountain Formation (see Nelson, 1959 and 1963). Fos-
sils common to both are Catenip'ora, Manipora and Diestoceras.
The Middle to low Upper Ordovician interval is identified by Receptaculites
and Maclurites) and less easily by the cephalopods Winnipegoceras and Cyrto-
gomphoceras. High Upper Ordovician strata are recognized most readily by
orthids with size and shape similar to that on Fig. 6 of PI. 14 and by the
radially asymmetrical cup corals Big7wrnia and Lobocorallium trilobaturn.
The stromatoporoids Aulacera and Beatricea, and the tabulate coral Palaeo-
favosites are also very .diagnostic, but are difficult to identify because of
preservation. A rare but diagnostic genus is the aberrant nautiloid Billing-
sites. '.
Although the Silurian System displays much the same assemblage of fossil
groups as in Middle and Upper Ordovician, there is a shift in emphasis and
abundance. Halysites and pentamerids brachiopods, along with the less diag-
nostic Favosites and stromatoporid stromatoporoids, are dominant.
Rare but noteworthy Silurian genera are the colonial coral Pycnos,t ylus and
the trilobites Encrinurus and Scutellum. Ostracod swarms like that por-
trayed in Fig. 3 of PI. 40 appear more commonly in the Silurian than in
other systems.
DEVONIAN SYSTEM
Recognition of Devonian is best based upon the genus Atrypa shown in its
various aspects on PI. 25. Important associates but nevertheless limited
because they are Silurian holdovers, are Fav<osites, Alveolites, Cystiphyllu1n)
tentaculitids and stromatoporid stromatoporoids.
Goniatite cephalopods first appear in the Devonian and range through to
the Pennian. Except for some highly localized Mississippian occurrences,
however, they are almost negligible. Leiorhynchid and spiriferid brachiopods
first appear in force in the Devonian and the latter group remains a particul-
arly important part of Upper Palaeozoic faunas.
Lower Devonian strata are absent over most of western Canada. They have
been reported from the Northwest and Yukon Territories but their distribu-
tion and exact age is still in doubt. One of the fossils considered diagnostic
for this problematical Devonian is a peculiar crinoid stem with two axial
canals, rather than the single one characterizing the vast majority of this
group. It is illustrated on Figs. 3 and 4 of PI. 27.
 I

28

Middle and Upper Devonian strata are very widespread but because of
facies relationships it is very difficult to be accurate about faunal ranges.
Middle Devonian has two genera which appear restricted to it. 'l'hese are
Stringocephalus and Rensselandia. In addition there is a considerable fauna
of Amphipora, Billingsastraea, and Favosites limitaris-like corals which also
range into the lower part of the Upper Devonian.
Upper Devonian is difficult to identify upon a purely palaeontologic basis.
The lower part can be expected to bear the Amphipora, Billingsastraea, Favo-
sites and F. limitaris mentioned above. The upper part of this series, roughly
correlative with the Palliser Formation, bears no fossils readily identifiable
in the field. Recognition may be supplemented by negative evidence. The
interval is devoid of corals both septate and aseptate, stromatoporoids (includ-
ing Amphipora) and Atrypa.
PERMO-CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEMS
Because of their genetically related faunas the Mississippian, Pennsylvanian
and Permian systems will be discussed as a unit before finer faunal divisions
are outlined.
Productid brachiopods-dictyoclostids, linoproductids and echinoconchids-
are by far the most diagnostic indicators for the Permo-Carboniferous and
the reader must be prepared to work with valve fragments like that shown
on Fig. 3 of PI. 16. These productids should be associated with a rich and
varied fauna of spiriferid brachiopods and fenestellid bryozoans. Common
but less diagnostic associates are the productellid, rhynchonellid, rostrospiri-
ferid, leiorhynchid, strophomenid, punctospiriferid and terebratulid brachio- •

pods. Goniatite cephalopods and pectinoid pelecypods (pectens) may be ex-

pected but are usually very rare and occur mainly in the northern territories.
Particularly noteworthy is the complete absence of the stromatoporoids.
Favositid corals, common in older strata are so rare as to be practically mu-
seum pieces (see Nelson, 1962b) .
Over much of western Canada Mississippian and Permian strata are wide-
spread but Pennsylvanian is either thin or lacking. It is only in the Yukon
and Northwest Territories that rocks of the last system appear to make signifi-
cant contribution to the stratigraphic column. Even then they may belong to
a small and .debatable part of the Pennsylvanian: a Middle Pennsylvanian age
is favoured (Nelson, 1962h). The uncertainty in dating stems from the fact
that its fauna is very closely related to that of the overlying Permian. Thus
in western Canada the Permo-Carboniferous is best divided by fauna into the
Mississippian and the Permo-Pennsylvanian intervals.
Palaeontologically Mississippian rocks are rather difficult to delineate
because so much of the fauna is rather bland spiriferid and productid brachio-
pods which can easily be interpreted as Permo-Pennsylvanian. More than
anything it is the lack of the morphologically distinct fusulinids, waagenocon-
chids, horridonids and N 00spirifer which characterize so much of the latter
two systems, that serve to suggest rocks of Mississippian age.
The Mississippian bears an abundant spiriferid fauna which nearly always
lacks rib bundling. Along with these will be a fair complement of dictyo-
clostid, echinoconchid and linoproductid brachiopods typically smaller than
many of their Permo-Pennsylvanian descendants. Specimens less than two
inches in length are common.
Corals, both solitary and colonial, are a common element of most Mississip-
pian rock where carbonate and shaly carbonate is the major lithology. The
 29

reader is refened to Nelson (1960, 1962a) for their use in refined calibration
within the system. Syringopora in particular is more abundant in this system
than others of the Palaeozoic. It is particularly noteworthy that the middle
part is dominated by fasciculate and cerioid tetracorals of the Lithostrotion-
ella and Lithostrotion type. This stratigraphic interval is the lower part of
the Mount Head Formation of Early Meramecian age and over much of the
world the Mississippian displays a similar coralline dominance at this horizon.
In northern Canada, particularly in the Yukon, only the upper part of the
Mississippian is fossiliferous and is dominantly shaly. With this change in
facies the strata are characterized by the association of Leiorhynchus carbon-
ifenmt and Productella hirsutifor1nis. Typically these two are hadly preserved
like those indicated on Fig. 7 of PI. 20. Their association, ho,wever, does appear
highly indicative for the system in the northern territories.
Permo-Pennsylvanian rocks are diagnosed by fusulinids, Archimedes, N eo-
Spi1·ife1·, waagenoconchids and honidonids. Along with these should be a
fair productid population consisting of echinoconchids, linoproductids, and
dictyoclostids, many of which are large (e.g. PIs. 16 and 17). It should be
stressed that normal unbundled spiriferids like those in the Mississippian may
be common.
The Pennsylvanian is difficult to distinguish from Permian because, although
it has the above fossils, it canies little else that can be considered diagnostic
for this interval alone. There is a rather unique spiriferid fauna (see Nelson,
1961a) but the writer feels this should ibe identified by specialists alone. About
the only fossil which the geologist should depend upon for a Pennsylvanian
dating are the horridonid brachiopods with spine bases along the ventral
cardinal margin and none along the dorsal (see p. 15 and PI. 18 of this
paper) .
The Permian, on the other hand, has in addition to the characteristic
Permo-Pennsylvanian fossils several very diagnostic and easily identifiable
forms. These are "Spirophyton," Muirwoodia, the lobed strophomenids like
Ohonetina, "Leiorhynchus" sp., H orridonia and particularly the aberrant
Spirife1·ella.
It should be noted that fusulinids are far more characteristic of Permian
than Pennsylvanian strata in northern Canada.
TRIASSIC SYSTEM
Triassic strata like those of the Jurassic and Cretaceous are dominated
almost entirely by ammonites and pelecypods. Corals and brachiopods - so
abundant and characteristic of the Palaeozoic - occur only in rare pockets
and are almost entirely absent from the younger Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Ammonoid cephalopods of the ceratite and ammonite groups are fairly
common in the Triassic. The ceratites are very characteristic of Triassic in
western Canada, and the Middle Triassic genus N athorstites is a particularly
good index fossil.
The most characteristic pelecypods are those of the monotid group repre-
sented by the genera Monotis, PseudomO'1toiis, H alobia, Olaraia and Daonella.
Pseudomonotis and Olaraia are Lower Triassic, Daonella Middle and Monotis
•
and H alobia Upper Triassic. Of these the large coarse ribbed M.orl!otis is most
common, and one that is readily identified.
In Middle Triassic strata a fauna consisting of punctospiriferids (Spirifer-
ina) and terebratulids (Terebratula and OoenJothY1·is) occur. Before assign-
ing such an age to these brachiopods, however, the geologist should be very
certain that he is within the Mesozoic.
 I

30

JURASSIC SYSTEM
Belemnites are by far the best Jurassic indicators and the geologist must
be prepared to work with fragments. It is particularly important that the
fine, radiating calcite fibres be identified in these fragments before any age •
assignment is made.
Other cephalopods occurring in the Jurassic are almost exclusively ammon-
ites, but of such diverse size and shape that no attempt at field generic iden- ,
tification should be made.
The pelecypod Buchia (AuceUa) is the only other fossil which can be used
in dating- it is diagnostic for Upper Jurassic. The reader is referred to p.
20 and again warned how easy Buchia can be confused with the dominantly
Cretaceous I1wceramus.
CRETACEOUS SYSTEM
Cretaceous strata are very difficult to recognize upon purely palaeontologie
grounds. As expected ammonite cephalopods and pelecypods of great diver-
sity dominate the assemblage. The pelecypod Buchia and the belemnites, so
characteristic of Jurassic, are rare except in lower portions of the Cretaceous
System. Inoceramus and the oysters could perhaps be considered fairly char-
acteristic Cretaceous fossils although it must be realized that the former range
into Jurassic and the latter to the present.
Inocemmus is best recognized by its relatively large size and coarse concen-
tric rugae. Unlike Buchia, with which there is nearly always confusion, it is
equivalved. Oysters lack pelecypod symmetry and are usually represented
by rather irregularly rugose valves of varying shape and convexity. Because
a Cretaceous oyster looks much like a modern one no age assignment should
be made solely on the basis of this group unless associated ammonites are
found.
Only two genera should be used for intrasystemic division. One is N eo-
gastroplites, a rather large ammonite with pronounced knobs. It is a rare but
excellent guide for Lower Cretaceous.
BactLlites is an abundant and highly diagnostic index for Upper Cretaceous.
Usually only the orthocone portion of the shell is preserved and then typically
in a fragmentary manner like that shown on Fig. 4 of PL 33.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY SYSTEMS
Marine Cenozoic rocks are very rare except along the western fringes of
British Columbia and in parts of Alaska. Strata of this age are best iden-
tified by a negative criterion-they lack ammonites. Thus such an assignment
should be made only after prolonged search. The most characteristic feature
of Cenozoic rocks is the great diversity of pelecypods, including oysters, and
to a lesser extent gastropods. These will look like Cretaceous ones and, like
them, will also retain a considerable amount of aragonite-mother of pearl-
in the shelL
 31

SYSTEMS «
0::: COELENTERATA
(Systemic spacing
approximately equi-
W

I~
LL
valent to time length
-

~
• Systemic subdivisions GRAPTOLITES
not proporfional)

QUATERNARY /

TERTIARY

u
CRETACEOUS

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JURASSIC M
L
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Thin lines indicate overall range; thick lines indicate the interval in which the
fossil probably will be found in the field.
32

SYSTEMS COELENTERATA
(Systemic spacing
approximately equi-
valent to time-length

i subdivisions Tabulate Corals

not proportional)

QUATERNARY
/ •

TERTIARY

U .
1!
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Fig. 3.-Range chart for tabulate corals. Thin lines indicate overall range;
thick lines indicate the interval in which the fossil probably will be found in
the field.
 33

SYSTEMS
COELENTERATA
(Systemic spacing
approximately equi-
valent to time length
Systemic subdivisions
not proportional)
Septate Corals - sol ita ry and colonial

QUATERNARY
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TERTIARY

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Fig. 4.-Range chart for septate corals. Thin lines indicate overall range; thick
lines indicate the interval in which the fossil probably will be found in the field .
34

SYSTEMS
(Systemic spacing
BRACHIOPODA
approximately equi-
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SystemIc subdivisions narticulates Articulates

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\/I
u TJ
0

..
~
.2
.I:
u E
CAMBRIAN M c
~ 0

-..
.a .I:
~

L
.!!
::>
-0
, ~

<fl

-
.!!
<
Fig. 5.- Range chart for inarticulate and articulate brachiopods. Thin lines
indicate overall range; thick lines indicate the interval in which the fossil
probably will be found in the field.
 1

35 ,

SYSTEMS
BRACHIOPODA
(Systemic spacing
approximately equi-
valent to time length
Systemic sutldiv'isie,nsl Articulates
not proportional)

QUATERNARY

TERTIARY

~-------------+--~---~·-------------------------~----------------'I---------------~
i'
g.
"E
8.
.2
0"'0
8.
'U

u u L
0
L
~ E E
CRETACEOUS n n n----------------I-------------~
'0
t
~
0J
L ~ '0
"fi 0
~ ~

I-------------+--~---~:::::~~======~~~=;~~;:I
U _oc ______________--1
JURASSIC M ~ VI
~

-:-+---1---+--------- '0
L
~
-g ------ii -
-~---------

-
-:c-
Q--
U . 1l~ ---,,----0
,TRIASSIC M g. .~
- -II----------::o! - -__c _'0_'"
0 o·---j~ - - t ;
L
--' ~-=--
.~

U ~
J"ERMIAN
L

u
ORDOVICIAN
M
L

CAMBRIAN M
•

Fig. 6.--Range chart for articulate brachiopods. Thin lines indicate overall
range; thick lines indicate the interval in which the fossil probably will be found
in the field_
 36

SYSTEMS
(Syste mic spacing
MOLLUSCA
approximately equi-
valent to time length BRYOZOA
Systemic sul'd~'isi()nsj GASTROPODS PELECYPODS
not proportional)

QUATERNARY

TERTIARY

u
CRETACEOUS

u
JURASSIC M
- - - - 1 - - ~ --;;:----1
L Q

u
--1--<;-
" ;:;,
TRIASSIC -+-~-.~
.-.c
-0-

-~----I
U
PERMIAN

L
..,
-"0 •
PENNSYLVANIAN
--~

-~
-~

..,'" .-o·
MISSISSI PPIAN
U -" .!"
Q
<..>
.
-"
u
L
c ~
~
0

U
-
.... -
'"
lJ
-~
§
E
DEVONIAN
M §
.c
..
it"
-~-
<t
-~-
- .
_Ul_~

SILURIAN -~- --]--g

-3 -u--o

U
--.:;
0
::t -..,'"
-~-~
0
Q
ORDOVICIAN »
u
M :2
.!!
~

L -'"
0;
~
Q
..,
___ 5

U
'c"
"
0
N
c
of -c
u
~
Q
0
»
~ -0
m .~
CAMBRIAN M Q
,?:'

Fig. 7.- Range chart for bryozoa, gastropods and pelecypods. Thin lines indi-
cate overall range; thick lines the interval in which the fossil probably will be
found in the field.

l
 I

37

SYSTEMS MOLLUSCA
(Systemic spacing
approximately equi-
valent to time length
Systemic sl"J'bAd'ii'v isionsl Cephalopoda
not proportionaL)
NAUTILOIDS AMMONOIDS ~ELEMNOIDS

QUATERNARY /

TERTIARY

CRETACEOUS

~_ _ _
L~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_§i~
U c
-2--.",-
JURASSIC M B

-
-~-
L ~

I------U~-I-----------+~'-- u
TRIASSIC M

~ t t
~~
U
PERMIAN --+---I-----------------------~--I--I-------e---------1------~

L ~

J
PENNSYLVANIAN <----------+------_l
+111,,-+___ 1---:; _____________________-+-___ 1---1-------"'-

MISSISSIPPIAN -U1---I--R-~--------r-ll==
L
~------------+---'I--~: -~ ---- a;~-:;;~------+--·I·--~-----------------+--------
r-
g
U r.:
A

g-aV)
.~
~---I--I---~'--~·-~--E--~~~-I----------------+---~
DEVONIAN 0 VI
M -9- &> '"
-;-L-+___ I---I ___ :~--_~ --"~~ - -0_,,- :i3.c_~~-I---------------------_+------~
'"
SILURIAN "1>~-¥-~==

U
ORDOVICIAN
M

i!
U '0
u
--+--~-------------------------~------------------------_l------~
C
M -0
CAMBRIAN g
•

Fig. 8.--Range chart for nautiloid, ammonoid and belemnoid cephalopods. Thin
lines indicate overall range; thick lines indicate the interval in which the fossil
probably will be found in the field.
38

SYSTEMS
ARTHROPODA ~ W(/)
(Syst~mic spacing
approximately equi- ~
0:::
Zl-
-Z
valent to time length 0:::<1:
o
~~
Syst~mic i " .~ TRILOBITES
not proportional) I
U
QUATERNARY ~

TERTIARY

u
CRETACEOUS

u
JURASSIC
~M~----------------------------------t--I--~__ I __~_I __
...!:
u _+-_1--
TRIASSIC
M - - r - --~-II---
1----...:~+-/-:1.=r--------------+n:- I - - t - - --+--1-
s
PERMIAN -i-;;:- _I!l

L
VI
-
.<::
c

~----------~~_s-
PENNSYLVANIAN M
£ ------------------------------------+
~u7+=_I----------------_t-
~_ Ie -
~_
- --r-I--+- ---
1-----....,. i- U
}j
.9 ~
g-
MISSISSIPPIAN -- -----g ------------------~ ----------+~-I--t---
~----------u-+·~;
L
,-
. $---------~~ -----,..~- ~ -
--t-c~ - :5 --------- 2-- E- ~ - "" --------t-- -t:-. --
DEVONIAN
M -"~ -I:
VI
"...
·s "
~
_
~.
I
---t-"'"' ----1l---------- (.) - ::. - --- ---
L~ tj~ ~
~S~IL~U;R~IA~N;__::;:p:U~~
-, L~ __
-
111:0

~ --:So
»
=~ ~~~!~
_~:
I
~
1=
,.... ~
I ~ c:
u .:2
U
III
~ VI I
~
C ..
ORDOVICIAN - -<:
ocVI - - .., ----------------- -- - ~.0 -+--I--t-----!!----t-- j--I

M
" -
_
: -!"
-- -~ --+-1---1---+---:~.5l- -
L
::IE
-
ec ----------------
(!)
-
:g
-; -~------
.~
~-+-"""--t--
u ..,o
VI

5
fii o~ _____________ w .<::
VI
---+--..s -+-- '" --1-------1
~
CAMBRIAN M
-+------+- ~ - +-------1
S
L

Fig. 9. -- Range chart for trilobites, ostracods, chordates and marine plants.
Thin lines indicate overall range; thick lines indicate the interval in which the
fossil probably will be found in the field.
 "

39

ANNOTATED REFERENCES
Publications listed below include text references, and others which the
writer considers important both as a supplement to the present article and for
study in depth. These have been chosen iboth fOor clarity of illustration and
pertinence to the present text. It should be stressed that most have been written
for specialists and hence the field geologist is not advised to. attempt the
detailed correlations implicit in them. Such publications are referred to below
as " technical," in contrast to the "semi-" or "non-technical" ones primarily
directed toward the field man.

Ager, D. V., and Westermann, G. E . G., 1963, ''New Mesozoic Brachiopods from
Canada," Jour. Alberta Soc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 37, No.3, pp. 595-610, Pls. 71-73.
Photo.graphs of Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic rhynchonellid brachio-
pods from western Canada. Technical.
Anonymous, 1958, "Cretaceous Faunas from Nordegg area; Jurassic Faunas from
Nordegg area; Banff-Rundle Faunas from Nordegg area," Alberta Soc. Petrol.
Geol., Eighth Ann. Field Conf., Guide Book, pp. 193-203, PIs. 1-4.
Drawings of ammonites, pelecypods and brachiopods. Technical.
Arkell, W. J. et al., 1957, "Part L Mollusca 4 Cephalopoda Ammonoidea,"
Univ. Kansas Press, Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xxii, LI-L490.
Photo.graphs and drawings of ammonoid cephalopods by eight authors.
Technical.
Bassler, R. S., 1953, "'Part G Bryozoa," Univ. Kansas Press, Treat. Invert. Paleont.,
• pp. i-xiii, Gl-G253 .
Drawings of bryozoans. Technical .
Bayer, F. ·M. et al., 1956, "Part F Coelenterata," Univ. Kansas Press, Treat.
Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xx, Fl-F498.
• Drawings and some photographs of stromatoporoids, corals, and other coelen-
terates by ten authors. Technical.
Benson, R. R ., et al, 1961, "Part Q Arthropoda 3 Crustacea- Ostracoda," Univ.
Kansas Press, Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xxiii, Ql-Q442.
Photographs and drawings of ostracods and other crustaceans by seventeen
authors. Technical.
Bolton, T. E., 1957, "Silurian Stratigraphy and Palaeontology of the Niagara
Escarpment in Ontario," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 289, pp. 1-145, PIs. 1-10.
Photographs of tab1~late and septate corals, bryozoans, crinoids, brachiopods,
gastropods, pelecypods and nautiloid cephalopods. Good for favositid and
heliolitid corals. Technical.
Boucot, A. J. et al., 1960, "A Late Silurian Fauna from the Sutherland River
Formation, Devon Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago," Geol. Surv. Canada,
Bull. 65, pp. 1-51, Pls. 1-10.
Photographs of brachiopods, ostracods, conodonts, scolecodonts, gastropods
and trilobites. Technical.
Brindle, J. E., and Lane, D. 1M., 1963, "Saskatchewan Stringocephalids," Jour.
Alberta Soc. Petrol. Geol., 'Vol. 11, No.1, pp. 59-63.
Photographs of Middle Devonian STRINGOCEPHALUS and related genera.
Technical.
Brown, R. A. C., 1952, "Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Palaeontology in the
,• Mount Greenock Area, Alberta," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 264, pp. 1-119,
PIs. 1-5.
Photographs of Lower Mississippian brachiopods. Good for spiriferids.
Technical.
• Bulman O. M. B., 1955, "Part V Graptolithina with Sections on Enteropreusta
and' Pterobranchia," Univ. Kansas Press, Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xvii,
VI-VIOl.
Drawings of graptolites. Technical.
40

Copeland, M. J., 1957, "The Arthropod Fauna of the Upper Carboniferous Rocks
of the Maritime Provinces," pp. i-iv, 1-100, PIs. 1-21.
Photographs of ostracods and other arthropods. Technical.
- - - - - , 1962, "Canadian Fo,s sils, Ostracoda, Conchostraca, Eurypterida, and
Phyllocarida," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 9'1, pp. 1-57, PIs. 1-12.
Photographs of .ordovician, Silurian and Devonian ostracods, and other
arthropod groups. Technical.
•
Cranswick, J. S. and Fritz, 1M. 'A., 1958, "Coral 'Fauna of the Upper Abitibi River
Limestone," Geol. Assoc. Canada, Vol. 10, pp. 31-81, PIs. 1-6.
Photographs of Middle Devonian solitary and colonial corals and tabulates.
Good for FAVOSITES (including EMMONSIA) . Technical.
Crickmay, C. E., 1952, "Discrimination of Late Upper Devonian," Jour. Paleont.,
Vol. 26, No.4, pp. 585-609, PIs. 70-78.
Photographs of leiorhynchid, spiriferid, atrypid and strophomenid brachio-
pods. Technical.
- - - - -, 1954, "-Paleontological 'Correlation of Elk Point and Equivalents,"
Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Rutherford Memorial Volume, pp. 143-158, PIs.
1-3.
Photographs and drawings of STRINGOCEPHALUS, s. l. Technical.
- - - - - ., 1957, "Elucidation of some Western Canada Devonian Formations,"
published by the author (Imperial Oil Ltd.), Calgary, pp. 1-15, Pl. 1.
Photographs of ATRYPA. Technical.
- - - - -, 1960a, "Studies of the 'Western Canada Stringocephalinae," Jour.
Paleont., Vol. 34, No.5, PP. 874-890, PIs. 113-115.
Photographs of Middle Devonian STRINGOCEPHALUS. Technical.
- - - - - , 1960b, "The Older Devonian Faunas of the Northwest Terri-
tories," published by the author (Imperial Oil Ltd.), Calgary, pp. 1-21, PIs. 1-11.
Photographs and drawings of Middle Devonian colonial corals and brachio -
pods. Good for BILLINGSASTRAEA and ATRYPA. Technical.
- -- - -, 1963, "Significant New Devonian Brachiopods from Western Can-
ada," published by the author (Imperial Oil Ltd.), Calgary, pp. 1-63, PIs. 1-16.
Photographs and drawings of Middle and Upper Devonian brachiopods. Good
for LEIORHYNCHUS and STRINGOCEPHALUS. Technical.
Cushman, J. A., 1948, "Foraminifera Their Classification and Economic Use,"
Harvard Univ. Press, pp. 1-605, PIs. 1-55.
Photographs and drawings of foraminifera, including fusulinids. Very com-
prehensive. Technical.
Dresser, J. A., and Denis, T. C., 1944, "Geology of Quebec, Volume II, Descriptive
Geology," Quebec Dept. Mines, Geol. Rept. 20, pp. i-xiv, 1-544, PIs. 1-44.
Very small part (Pls. 26-40) devoted to photographs of Cambrian?, Ordo -
vician and Silurian fossils from various parts of Quebec. Has photographs
of algae, worm burrows, unknown animal trails, sponges, corals, bryozoans,
brachiopods, cephalopods, gastropods, pelecypods, cystoids, crinoids, conular-
ids, graptolites and trilobites. Good for .ordovician brachiopods. Technical.
Dunbar, C. 0., 1955, "Permian Brachiopod Faunas of Central East Greenland,"
Medd. om Gnmland, Vol. :no, No, 3, pp. 1-169, PIs. 1-32.
Photographs of numerous brachiopod groups. Particularly good for SPIRI-
FERELLA, NEOSPIRIFER, WAAGENOCONCHA and the horridonid brach-
iopods. Pertinent to Canada and Alaska. Technical.
Duncan, H., 1956, "Ordovician and Silurian Coral faunas of Western United
States," United States Geol. Surv., Bull. 1021F, pp. 209-236, PIs. 21-27.
Drawings of septate, favositid, halysitid and heliolitid corals. Technical.
- - - - -, 1957, "Bighornia, a New Ordovician Coral Genus," Jour. Paleont.,
Vol. 31, No.3, pp. 607-615, 'PI. 70.
Photographs of Wyoming BIGHORNIA. P ertinent to Canada. Technical.
Easton, W. H., 1960, "Invertebrate Paleontology," Harper and Brothers, Publish-
ers, pp. i-xii, 1-701.
Drawings of the animal phyla. Highly recommended. Technical.
 •

41

Fagerstrom, J. A., 196-1, "The Fauna of the Middle Devonian Formosa Reef Lime-
stone of Southwestern 'Ontario," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 35, No.1, pp. 1-48, PIs.
1-14.
Photographs of stromatoporoid sections, corals, bryozoans brachiopods,
gastropods, cephalopods and trilobites. Technical. '
Fenton, C. L., and F 'e nton, 'M . A., 1958, "The Fossil Book," Doubleday and Com-
pany, Inc., pp. i-xi, 1-482.
Drawings and photographs of animals and plants. Very highly recommended
for clarity of illustration, and lucid descriptions-. Non-technical.
Flower, R. H., 1952, "New 'Ordovician Cephalopods from Eastern North Amer-
ica," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 26, No.1, pp. 24-59, PIs. 5-10.
Photographs of Middle Ordovician nautiloid cephalopods. Technical.
Foel'ste, A., 1924, "Upper Ordovician Faunas of Ontario and Quebec," Geol. Surv.
Canada, Mem. ,138, pp. 1-255, PIs. 1-46.
Photographs of stromatoporoids, corals, echinoderms, bryozoans, brachiopods,
pelecypods, gastropods, cephalopods, trilobites, ostracods and algae. Good
jor labechid stromatoporoids and strophomenid brachiopods. Most illustra-
tions are excellent. Technical.
- - - - -, 1928, "Contributions to the Geology of Foxe Land, Baffin Island;
Part II: The Cephalopods of Putnam Highland," Michigan Univ., Mus. Pal.
Contr., Vol. 3, No.3, pp. 25-70, PIs. 1-11.
Photographs of Middle or low Upper Ordovician nautiloid cephalopods. Tech·
nical.
- - - - -, 1929, "The Cephalopods of the Red River Formation of Southern
Manitoba," Denison Univ. Bull., Vol. 29, No.7 (Sci. Lab. Jour., Vol. 24), pp.
129-235, 'PIs. 11-39.
Photographs of Middle or low Upper Ordovician nautiloid cephalopods. Good
for CYRTOGOMPHOCERAS. Technical.
- - - - -, and Savage, T. E., 1927, "'Ordovician and Silurian Cephalopods of
the Hudson Bay Area," Denison Univ. Bull., Vol. 27, No.3 (Sci. Lab. Jour.,
Vol. 22), pp. 1-107, PIs. 1-24.
• Photographs of Silurian and Middle or low Upper Ordovician nautiloid cepha-
lopods. Technical.
Frebold, H., 1951, "Contributions to the Palaeontology and Stratigraphy of the
Jurassic System in Canada," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 18, pp. 1-54, PIs. 1-18.
Photographs of Lower and Middle Jurassic ammonites. Technical.
- - - - -, 1957, "Fauna, Age and Correlation of the Jurassic Rocks of Prince
Patrick ISland," Geol. 'Surv. Canada, Bull. 41, pp. 1-69, PIs. 1-18.
Photographs of ammoniteS' and pelecypods. Particularly good for IN.OCERA-
MUS. Technical.
- - - - -, 1957, "The Jurassic Fernie Group in the Canadian Rocky Mountains
and Foothills," Geo!. Surv. Canada, [Mem. 287, pp. i-xi, 1-197, PIs. 1-44.
Photographs of ammonites and a few pelecypods and gastropods. Technical.
- - -- - , 1959, "Marine Jurassic Rocks in Nelson and Salmo Areas-Southern
British Columbia," Geo!. Surv. Canada, Bull. 49, pp. 1-31, PIs. 1-5.
Photographs of Lower and Middle Jurassic ammonites and pelecypods.
Technical.
- - - - -., 1961, "The Jurassic Faunas of the Canadian Arctic Middle and
Upper Jurassic 'A mmonites," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 74, pp. 1-43, PIs. 1-21.
Photographs of ammonites. Technical.
- - - - -,. 1963, "Ammonite Faunas of the Upper Middle Jurassic Beds of the
Fernie Group in Western Canada," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 93, pp. 1-33, PIs.
,1-14.
Photographs of ammonites. Technical.
__ _ _ _ _, 1964a, "'Illustrations of Canadian Fossils Jurassic of Western and
Arctic Canada," Geol. Surv. Canada, 'Pap. 63-4, pp. 1-107, PIs. 1-51.
Photographs of ammonites and pelecypods. Good for BUCHIA and INO-
CERAMUS. Technical.
42

- - - - -, 1964b, "Lower Jurassic and Bajocian Ammonoid Faunas of North-

western British Columbia and Southern Yukon," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull.
116, pp. 1-31, 'PIs. a.-S.
Photographs of Lower and Middle Jurassic ammonites. Technical. •
- - - - -, 1964c, "The Jurassic 'Faunas of the Canadian Arctic Cadoceratinae,"
Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 1019, pp. 1-27, P Is. 1-20.
Photographs of Jurassic ammonites. Technical.
- - - - -, and Little, R. W., 1962, "Palaeontology, Stratigraphy, and Struc-
ture of the Jurassic Rocks in Salmo Map-area, British Columbia," Geol.
Surv. Canada, Bull. 81, pp. 1-31, PIs. ;:1-5.
Photographs of Lower and Middle Jurassic ammonites. Technical.
- - - -- , Mountjoy, E., and Reed, R, 1959, "The Oxfordian Beds of the
Jurassic Fernie Group, Alberta and British Columbia," Geol. Surv. Canada,
BUll. 53, pp. 1-47, PIs. 1~12.
Photographs of Upper Jurassic ammonites. Technical.
Fritz, M. A., 1964, "?Scutellum regale sp. nov. Fritz from the Silurian of the
Hudson Bay Area," Geol. Assoc. Canada, Vol. '15, Pt. 2, pp. 91-97, PI. 1.
Photographs of the trilobite genuS' SCUTELLUM. Technical.
- - - - -, Lemon, R. R. R ., and Norris, A. W., 1957, "Stratigraphy and
Palaeontology of the Williams Island Formation," Geol. Assoc. Canada, Vol.
9, pp. 21-47, PIs. 1-4.
Photographs of high Middle or low Upper Devonian corals from the south-
ern Hudson Bay Lowland. Technical.
- - - - -, and Waines, R. R., 1956, "Stromatoporoids from the Upper Abitibi
River Limestone," Geol. Assoc. Canada, Vol. 8, Pt. 1, pp'. 87-126, PIs. 1-3.
Photographs of Middle Devonian stromatoporoids from the southern Hud8'On
Bay Lowland. Technical.
Galloway, J. J., '1960, "Devonian Stromatoporoids from the Lower MacKenzie
Valley of Canada," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 34, No.4, pp. 620-636. PIs. 71-77.
Photographs of Middle and Upper Devonian stromatoporid thin-sections.
Technical.
Green R., 1963, "Lower 'M ississippian Ostracodes from the Banff Formation,
Aiberta," Research Council Alberta, Bull. 11, pp. 1-237, PIs. 1-17.
Photographs of ostracods. Technical.
Greggs R. G., 1959, "Archaeocyatha from the Colville and Salmo Areas of Wash-
ington and British Columbia," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 63-75, PIs.
11-14.
Photographs of Lower Cambrian archaeocyathids (pleosponges). Technical.
Harker, P., and Raasch, G. 0., 1955, "Megafaunal Zones in the Alberta Mississip'-
pian and Permian," Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Allan !Memorial Volume, pp.
216-231, PI. 1.
PhotographS' of Mississippian corals and brachiopods. Technical.
Harker, P., and Thorsteinsson, R., 1960, "Permian Rocks and Faunas of Grinnell
Peninsula, Arctic Archipelago," Geol. 'Surv. Canada, Mem. 309, pp. 1-89, PIs.
1-25.
Photographs of fusulinids, corals, brachiopods and cephalopods. Good for
fusulinids, SPIRIFERELLA, NEOSPIRIFER, WAAGENOCONCHA and gon.
iatite cephalopods. Technical.
Harrington, H. J. et al., 1959, "Part 0 Arthropoda 1 Arthropoda General Features
Protarthropoda Euarthropoda General Features Trilobitomorpha," Univ. Kan-
sas Press, Treat. Invert. :Baleont., pp. i-xix, 01-0560.
Drawings and some photographs of trilobites by eighteen authors. Technical.
Hass H . W. et al., 1962 "'Part W Miscellanea Conodonts Conoidal Shells of Un-
c'ertain Affinities Worms Trace Fossils and Problematica," Univ. Kansas rpress,
Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xxv, Wl-W259.
Photographs and drawingS' of tentaculitids and other animal groups by
seven authors. Technical.
 43

Hume, G. S., 1925, "The Palaeozoic Outlier of Lake Timiskaming, Ontario and
Quebec," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 145, pp. 1-97, PIs. 1-16.
Photographs of Ordovician and Silurian receptaculitids, corals" brachiopods,
. gastropods and cephalopods. Particularly good for RECEPTACULITES,
halysitid, favositid, heliolitid and syringoporid coral& and cephalopod siphuncles.
Note: The Ordovician specimen referred to HALYSITES CATENULARIA
QUEBECENSIS on Plate 5, is now called CATENIPORA. Technical.
Hutchinson, R. 10., '1952, "The Stratigraphy and Trilobite Faunas of the Cambrian
Sedimentary Rocks of Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia," Geol. Surv. Canada.
Mem. 263, pp. 1-124, PIs. 1-7.
Photographs of trilobites, mainly fragmentary pygidia and cephala. Tech-
nical.
- - - - -, 1962, "Cambrian Stratigraphy and Trilobite Faunas of Southeastern
Newfoundland," Geol. 'Surv. Canada, Bull. 88, pp. i-ix, 1-156, Pls. 1-25.
Photographs of trilobites. Good for eodiscids, agnostids, and PARADOXIDES
(not described in the present article). Technical.
Imlay, R. W., 1959, "Succession and 'Speciation of the 'Pelecypod Aucella," United
States Geol. Surv., !Prof. Pap. 314 G, pp. i-iii, 155-169, PIs. 16-19.
Photographs of Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous' AUCELLA (BUCHIA)
from Alaska, United States and Russia. Technical.
- - - - -, '1964, "Middle Bajocian Ammonites from the Cook Inlet Region,
Alaska," United States Geol. 'Surv., Prof. Pap. 418'B, pp. B1-B61.
Photographs of Middle Jurassic ammonites. Technical.
Jeletzky, J. A., 1964, "Illustrations of Canadian Fossils, Early Lower Cretaceous
(Berriasian and Valanginian) of the Canadian Western Cordillera, British
Columbia," Geol Surv. Canada, Pap. 64-6, pp. 1~18, PIs. 1-8.
Illustrations of pelecypods and ammonites. Particularly good for BUCHIA.
.. Technical .
- - - - -, 1954, "Illustrations of Canadian Fossils Lower Cretaceous Marine
Index Fossils of the Sedimentary Basins of Western and Arctic Canada," Geol.
Surv. Canada, Pap. 64-11, pp. 1-100, PIs. '1-36.
Illustrations of pelecypods, ammonites and belemnites. Particularly good for
BUCHIA, NEOGASTROPLITES and belemnites. Technical.
Jones, D. L., 1963, "Upper Cretaceous (Campanian and Maestrichtian) Ammonites
from Southern Alaska," United States Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 432, pp. 1-53, PIs.
1-41.
Photographs of ammonites'. Good for BACULITES. Technical.
Jull, R. K., 1962, "Silurian Halysitidae of the Ronning Group, Western Canada,"
Jour. Alberta Soc. 'Petrol. Geol., Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 326-330.
Drawings of HALYSITES and CATENIPORA. Non-technical.
Kawase, Y., and Okulitch, V. J., (1957, "Archaeocyatha from the Lower Cambrian
of the Yukon Territory," 'Jour. 'Paleont., Vol. 31, No.5, pp. 913-930, 'PIs. 109-113.
Photographs of archaeocyathids (pleosponges). Technical.
Kirk, E., and Amsden, T. W., 1952, "Upper Silurian Brachiopods from Southeastern
Alaska," United States Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap. 233C, pp. 53-66.
Photograph& of pentamerids. Technical.
Knight, J. B., et al, 1960, "'Part I Mollusca 1 !Mollusca-General Features S<capho-
poda Amphineura !Monopla'COphora Gastropoda-General Features Archaeogas-
tropoda and Some (iM ainly Paleozoic) Caenogastropoda and Opisthobranchia,"
Univ. Kansas 'P ress, Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xxiii, Il-I351.
Photographs and drawings of gastropod&. Technical.
Loeblich A. R., Jr., and Tappan, H., 1964, "Part C Protista 2 Sarcodina Chiefly
The~amoebians and Foraminiferida," Univ. Kansas Press, Treat. Invert.
Paleont., Vol. '1, pp. i-xxxi, 0l-C510, Vol. 2, pp. C5'11-C900.
Very comprehensive. Photographs and drawings of foraminifera. Highly
technical.
Logan, A., 1964, "An Indo-Pacific Spiriferinid from the Triassic of Northeastern
British Columbia," ·J our. IA lberta Soc. Petrol. Geo!., Vol. 12, No.3, pp. 692-718,
PIs. 1-2.
Photographs of punctospiriferid brachiopods. Technical.
44

McCammon, H., 1960, "Fauna of the Manitoba Group in Manitoba," Manitoba Dept.
Mines Nat. Res., Mines Branch Pub. 59-6, pp. 1-109, PIs. 1-13.
Photographs of Devonian stromatoporoids, corals, brachiopods, pelecypods,
gastropods, nautiloid cephalopods and tentaculitids. Technical. •
MaGill, P., 1963, "Upper and Middle Devonian Ostracodes from the Beaverhill Lake
Formation, Alberta, Canada," Bull. Canadian Petrol. Geol., Vol. 11, No.1, pp.
1-26, PIs. 1-4.
Photographs of ostracods. Technical.
McGugan, A, 1963a, "A Permian Brachiopod and Fusulinid Fauna from the Elk
Valley, British Columbia, Canada," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 37, No.3, pp. 621-627,
PIs. 76-78.
Photograph& of fusulinids, and dicyoclostid and spiriferid brachiopods.
Technical.
- - - - - , 1963b, "Problematical 'Zoophyco8' from the Permian of Western Can-
ada," Ann. Mag. Nat. Rist., Ser. '13, Vol. 6, pp. 107-112, PIs. 1-2.
Photographs of "SPIROPHYTON" (=ZOOPHYCOS et aU. Technical.
McLaren, D. J ., 1954, "Upper Devonian Rhynchonellid Zones in the Canadian
Hocky Mountains," Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Rutherford Memorial Volume,
pp. 159-181, PI. 1.
Photographs of leiorhynchid brachiopods. Technical.
- - - - - , 1958, "Common !Devonian Fossils from the Alberta Rocky Moun-
tains," Alberta Soc. Petrol. Geol., Eighth Ann. Field Conf., Guide Book, pp.
193-203 (includes PIs. 5-9).
Photographs of Upper Devonian brachiopods and corals. Technical.
- - - - - , 1962, "Middle and Early Upper Devonian Rhynchonellid Brachiopod;.;
from Western Canada," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 86, pp. 1-122, PIs. 1-18.
Photographs of rhynchonelZid brachiopods. Good for leiorhynchids. Technical. •
- -- - -, Norris, A W., McGregor, !D. C., 19'62, "Illustrations of Canadian
Fossils Devonian of Western Canada," Geol. Surv. Canada, Pap. 62-4, pp.
1-34, PIs. 1~16.
Photographs of Devonian corals, brachiopods and plants. Good for BIL-
LINGSASTRAEA (PHILLIPSASTRAEA), ALVEOLITES, ATRYPA (including -
SPINATRYPA) , RENSSELANDIA, STRINGOCEPHALUS and various spiri-
ferid, leiorhynchid and rhynchonellid brachiopods. Technical.
- - -- -, and 'N orris, A. W., 1964, "Fauna of the Devonian Horn Plateau
Formation, District of IM acKenzie," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. rt14, pp. 1-74,
PIs. 1-17.
Photographs of Middle Devonian s'e ptate and tabulate corals, and brachiopods.
Good for CYSTIPHYLLUM-like corals and ATRYPA. Technical.
McLearn, F. 'fl., 1924, "Palaeontology of the Silurian Rocks of Arisaig, Nova
Scotia," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 137, pp. 1-239, PIs. 1-30.
Photographs of Middle Silurian corals, brachiopods, pelecypods, gastropods,
cephalopods, trilobites and mi&eelZaneous fossil groups. Technical.
- -- - -, 1926, "New Species from the Coloradoan of Lower Smoky and
Lower Peace ,R ivers, Alberta," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 42, pp. 117-132, PIs.
20-23.
Photographs of Upper Cretaceous pelecypods, ammonites and gastropods.
Good for INOCERAMUS. Technical.
- - -- -, 1960, "Ammonoid Faunas of the Upper Triassic Pardonet !Formation,
Peace River Foothills, BriUsh Columbia," Geo!. Surv. Canada, Mem. 311, pp.
1 "118, PIs. '1-21.
Photographs of ceratites and ammonites. Technical.
Miller, A. K., Youngquist, W. and Collinson, C., 1954, "Ordovician Cephalopod
Fauna of Baffin Island," Geol. Soc. Amer., Mem. 62, pp. 1-234, PIs. 1-63.
Photographs of Middle or low Upper Ordovician nautiloid cephalopods, and a
few brachiopods, coral&, trilobites and gastropods. Technical.
Moore, R. C., Lalicker, C. G., and Fischer, A G., 1952, "Invertebrate Fossils," Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Company, Inc., pp. 1-766.
Drawings of nearly all representatives of animal phyla. Highly recommended.
 45

Muir-Wood, H., and Cooper, G. A., 1960. "Morphology, Classification and Life
Habits of the Productoidea (Brachiopoda)," Geol. Soc. Amer., Mem. 81, pp .
I-Xl, 1-447, PIs. 1-135.
Photographs and some drawings of productid brachiopods. Although not
directed toward Canada or Alaska, the book is extremely useful because of its
illustrations. Technical.
Nelson, S. J., 1959, "Guide Fossils of the Red River and Stony Mountain Equiv-
alents (Ordovician)," Jour. Alberta 'Soc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 7, No.3, pp. 51-61,
PIs. 1-4.
Drawings of labechid stromatoporoids, corals, brachiopods, cephalopods ana
gastropods. Covers much the same Middle or low Upper, and high Upper
Ordovician assemblage as in the present article. Non-technical.
- - - - -, 1960, "Mississippian Lithostrotionid Zones of the Southern Canadian
Rockies," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 34, No.1, pp. 107-126, PIs. 21-25.
Photographs of LITHOSTROTIONELLA and LITHOSTROTION sections.
Technical.
- - - - -, 1961a, "Permo-Carboniferous of the Northern Yukon Territory,"
Jour. Alberta Soc. Petrol. Geol., Vol. 9, No.1, pp.1-9, PIs. 1-4.
Drawings of guide brachiopods. Non-technical.
- - - - -" 1961b, "Mississippian Faunas of Western Canada," Geol. Assoc. Can-
ada, 'Spec. Paper 2, pp. 1-39, PIs. 1-29.
Photographs of Mississippian brachiopods and corals, and a few Permo-
Pennsylvanian brachiopods and bryozoa. Good for LITHOSTROTIONELLA,
SYRINGOPORA, and spiriferid, rhynchonellid, echinoconchid, linoproductid,
dictyoclostid brachiopods and SPIROPHYTON. Technical but with a small
section (pp. 33-36) devoted to a serni-technical discussion on horizon identifica-
tion within the Permo-Carboniferous.
- - - - -, 1962a, "Analysis of Mississippian Syringopora from the Southern
Canadian Rocky Mountains," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 36, No.3, pp. 442-460, PIs.
71-75.
Photographs and drawings of SYRINGOPORA. Technical.
- - - - - , 1962b, "Permo-Carboniferous Tabulate Corals from Western Can-
ada," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 36, No.5, pp. 953-964, PIs. 137-138.
Photographs and drawings of favositid and syringoporid corals . Technical.
- - - - -, '1962c, "Horridonid Brachiopods as Horizon Indicators, Permo-
Pennsylvanian of the Yukon Territory," Jour. Alberta Soc. Petrol. Geol., Vol.
10, No.4, pp. 192-197.
Drawings and descriptions of horridonid brachiopods. Non-technical.
- - - - -, 1963, "Ordovician Paleontology of Northern Hudson Bay Lowland,"
Geol. Soc. Amer., 'M em.90, pp. 1-152, PIs. 1-37'.
Photographs of Middle or low Upper, and high Upper Ordovician labechid
stromatoporoids, corals, dendroid graptolites, gastropods and nautiloid cephal-
opods. Good for LOBOCORALLIUM, BIGHORNIA, CATENIPORA, MANI-
PORA, MACLURITES, BILLINGSITES, CYRTOGOMPHOCERAS and WIN-
NIPEGOCERAS. Technical.
Norford, B. S., 1962a, "The Silurian Fauna of the Sandpile Group of Northern
British Columbia," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 78, pp. 1-51, PIs. 1-16.
Photographs of brachiopods, crinoids, tabulate and septate corals. Good for
favositid and halysitid corals. Technical.
_ _ _ _ _, 1962b, "Illustrations of Canadian Fossils Cambrian, Ordovician and
Silurian of the Western Cordillera," Geol. Surv. Canada, Pap. 62-14, pp. 1-24,
PIs. 1-10.
Photographs of archaeocyathids, corals, graptolites, brachiopods" gastropods,
cephalopods and trilobites from both the Eastern and Western Cordillera.
Particularly good for archaeocyathods, olenellid trilobites, ALBERTELLA,
OLENOIDES, BIGHORNIA, CATENIPORA, HALYSITES, orthid and penta-
merid brachiopods. Technical.
Northrop, S. A., 0..939, "Paleontol~gy and Stratigraphy of the Silurian Rocks of the
Port Daniel-Black Cape RegIon, Gaspe," Geol. Soc. Arner., Spec. Pap. 21, pp.
i-ix, 1-302, PIs. 1-28.
Photographs of graptolites, corals, crinoids, brachiopods, worms, pelecypods,
gastropods, trilobites and pteropods. Technical.
I
46

Okulitch, V. J., '1943, "North American Pleospongia," Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap.
48, pp. 1-1'12, !PIs. 1-18.
Photographs of archaeocyathids in various degrees of preservation. Technical.
•
- - - - -, 1955, "Archaeocyatha from the McDame Area of Northern
British Columbia," 'Roy. Soc. Canada, Trans., Ser. 3, Sec. 4, Vol. 49, pp. 47-64,
PIs. 1-3.
Photographs of Lower Cambrian archaeocyathids (pleosponges). Technical.
- -- - -, and de Laubenfels, M. W., 1955, "Part E Archaeocyatha and Pori-
fera," Univ. Kansas Press, Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xviii, E1-E122.
Drawings and some photographs of archaeocyathids (Okulitch) and sponges
(de Laubenfels). Technical.
Patton, W. J. H., 1958, "Mississippian Succession in the South Nahanni River
Area, Northwest Territories," Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., Allan Memorial
Volume, pp. 309-326, PIs. 1-5.
Photographs of Mississippian spiriferid brachiopods and land plants. Tech-
nical.
Pedder, A. E. H., 1964, "Correlation of the Canadian 'Middle Devonian Hume
and Nahanni Formations by Tetracorals," Paleont., Vol. 7, Pt. 3, pp. 430-451,
PIs. 62-73.
Photographs of colonial coral sections. Good for BILLINGSASTRAEA
PHILLIPSASTRAEA and RADIASTRAEA.
Ross, J. P., 1961, "Larger Cryptostome Bryozoa of the Ordovician and Silurian,
Anticosti Island, Canada-Part II," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 35, No.2, pp. 331-344,
PIs. 41-45.
Photographs of bryozoa. Technical.
Ruedemann, R., 1947, "Graptolites of North America," Geol. Soc. Amer., Mem. 19,
pp. 1-652, PIs. 1-92.
•
Photographs and drawings of graptolites. Very comprehensive. Technical.
Schindewolf, O. 0., 1959, "Adolescent Cephalopods from the Exshaw Formation
of Alberta," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 33, No.6, pp. 971-976, PIs. 120-121.
Photographs of Upper Devonian or Lower Mississippian goniatite cephalo-
pods. Technical. •

Shimer, H. W., and Shrock, R. R., 1944, "Index Fossils of North America,"
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., pp. i-ix, 1-837, PIs. 1-303.
Photographs and some drawings of nearly all representatives of the animal
kingdom. Includes a section on aqueous plants. A very comprehensive
text; highly recommended. Technical.
Shrock, R. R., and Twenhofel, W. H., '1953, "Principles of Invertebrate Paleontol-
ogy," McGraw~Hill Book Company, pp. 1-816.
Photographs and drawings of the animal phyla. Highly recommended.
Technical.
Sinclair, G. W., 1955, "Some Ordovician Halysitoid Corals," Roy. Soc. Canada,
Trans., Ser. 3, Sec. 4, Vol. 49, pp. 95-103, Pl.l.
Photographs and drawings of Middle and low Upper Ordovician MANIPORA
and CATENIPORA (=QUEPORA). Technical.
Smith, S., 1945, "Upper Devonian Corals of the Mackenzie River Region Canada,"
. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. 59, pp. i-viii, 1-126, PIs. 1-35. '
Photographs of co lonial and solitary septate corals and tabulates. Good
for BILLINGSASTRAEA (PHILLIPSASTRAEA) , ALVEOLITES, and FAV-
OSITES LIMITARIS-type corals (i.e. THAMN.oPORA).
Stearn C. W. !956, "Stratigraphy and Palaeontology of the Interlake Group and
Stbnewall' Formation of Southern 'M anitoba," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 281, •
pp. 1-162, PIs. '1-16.
Photographs of Silurian stromatoporoids, corals, brachiopods, cephalopods,
ostracods and trilobites. Good for stromatoporids, and favositid corals. Tech-
nical.
_ __ _ _ , 1961, "Devonian Stromatoporoids from the Canadian Rocky Moun-
tains," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 35, No.5, pp. 932-948, PIs. 105-107.
Photographs and some drawings of Upper Devonian s,t romatoporid thin sec-
tions. Technical.
 47

- - - - - , 1962, "Stromatoporoid Fauna of the Waterways Formation (Devo-

nian) of Northeastern Alberta," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 92, pp. 1-23, PIs.
1-8.
Photographs of stromatoporid sections. Technical.
- - - - -, 1963, "Some Stromatoporoids from the Beaverhill Lake Formation
(Devonian) of the Swan Hills Area, Alberta," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 37, No.3,
pp. 651-668, PIs. 85-88.
Photographs and some drawings of Upper Devonian stromatoporid sections
and AMPHIPORA. Technical.
Sutherland, P. K., 1958, "Carboniferous Stratigraphy and Rugose Coral Faunas
of Northeastern British Columbia," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 295, pp. i-vi,
1-177, PI. 173.
Photographs of Mississippian solitary and colonial corals including LITHO-
STROTIONELLA. Technical.
Sweet, W. C., and Miller, A. K., 1957, "Ordovician Cephalopods from Cornwallis
and Little Cornwallis Islands, District of Franklin, Northwest Territories,"
Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 38, pp. 1-86, PIs. 1-8.
Photographs of nautiloid cephalopods, mainly orthocone and nautilocone.
Technical.
Teichert, C., 1937, "Ordovician and Silurian Faunas from Arctic Canada," Fifth
Thule Exped., 1921-1924 Rept., Vol. 1, iNo. 5, pp. 1-157, PIs. 1-24.
Photographs of RECEPTACULITES, stromatoporids, corals, brachiopods,
gastropods, nautiloid cephalopods, trilobites, ostracods and algae. Good for
RECEPTACULITES, favositid and heliolitid corals, strophomenid brachiopods,
MACLURITES (also includes MACLURINA) and SCUTELLUM. Technical.
- - - - -, et al., 1964, "Part K Mollusca 3 Cephalopoda-General Features
Endoceratoidea-Actinoceratoidea-Nautiloidea-Bactritoidea," Univ. Kansas
Press, Treat. Invert. Paleont., pp. i-xxviii, ~1-K518.
Photographs and drawings of nautiloids by nine authors. Technical.
Tozer, E. T., 1961, "Triassic Stratigraphy and Faunas, Queen Charlotte Islands,
Arctic Archipelago," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 31'6, pp. 1-116, PIs. 1-30.
Photographs of ceratite and ammonite cephalopods and pelecypods. Partic-
ularly good for pectinoid pelecypods. Technical.
- - - - -, 1962, "Illustrations of Canadian Fossils- Triassic of Western and
Arctic Canada," Geol. Surv. Canada, Pap. 62-19, pp. 1-26, PIs. 1-12.
Photographs of ceratites, ammonites, pelecypods, and brachiopods. Tech-
nical. Good for pectinoid pelecypods and ceratite cephalopods. Technical.
- - - - -, 1963a, "Liardites and Maclearnoceras, New Triassic Ammonoids from
the Nathorstites Zone of British COlumbia," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 96, pp.
31-38, PI. 6.
Photographs of Middle Triassic ceratite cephalopods, Technical.
- - - - -, 1963b, ''Lower Triassic ~mmonoids from Tuchodi Lakes and Half-
way River Areas, Northeastern British Columbia," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull.
96, pp. 1-30, PIs. 1-5.
Photographs of ceratite cephalopods. Technical.
Troedsson, G. T., 1926, "On the Middle and Upper Ordovician Faunas of North-
ern Greenland, T, Cephalopods," !Medd. om Gmnland, Vol. 71, pp. 1-157, PIs.
1-65.
Photographs of Middle or low Upper, and high Upper Ordovician nautiloid
cephalopods. Although not specifically directed toward Canada or Alaska
this article is very pertinent to the Red River and Stony Mountain cephalopod
faunas of North America. Technical.
- - - - -, 1928, "On the Middle and Upper Ordovician Faunas of Northern
Greenland, II, Medd. om Gmnland, Vol. 72, pp. 1-197, PIs. 1-56.
Photographs of receptaculitids, sponges, corals, crinoids, cystoids, bryozoans,
brachiopods, ostracods, trilobites and gastropods. Good for RECEPTACU-
LITES and heliolitid and halysitid corals (note that HALYSITES = CATENI-
PORA of present text). Although concerned with Greenland the illustrated
fauna is very closely related to the high Middle or low Upper, and the high
Upper Ordovician faunas of Oanada and Alaska. Technical.
48

Twenhofel, W. H., 1928, "Geology of Anticosti Island," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem.
154, pp. 1-48, PIs. 1-60.
Photographs of .ordovician and Silurian graptolites, corals, crinoids, bryo·
zoans, brachiopods, gastropods, cephalopods, pelecypods and trilobites . Good •
for orthid, rhynchonellid and strop hom enid brachiopods, and BILLINGSITES.
- - - - -, 1938, "Geology and Paleontology of the 'Mingan Islands, Quebec, "
Geol. 'Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. 11, pp. i-vii, 1-132, PIs. 1-24.
Photographs of Lower and Middle Ordovician algae, sponges, graptolites,
corals, bryozoans, brachiopods, gastropods, pelecypods, cephalopods, and trilo-
bites. T echnical.
Ulrich, E. 0., and Cooper, G. A., ;:19'38, "Ozarkian and Canadian Brachiopoda,"
Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. 13, pp. i-viii, 1-323, PIs. 1-57.
Photographs of Lower Ordovician and Upper Cambrian brachiopods, some
of which are from Canada. Technical.
- - - - -, Foerste, A. F., and 'Miller, A. K., 1943, "Ozarkian and Canadian
Cephalopods. Part II Brevicones," Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. 49, pp. i-X,
1-240, PIs. 1-70.
Photographs of Lower Ordovician orthocone nautiloids, some of which are
from eastern Canada. T echnical.
- -- - -, Foerste, A. F., 'M iller, A. 'K ., and Unkles bay, A. G., 1944, "Ozarkian
and Canadian Cephalopods. Part III, Longicones and Summary," Geo!. Soc.
Amer., Spec. Pap. 58, pp. i-x, 1-226, PIs. 1-68.
Photographs of Lower Ordovician orthocone and cyrtocone nautiloids,
some of which are from Canada. Technical.
Usher, J. L., 1952, "Ammonite Faunas of the Upper Cretaceous Rocks of Vancou-
ver Island, British Columbia," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 21, pp. 1-182, PIs. 1-30.
Photogr aphs of ammonites. Technical.
•
Walcott, Charles D ., 1908, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology NO.2 Cambrian
Trilobites," Smithsonian Misc. CoIl., Vol. 53, PPM13-52, PIs. 1-6.
Photographs of trilobites, some of which are from Canada. Good for OLEN-
OIDES (NEOLENUS). Technical.
- - - - -, 1910, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology, No. 6-0lenellus and
Other Genera of the IM esonacidae," Smithsonian Misc. CoIl., Vol. 53, No.6,
pp. 231-422 (plus index), PIs. 23-44. .
Photographs of olenellid (mesonacid) trilobites, some of which are from
Canada.
Walcott, Charles D ., 1914, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology II. No. 13
Dikelocephalus and other Genera of the Dikelocephalinae," Smithsonian
Misc. CoIl., Vol. 57, 'No. 13, pp. 345-4'12, PIs. 60-70.
Photographs of Upper Cambrian trilobites, some of which are from Canada.
Technical.
- - - - -, 1916, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology III No.5 Cambrian
Trilobites," Smithsonian IM isc. CoIl., Vol. 64. No.5, PPM 303-456, PIs. 45-67.
E xcellent photographs of Lower, Middle and Upper Cambrian trilobites,
some of which are from Canada. Technical.
- - - - - -, '1917, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology IV No.2 The Alber-
t ella Fauna in British Columbia and 'Montana," Smithsonian Misc. CoIL, Vol.
67, No.2, pp. 9-59, 'PIs. 1-7.
Photographs of Middle Cambrian sponges, inarticulate brachiopods , ?gastro-
pods and trilobites. Good for ALBERTELLA. Technical.
- - - - -, 1917, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology IV No. 3 Fauna of
the Mount Whyte Formation," Smithsonian 'Misc. CoIL, Vol. 67, No.3, pp. 61-
114, Pls. 8-13.
Photographs of cystoids, archaeocyathids, inarticulate brachiopods and trilo -
bites. Good for olenellid (mesonacid) trilobites. Technical.
- -- - -, 1925, "Cambrian Geology and Paleontology V No.3 Cambrian and
Ozarkian Trilobites," Smithsonian Misc. CoIl., Vol. 75, No. 3, PPM 61-146, PIs.
15-24.
Photographs of trilobites, some of which are from Canada. Technical.
 49

Warren, P. S., 1927, "Banff Area, Alberta," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 153, pp.
1-94, P1s. 1-7.
Photographs of Upper Devonian and Mississippian corals, echinoderms,
and gastropods. Technical.
- - - - -, 1947, "Cretaceous Fossil Horizons in the MacKenzie River Valley,"
Jour. Paleont., Vol. 21, No.2, pp. 118-123, PIs. 29-30.
Photographs of pelecypods and ammonites. Technical.
- - - - -, and Stelck, C. R., il956, "Devonian 'Faunas of Western Canada,"
Geol. Assoc. Canada, Spec. Paper 1, pp. 1-15, PIs. 1-29.
Photographs of Middle and Upper Devonian corals, brachiopods, gastropods,
tentaculitids, cephalopods and trilobites. Good for brachiopods. Technical.
Westermann, G. E. G., 1962, "Succession and Variation of Monotis and the Asso-
ciated Fauna in the Norian Pine River Bridge Section, British Columbia
(Triassic, Pelecypoda)," Jour. Paleont., Vol. 36, No.4, pp. 745-792, PIs. 112-118.
Photographs of Upper Triassic MONOTIS and some miscellaneous pelecy-
pods. Technical.
Williams, M . Y., 1919, "The Silurian Geology and Faunas of Ontario Peninsula,
and Manitoulin and Adjacent Islands," Geol. Surv. Canada, Mem. 111, pp.
1-195, Pis. 1-34.
Photographs of Silurian marine plants, corals, brachiopods, gastropods, pele-
cypods, dendroid graptolites, cystoids, crinoids, trilobites and eurypterids.
Particularly good for favositid, halysitid, syringoporid and heliolitid corals.
Technical.
Wilson, A. E., 1946, "Brachiopoda of the Ottawa Formation of the Ottawa-St.
Lawrence Lowland," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. No.8, pp. 1-149, PIs. 1-11.
Photographs of Middle Ordovician brachiopods. Good for orthids and stro-
phomenids. Technical.
- - - - - -, 1947, "Trilobita of the Ottawa Formation of the Ottawa-St. Law-
rence Lowland," Geol. Surv. Can ada, Bull. No.9, pp. 1-86, PIs. 1-10.
Photographs of Middle Ordovician trilobites. Good for bumastid trilobites.
Technical.
- - - - -, 1948, "Miscellaneous Classes of Fossils, Ottawa Formation, Ottawa-
St. Lawrence Valley," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 11, pp. i-v, 1-116, Pis. 1-28.
Photographs and drawings of algae, sponges, corals, stromatoporoidS', grap-
tolites, vermes and conodonts, plus unclassified forms. Good for receptacul-
itids. Technical.
- - - - -, 1951, "Gastropoda and Conularida of the Ottawa Formation of the
Ottawa-St. Lawrence Lowland," Geol. Surv. Canada, Bull. 17, pp. 1-149, PIs.
1-19.
Photographs of Middle Ordovician gastropods, and conularidS' (not discussed
in present article). Technical.
Zittel, K. A., von, 1931, "Text-Book of Paleontology," MaCMillan and Co., Ltd.,
pp. i-xi,I-839 (edited by C. R. Eastman).
Drawings of fossil representatives of the animal kingdom. Extremely com-
prehensive and revered textbook. Technical.
 51

PLATES 1 to 42

Unless otherwise stated all illustrations are natural size.

r
52

PLATE 1

PROTOZOA-Fusulinids

FIGURES PAnE

1.- FUSULINID STRUcruRE. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Longitudinal and

transverse structure of a fusulinid, X3 ______________________________ 5

2-4.-FUSULINliD STRUCTURE. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Showing trans-

-
veI1se (Figs. 2, 3) and longitudinal sections, X5. [Fig. 2 is based upon
Parafusulina belcheri Thorsteinsson; and Figs. 3 and 4 upon Schwa-
gerina hyperborea (Salter)] ________________________________________ 5

5.-WEATHERBD FUSULINIDS IN ROCK. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Com-

pare with Devonian Amphipora (PI. 4, Figs. 1-3): the two may be
confused because of the rather similar external appearance, although
the interiors are quite different. [based upon a Permian specimen] __ 5

6.-FUSULINIDS IN FRESH ROCK. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Such struc-

tures are very hard to find unless a great deal of care and patience
is used. [based upon Schwagerina hyperborea (Salter)] ____________ 5
 53

PLATE 1.
54

PLATE 2

PORIFERA- Archaeocyathids, Receptaculites and Sponge Spicules.

FIGURES PAGE

1.- ARCHAEOCYATHID. Lower Cambrian. 'Diagrammatic sketch showing

the inner and outer wall and the vertical parieties, all perforated
by pores ___________________________________ _______________________ _ 5 -
2.- ARCHAEOCYATHIDS. Lower Cambrian. Transverse (lower part of
specimen) and longitudinal sections (upper part) of poorly preserved •
individuaIs. Such preservation is most typical. [based upon Australian
material] ________________,_________________________________________ _ 5

3.-SPONGE SPICULES. Cambrian-Recent. Such spicules should not be

depended upon in correlation. [based upon a Permian? specimen] __ 5

4.-RECEPTACULITES. Upper Ordovician (mainly). Diagrammatic

sketch showing the lower and upper layers of plates joined by hollow
pillars approximately, X3 _________________________________________ 5
 55

•" • •
"• • • • )

• d'ii • • •
• •
• •
•
• ••
• • ;
• •
• • • '. • .•
•
• '

•
•
•
• •
• • •
• • • • •
•
• • •

PLATE 2.
56

PLATE 3

PORIFERA-Receptaculites

FIGURES PAGE

I.-RECEPTACULITES-preserving only cross sections of pillars. Middle

to Upper Ordovician. 'Note the intersecting spiral pattern which can -
be used to distinguish this genus from Syringopora (PI. 11, Fig. 7).
[based upon an Upper Ordovician specimen] _______________________ _ 5
•
2.-RECEPTACULITES - preserving a vague impression of the shell.
This is the most typical preservation. [based upon an Upper Ordo-
. . speC1ffien
VlClan . ] __________________________________________________ _
5

3.-RECEPTA CULITES-a fairly well preserved fragment showing plate

arrangement and a few pillars. [based upon numerous specimens) __ 5

•
 57

PLATE 3 .

•
58

PLATE 4

COELENTERATA-Stromatoporoids (including Amphipora)

FIGURES PAGE

1.-AMPHIPORA. Middle to lower Upper Devonian. View of rather

poorly preserved specimens in rock. Compare and contrast with the
fusulinids on Fig. 5 of PI. 1. [based upon a Middle Devonian specimen] 7

2,3.-AMPHIPORA. Middle to lower Upper Devonian. Transverse and

longitudinal sections of a well preserved individual ,showing the rather
porous structure, X6. [based upon Amphipora ramosa (Phillips)] __ 7

4.-LABECHID STROMATOPOROID. Upper Ordovician. Longitudinal

view of a rather poorly preserved specimen showing axial canal and
diagnostic fluting. [based upon a poorly preserved specimen of
Aulacera undulata (Billings)] ______________________________________ 6

5. LABECHID STROMATOPOROID. Upper Ordovician. Longitudinal

view showing the axial canal and characteristic nodulose surface.
[based upon Beatricea nodulosa Billings] __________________________ 6
 59

3
4

PLATE 4.
60

PLATE 5

COELENTERATA-Stromatoporoids

FIGURES PAGE

l .-STROMATOPORID STROMATOPOROID. Siluro-Devonian. Fairly

well preserved colony in rock. [based upon a Silurian specimen] ____ 6

2.-STROMATOPORID STROMATOPOROID. Siluro-Devonian. Poorly

preserved colonies showing the rather shapeless appearance of most
stromatoporids. [based upon a Silurian specimen] ________________ 6

3-6.-STROMATOPORID STROMATOPOROIDS. Siluro-Devonian. Sketches

showing the variation in stromatoporid structure. [figs. 3, 4 and 6
are based upon Clathrodictyon, X12, X7, X6; and fig. 5 on Actino-
stroma, Xl %] _____________________________________________________ 6
 61

PLATE 5.
62

PLATE 6

COELENTERATA-Graptoloid Graptolites

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.-MULTIBRANCHED GRAPTOLITES. Lower Ordovician. Note the

fairly regular dichotomy. [fig. 1 is based upon Goniograptu8 thureaui
(iMcCoy); fig. 2 upon Zygograptu8 abnormis (Hall); and fig. 3 upon
Tetragraptu8 quadribrachiati8 (Hall)] ___ ______ __________ ___________ 8

4-5.-PHYLLOGRAPTUS. Lower Ordovician. Usually only a carbona- •

ceous outline is all that is preserved. [fig. 4 is based upon P. angu8ti-
/OliU8 Hall; and fig. 5 upon P. anna Hall] _________________________ _ 8

6.-ISOGRAPTUS. Lower Ordovician. Immature specimens like this

shown are most commonly preserved: c/. Fig. 3, PI. 7. [based upon
I. gibberu lus (Nicholson)] ________________________________________ 8
 63

•
3

PLATE 6.
64

PLATE 7

COELENTERATA-Graptoloid Graptolites

FIGURES PAGE

i.- DIDYMOGRAPTUS. Lower Ordovician (mainly). Compare with

Figs. 2 and 3. [based upon D. bifidus (Hall)] _______ __ ______ _______ 9

2.-DICELLOGRAPTUS. Middle to Upper Ordovician, X4. [drawing not

based upon one particular species] _____ ________ _________ ___________ _ 9

3.-ISOGRAPTUS. Lower Ordovician. Mature colony. I sograptus is

rarely mature: typical specimens are like that on Fig. 6 of PI. 6.
[based upon I. caduceus Harris] ______ _______ ________ ____ ____ :...______ 8

4.- DICRANOGRAPTUS. Middle Ordovician (mainly). [based upon D.

spiniter (Lapworth)] _______ ________ __ ______________________________ 9
•
5-7.-BISERIAL GRAPTOLITES. Middle to Upper Ordovician. [figs. 5
and 6 are based upon Climacograptus sp.; and fig. 7 upon Orthograp-
tus calcaratus (Lapworth)] ___________________________________ _____ 8

8,9.-MONOGRAPTUS. Silurian. [fig. 8 is not based upon one partic-

ular species; fig . 9 is based upon M. priodon (Bronn)] _____ _________ 8

10.-MONOGRAPTUS WITH DISTAL TWIST. Middle Silurian, Xl%.

[based upon M. yukonensis Jackson and Lenz] _____________________ _ 8

ll.-CYRTOGRAPTUS. Middle Silurian. [based upon C. murchisoni

Carruthers] 9

i2.- "MONOGRAPTUS SPIRALIS." Lower-Middle S ilurian boundary.

[based upon M . spiralis spiralis (Geinitz)] ____________ ______________ 8

•
 65

3
2 4

5
6 8 10
7
9

11

PLATE 7.
66

PLATE 8

COELENTERATA-Graptoloid and Dendroid Graptolites

FIGURES PAGE

l.-MONOGRAPTUS. Silurian. [based upon an unidentified specimen] __ 8

-
2.-BrSER~AL GRAPTOLOIDS. Middle and Upper Ordovician. [based
upon a specimen containing CZimacograptus and Diplograptu8'] 8
•
3-5.-DENDROID GRAPTOLITES. Ordovician to Silurian. [rather dia-
grammatic representations of Dictyonema (fig. 3); Desmograptus (fig.
4) ; and Acanthograptus (fig. 5)] __________________________________ 7
 •

67

1 /'
/.
• '( r
I
. \ .

,
~I(~" It '

,J
\.'

PLATE 8.
 1

68

PLATE 9

COELElNTERATA-Halysitid Corals

FIGURES PAGE

I.-OATENIPORA. Upper Ordovician. Very poorly preserved specimen

lacking the pinching and swelling effect, ct. Fig. 5. [based upon a
Richmondian? specimen] _________________________________ _________ _

2.-0ATENIPORA. Upper Ordovician. Rather diagrammatic sketch

showing corallites directly appressed against each other. Tabulae
are spaced much further apart than is normal ___________________ _ 9

3.-MANIPORA. Upper Ordovician. Rather diagrammatic sketch show- •

ing the polygonal corallites in irregular multiple rows. Tabulae are
spaced much further apart than is normal _________________________ _

4.-HALYSITES. Silurian. Rather diagrammatic sketch showing the •

oval corallites joined by tubules. Tabulae are usually much closer
together in both the corallites and tubules, than is indicated _______ _ 9

5.-HALYSITES. Silurian. Poorly preserved specimen showing the

pinching and swelling effect indicative of Silurian. [based upon a
Middle? Silurian specimen] ________________________________________ 9

6-9.-0ATENIPORA, MANIPORA AND HALYSITES. Diagrammatic cross

sections showing corallite pattern. Fig. 6 : Oatenipora, approx. X2;
Figs. 7, 8: Manipora. Fig. 7 shows the subcircular corallites of M.
feildeni (Etheridge) (X3) which might be mistaken for Silurian forms
(see page 9); and Fig. 8 the more normal Manipora corallites (Xl);
Fig. 9: Halysites showing oval corallites joined by tubules (X2) ____ 9
 -

69

PLATE 9.
 .,

70

PLATE 10

COELENTERAT A-Favositid Corals

FIGURES PAGE

1. P ALAEOFA VOSITES . Upper Ordovician. Rather diagrammatic

sketch showing the mural pores in wall angles; and abnormally widely
.spaced tabulae _____________________________________________________ 10

2. P ALAEOFAVOSITES. Upper Ordovician. Diagrammatic transverse

cross-section through corallites. Note the rare openings in the wall
indicative of wall-angle mural pores ________________________________ 10
•

3. ALVEOLITES. Silurian to Devonian. Portion of a colony showing

oval corallites. [based on A. undo8u8 Miller] _____________________ _ 10

4. ALVEOLITES. Silurian to Devonian. Diagrammatic transveI1Se sec-

tion showing oval corallites, X8 ____________________________________ 10

5. FAVOSITES. Silurian to Devonian. Rather diagrammatic sketch

showing mural pores in walls, and very widely spaced tabulae ______ 10

6,7.-FAVOSITES. Silurian to Devonian. Diagrammatic transverse and

longitudinal sections. Mural pores are shown a.s breaks in walls in
Fig. 6; and in occasional oblique intercepts in Fig. 7 ________________ 10
 ,

71

PLATE 10.
 l

72

PLATE 11

COELENTERATA~Favositid, Heliolitid and Syringoporid Cora1s

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.-FAVOSITES LIMITARIS-TYPE CORALS. Middle Devonian. Fig. 3

shows most the typical occurrence of the coral. [fig. 1 is based upon
Coenites; fig. 2 upon F. limitaris Rominger; and fig. 3 upon a poorly
preserved specimen] __ _____________________________________________ 10

4.-HELIOLITID CORAL. Silurian to Devonian (mainly), X3. [based

upon a Silurian specimen] _________________________________________ 10
•

5,6.-HELIOLITID CORALS. Silurian to Devonian (mainly), X2lh. Show-

ing various transverse patterns in the group. [fig. 6 is based upon
the Silurian Lyellia americana Edwards and Haime, and fig. 5 upon
the Silurian Plasmopora joUis Edwards and Haime] ______________ 10

7, 8.-SYRINGOPORA. Upper Ordovician to Permian. Sketches showing

transverse (Fig. 7, X2lh) and idealized, three-dimensional aspects of
genus (Fig. 8, app. X2). Tabular intercepts are shown on F ig. 7, and
their idealized pattern on Fig. 8. [fig. 7 is based upon S. r udyi
Nelson; fig. 7 is not based upon a specimen] ______________________ 10

9.-SYRINGOPORA COLUMBIANA WILSON. Upper Ordovician. A

syringoporid diagnosed by the extremely small size of the corallites,
Xl. [based upon a Richmondian specimen] ________________________ 10
 ,
/

73

8
PLATE 11 .
74

PLATE 12

COELENTERATA-Solitary Septate Corals

FIGURES PAGE

l.-LOBOCORALLIUM TRILOBATUM (WHITEAVES). Upper Ordo-

vician. [based upon an Upper Ordovician specimen] 11

2.-BIGHORNIA. Upper Ordovician. [based upon numerous specimens

of B. bottei ~elson] _______________________________________________ 11

3,4.-BIGHORNIA. Upper Ordovician. Fig. 3: oblique view; Fig. 4: cali-

car view. ~ote the diagnostic flattened or oval appearance in both.
See PI. 14, Fig. 6. [based upon a specimen of B. patella (Wilson)] __ 11

5.-BIGHORNIA A~D LOBOCORALLIUM TRILOBATUM. Upper Ordo- •

vician. Diagrammatic sketch showing the trilobate outline of L.
trilobatum (Whiteaves) on the left and the oval outline of Bighornia
on the right _____________ ___ _______________________________________ _ 11

6.-CYSTIPHYLLUM. Silurian to Devonian. Rather diagrammatic

sketch showing the cystose tabulae. Note that these tabulae do not
necessarily reflect the surface features, in that ghost septa may appear
in the calyx __ ________ ___ ________________ ___________________________ 11

7.-HELIOPHYLLUM. Middle Devonian. Rather diagrammatic sketch.

~ote the characteristic reticulate appearance of the septa caused
by carinae _________________________________________________________ 11
 -

75

I
/

PLATE 12.
 l

76

PLATE 13

COELENTERATA-Colonial Septate Corals

FIGURES PAGE
I

1.-DISSEPl'MENTARIUM - characteristic of many post-Ordovician

corals. The dissepiments are the cyst-like structures along both
walls. The interior of the corallite has inclined tabulae and a col-
umella. [based upon Lithostrotion arizelum (Crickmay)] __________ 11

2.-COLUMNAR BREAKING HABIT-most characteristic of Devonian.

[based upon an unidentified specimen] ____________________________ 12
,
3.-LITHOSTROTIONELLA-SHOWING LONSDALEOID DISSEP'I 'MEN- •
TARIUM. Permo-Carboniferous (mainly Mississippian). Note how
the septa have withdrawn toward interior, leaving the peripheral re-
gions with dissepimental intercepts only. [based upon L. shimeri
(Crickmay)] _____________________________________________________ _ 12

4.-LITHOSTROTIONELLA. Permo-Carboniferous (mainly Mis,sissip-

pian). View of a weathered colony, X2. Notice how the septa appear
continuous from wall to near centre, although breaking will show
lonsdaleoid structure like that of Fig. 3. [based upon L. shimeri
(Crickmay)] ______________________________________________________ 12

5.-BILLINGSASTRAEA. Middle Devonian. Note confluent septa and

the lack of walls. [based upon B. (Phillipsastraea) nevadensis magna
Stumm] __________________________________________________________ 12

6. PYCNOSTYLUS. Silurian. Showing the rather irregular fasciculate

corallites and preponderant tabulae. [based upon p. guelphensis
Whiteaves] __________________________________________________________ 12
 -

77

-
5

PLATE 13.
 - - ----------- -- - - --

78

.PLA'l'E 14

BRAC"'HIOPODS-Inarticulates, Orthids and Dalmanellids

FIGURES .PAGE

I.- LINGULA sol.- an inar ticulate brachiopod. Cambrian to Recent.

Ventral? view [based upon a Permian specimen] ___ _________ ____ __ 13

2.- 0RBICULOIDEA- an inarticulate brachiopod. P ermo-P ennsylvanian.

[based upon a P ennsylvanian specimen] ___________ ___ ____ _____ ___ 13

3-5.-0RTHID BRACHIOPOD. Ordovician-Silurian. Dorsal, ventral and •

lateral views, Xl. Brachiopods of this size and shape often belong
to Plaesiomys occidentalis which is very characteristic of high Upper
Ordovician strata in western Canada. See Fig. 6. [based upon ideal-
ized Plaesiomys occidentalis (Okulitch)] _______ ________ __________ ___ 13

6.-0RTHID BRAClllOPOD AND BIGHORNIA . Upper Upper Ordovi-

cian (Richmondian and Gamachianl. Such association is typical in
strata of this a g e in western Canada. [based upon a specimen con-
taining poorly preserved Plaesiomys occidentalis (Okulitch) and Big-
hornia pat ella (Wilson)] _____ ________ ______ _____ ______ _____________ 13

7-9.~DALMANELLID BRACHIOPOD. Ordovician and Silurian (mainly).

Dorsal, ventral and lateral views, X2. The smaller size (X2) , more
oval outline and finer ribs usually distinguish dalmanellids from
ort hids (see Figs. 3-4l. [based upon Direro mynnia t ersa Wang] __ __ 13

•
 79

\
\
1
•

( .

PLATE 14.

l
80

PLATE 15

BRACHIOPODA-Pentamerids and Strophomenids

F I GURES PAGE

1,2.- PENTAMERID BRACHIOPOD. Silurian. Dorsal and lateral views.

[ba.sed upon a diagrammatic representation of Conchidium] _______ _ 14 -
3. PENTAMERID BRACHIOPODS. Silurian. Such internal moulds,
with cracks indicating the position of spondylia and septa, are most
commonly preserved. [based upon Pentamerus sp. - see Norford, •
1962b, PI. 8, fig. 18] __________ _______ __________ ____ ______ ____ _____ _ 14

4-6.-STROPHOMENID BRACHIOPOD. Ordovician to Permian. Ventral,

dorsal and lateral views. [based upon Ordovician Rafinesquina sp.] 14

•
 -

81

PLATE l5.
82

PLATE 16

BRACHIOPODS-Productids (dictyoclostids) and Strophomenids

FIGURES PAGE

1,2.-DlcrYOCLOSTID PRoDucrrD. Permo-Carboniferous. Ventral and

dorsal views. Note rather interrupted, irregular ribs. See PI. 17, •
Fig. 3 for lateral view of the same specimen. [based upon a Permian
specimen] ________________________________________________________ _ 14

3.-DICTYOCLOSTID PRODUcrID. Permo-Carboniferous. Poorly pre- •

served moulds of valve surfaces suggesting the irregular rib pattern
of dictyoclostids. Such preservation is very common. [based upon a
Permian mould] __________________________________________________ _ 14

4-5.-CHONETINA-A lobed Strophomenid. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Ven-

tral and dorsal views, X2. [based upon C. flemingi (Norwood
and Pratten)] ______________________________________________________ 14
 m

&3

...

'ii7
5

PLATE 16.
84

-
•

PLATE 17

BRACHIOPODA-Productids (linoproductids and dictyoclostids)

FIGURES PAGE •

1,2.- LINOPRODUCTID PRODUcrID. Permo-Carboniferous. Ventral and

lateral views. These productids may also occur as small individuals,
particularly in the Mississippian. [based upon a Permian specimen] 15 •

3.-DICTYOCLOSTID PRODUcrID. Permo-Carboniferous. Lateral view.

(See PI. 16, Figs. 1. and 2 for other views of the same specimen.)
[based upon a Permian specimen] ___ _______ ___ _____________________ 14

•
 85

PLATE 17.
86

PLATE 18

BRACHIOPODA- Productids (horridonids and linoproductids)

FIGURES PAGE

1-5.-HORRIDONID PRODUCTID. Pennslyvanian. Ventral, dorsal, posterior

and lateral views ; and close up of the lamellose -shell surface with
spine bases (approximately X6>. Note the spine bases along the
ventral hinge (cardinal) area and their absence from the dorsal part
(see Pl. 19, Figs. 1-3), [based upon numerous specimens] _________ _ 15

6,7.-MUIRWOODIA-A Permian Linoproductid. Ventral and lateral views.

[based upon numerous specimens] _____________________ ________ ___ 15
 -

87

" 5

PLATE 18.

l
88

PLATE 19

BRACHIOPODA-Productids (horridonids and echinoconchids)

FIGURES PAGE

1-4.-HORRIDONID PRODUCTID. Permian. Ventral, dorsal and lat-

eral views; and close up of pustulose shell surface (approximately X6)'
Note the spine bases along dorsal hinge (cardinal) area (s~e PI. 18,
Figs. 1-4). [based upon numerous specimens of Horridonia] ______ 15

5-7.-ECHINOCONCHID PRODUCTID. Permo-Carboniferous. Lateral,

dorsal and ventral views. [based upon Echinoconchu8 alternatu8
(Norwood and Pratten)] ___________________________________________ 15
 =

89

•
4

PLATE 19.
:90

PLATE 20

BRACHIOPODA-Productids (waagenoconchids, productellids)

and Rhynchonellids

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.-WAAGENOCONCHID PRODUCTID. Permian (mainly) . Ventral,

dorsa~ and lateral views. [based upon Waagenoconcha irginae
(Stuckenberg)] ___ ___ ____________ ______ ___ ________________ _________ _ 15 -
4.-WAAGENOCONCHID PRODUCTID. Permian (mainly). Poorly prE'-
served valve fragment showing the characteristic diagonal spine
•
bases, [based upon a Permian specimen] _____________ _____ _____ ___ 15

5-6.-PRODUCTELL]D PRODUCTID. Permo-Carboniferous. Ventral and

dorsal views of a well preserved specimen. [based upon Productella
hirsutiformis Girty] ________ ______ ___ ____ ___________ ________ __ _____ 15

7.- PRODUCTELLA HIRSUTIFORMIS AND LEIORHYNCHUS CAR -

BONIFERUM. Upper Mississippian. Such association of poorly pre-
served specimens is characteristic of this series in northern Canada
and Alaska. See Figs. 5-6; and PI. 21, Fig,s. 4-6. [rather idealized
drawing based upon numerous poorly preserved specimens] _____ ___ 15, 16
 91

PLATE 20.
92

PLATE 21

BRACHIOPODA-Rhynchonellids (including leiorhynchids)

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.-LEIORHYNCHID (RHYNCHONELLID) BRACHIOPOD. Devonian

to Permian. Ventral, dorsal and lateral views. [based upon a
Devonian specimen] ______________________________________________ 16

4-6.-LEIORHYNCHID (RHYNCHONELLID) BRACHIOPOD. Devonian

to Permian. Ventral, dorsal and lateral views. [based upon a Devo-
nian specimen] __________________________________________________ _ 16
•

7-9.-RHYNCHONELLID BRACHIOPOD. Ordovician to Permian. Ven-

tral, dorsal and lateral views. Note that the true rhynchonellids •
have ribs over the whole valve surface, while the leiorhynchids have
them mainly on the fold and sinus. [based upon Rhynchotrema
iowense Wang] ______________ _____ ____ _____ ______________________ _ 16

10,1l.-"LEIORHYNCHUS" SP. Permian. Ventral and dorsal views. The

rather large size and coarse ribs distinguish this species. [based
upon numerous specimens] _____________ _____________ ______________ 16

12.-"LEIORHYNCHUS" SP. Permian. Dorsal view of a rather poor-

ly preserved specimen: the kind most commonly found in the field.
[sketch is rather idealized] _______________________________________ 16
 93

4
6

..

.
7 8 9

PLATE 21.
94

PLATE 22

BRACHIOPODA-Spiriferids

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.-SPIRIFERID BRAOHIOPOD. Devonian to Permian. Ventral, dorsal

and lateral views. [based upon a Devonian Bpiriter] ______________ 16
-
4.-SPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD. Devonian to Permian. Ventral view.
[based upon the Mississippian Bpiriter greenockensis Brown] ________ 16
•
5,6.-NEOSPIRIFER. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Ventral (Fig. 5) and dorsal
(Fig. 6) views. Note the bundled ribs. [fig. 6 is based upon N. dun-
bari King; and fig. 5 upon a Permian specimen] ___________________ _ 16

7.-NEOSPIRIFER. Permo-Pennsylvanian. Poorly preserved mould sug-

gesting the bundled rib pattern of the genus. [based upon a Per-
. specImen
mlan . ] ____________________________________________________ 16
 95

. 4

PLATE 22.
96

PLATE 23

BRACHIOPODA-Spiriferids and Punctospiriferids

FIGURES P AGE

1-3.-SPIRIFERELLA-An aberrant Spiriferid. Ventral, dorsal and lateral

views. [based upon s. rajah (Salter)] _____ _______________________ 16

4.-SPIRIFERELLA-An aberrant Spiriferid. Permian. Poorly pre-

served specimens with the broad ribs suggestive of the genus. -
[based upon a specimen containing S. saranae (de Verneuil)] _______ _ 16

5.-PUNCTOSPIRIFERID BRACHIOPOD. Devonian to Triassic. Dorsal

view. Punctae are too .small to be seen with the naked eye. [based
upon Pu.nctospiriter kentuckiensis (Shumard)] ____ ____ _____ _________ 16

6, 7.-PUNCTOSPIRIFERID BRACHIOPODS. Devonian to Triassic. Fig. 6

show.s a fragmentary specimen embedded in rock; and Fig. 7 the
punctate nature of the shell under magnification, X12. [based upon
an unidentified Permian specimen] _____ ________ ___ ______________ ____ 16
 97

PLATE 23.

l
98

PLATE 24

BRACHIOPODA-Rostrospiriferids and Terebratulids

FIGURES PAGE

1-8.-ROSTROSPIRIFERID BRACHIOPODS. Permo-Carboniferous (main-

ly). Figs. 1, 2, 3; and 4, 5, 6: ventral, dorsal and lateral views. Figs.
7, 8 ventral and dorsal views. Figs. 1-3 are based upon Composita sub-
tilita (Shepard); 4-6 upon Whitfieldella nitida (Hall); and 7-8 upon
Cleiothyridina nielsoni Dunbar] ___________________________________ _ 17 -
9-16.-DIELASMA - A Terebratulid Brachiopod. Permo-Carboniferous.
Figs. 9-11: dorsal, ventral and lateral views; Figs. 12, 13:
lateral and dorsal views; 14, 15: dorsal and lateral views of a poorly
preserved specimen. Fig. 16 shows the punctate shell surface under
high magnification, approximately X6 [figs. 9-11 are based upon D.
stoschensis Dunbar; . 12, 13 upon D. elongatum Schlotheim; 14, 15 and
16 upon poorly preserved Permian specimens] ____________________ 18

17.-TEREBRATULID PUNCTAE. Devonian to Triassic (mainly). The

punctae shown are much more widely spaced than is normal, approx-
imately X6. [based upon the Devonian Cranaena sublingulata Stain-
brook] ____________________________________________________________ 17
 I

99

8
7

10

/, .
i\,gW
~-
. 13
•

', "
, :
:'," : '<~.: , <.;'
"
, '.-- -,,-". c.'':
"','
. .
~,~,;." :~, .,>:

16

17

PLATE 24.
100

PLA'l'E 25

BRACHIOPODA-Atrypids (Atrypa)

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.-"ATRYPA." Devonian.
Dorsal, lateral and posterior (top) views.
[based upon Spinatrypa coriacea Crickmay] _______________________ _ 17 -
4, 5.-ATRYPA. Devonian. Lateral and dorsal views. [based upon A.
arctica VVarren] ___________________________________________________ _ 17 •

6,7.-ATRYPA. Devonian. Ventral and lateral views. [based upon A. sp.

~. ~cLaren] _____________________________________________________ _ 17

8-1O.-ATRYPA. Devonian. Ventral, dorsal and lateral views. [based upon

A. VVebster] __________________________________________
independens~ 17
 101

10

"

PLATE 25.
102

11

PLA'I'E 26

BRACHIOPODA-Terebratulids

FIGURES PAGE -
•

1,2.-RENSSELANDIA. Middle Devonian. Dorsal and lateral views. Well

preserved specimens have fine ribs. [based upon R. laevis (Meek)] __ 18
•
3,4.-"STRINGOCEPHALUS." Middle Devonian. Dorsal and lateral views.
Stringocephalu8 can become much larger that that shown. [drawings
are composite: based upon numerous illustrations] __________________ 18

,
 103

..

PLATE 26.
104

PLATE 27

BRYOZOA AND ECHINODERMATA

Archimedes, Fenestellids, and Crinoid Stems

FIGURES PAGE

l.-ARCHIMEDES. Permo-Pennsylvanian. [rather idealized represen-

tation of a Permian specimen] ______________________ _ _____________ _ •
18

2. -FENESTELLID BRYOZOA. Permo-Carboniferous. Note the sim-

ilarity to Siluro-Ordovician dendroid graptolites (PI. 8, Fig. 3) . [based
upon Permian specimens] __________________________________________ 18

3,4.-TWO-HOLED CRINOID STEMS. Lower Devonian. Fig. 3 shows a

well preserved stem, and Fig. 4 the expected occurrence, X2. [based
upon a sketch presented by T. Potter Chamney] ____________________ 19

5, 6.-PENTACRINUS. Jurassic. Fig. 5 shows a well preserved stem with

five sides (X2), and Fig. 6 the preservation to be expected (Xl) .
[based upon a Jurassic specimen] __________________________________ 19

•
 105

/'

, .< _ .,:,'~"';
4. "-,,--"

"

3
•

PLATE 27.
106

PLATE 28

MOLLUSCA- Gastropods and Pelecypods

FIGURES PAGE

1-3.- MACLURITES. Middle to Upper Ordovician. Lower, upper and aper-

tural views, Xl,2. Usually Maclurites is poorly preserved and does
not show the longitudinal lines of Figs. 1 and 3. [based upon numer-
ous specimens] ___ __ ____ ___________ __________ ___________ ___ ________ 19

4.- TENTACULITIDS. Silurian to Devonian. Various specimens in rock.

X2. [based upon T. sp., nr. T. attenuatus Hal!] ___________ ___ ______ 19
•

5.- PECTINOlD PELECYPOD (true Pecten). Mississippian to Re-

cent. Note that pectens have symmetry very close to that of
brachiopods. [based upon a Permian specimen] ____________ __ ___ ___ 20

6.- MONOTIS-PSEUDOMONOTIS TYPE PELECYPODS. Triassic.

View of variously preserved specimens. Pelecypods of this size and
shape are most frequent in the Upper Triassic. [based upon Monotis
subcircularis (Gabb)] _______ ___ _____ ____ ____ __ _______ __ ____________ 20
 107

..

PLATE 28.
108

PLATE 29

MOLLUSCA-Pelecypods

FIGURES PAGE

l.-BUCHIA (AUCELLA) - A Mytiloid Pelecypod. Upper Jurassic

(mainly) . Slab showing Buchia in various states of preservation.
[based upon an Upper Jurassic slab] ________________________________ 20

2,3.-BUCHIA (AUCELLA) - A Mytiloid Pelecypod. Upper Jurassic

(mainly). Fig. 2 shows one valve, and Fig. 3 the rarely seen in-
equivalved nature of genus. [fig. 2 is based upon B. fi&heriana
(Stoliczka)] ______________________________________________________ _ 20
•

4.-INOCERAMUS - A lMytiloid Pelecypod. Cretaceous (mainly).

[based upon I. barabina 'Morton] 20

5,6.-DAONELLA-A iPectinoid Pelecypod. Triassic [fig. 5 is based upon

D. nitanae 'M cLearn; fig. 6 upon D. eZegans McLearn] ______________ 20

7.-0YSTERS - Ostreoid Pelecypods. Cretaceous to Recent. Show-

ing poorly preserved rather shapeless, irregularly rugose valve frag-
ments, X%. [sketch is not based upon a specimen] ________________ 20
 I

109

PLATE 29.
 ,

110

PLATE 30

MOLLUSCA- Nautiloid Cephalopods

FIGURES PAG E

I.- BEADED SIPHUNCLE. Ordovician-Silurian. [based upon Stokeso-

ceras cylindricum Foer,ste and Savage] ___ ___ __________ ___ ____ _____ _ 21

2.- - 0RTHOCONE CEPHALOPOD. Ordovician-Silurian (rarely Devo-

nian), Xlh . N ote the tubular (orthochoanitic) siphuncle. [based upon
an Upper Ordovician specimen] _____ ___ _____ ___ ___ ____________ ____ _ 21

3.- 0RTHOCONE CEPHALOPOD. Ordovician-Silurian (rarely Devo- •

nian). [based upon one of the rare Devonian specimens from the
Fort Creek shale] ______________ ____ __ __ __ __ ___ ___________ _________ _ 21

4-5.- BILLINGSITES. Upper Ordovician ascocone. [based upon B . k eat-

ingi Nelson] ____ _______ _____________ _______ ___ ________ ___________ __ 21

6.- NAUTILICONE NAUTILOID. Ordovician-Silurian, X%. [ based upon

Cham ctocems ' laddi. Foerste] _______ _____________ ______________ ___ __ 21
 I

111

..

.
•

PLATE 30.
112

PLATE 31

MOLLUSCA-Nautiloid Cephalopods

FIGURES PAGE

1,2.- CYRTOGOMPHOCERAS- Upper Ordovician Cyrtocone. Lateral and

ventral views. [based upon C. alcocki Nelson] ___ ___ ____ ___ ___ __ __ 21

3.-BEA'DED SIPHUNCLE. Ordovician-Silurian. [based upon a Silurian

specimen] 21

4-5.- BILLINGSITES- Upper Ordovician Ascocone. Dorsal and lateral

views. [based upon B. borealis (Parks)] ______________________ ____ 21
 113

..

PLATE 31.
 - ,

114

PLATE 32

MOLLUSCA-Nautiloid Cephalopods

FIGURES PAGE

l.-DIESTOCERAS-Upper Ordovician Brevicone. [based upon an upper

Ordovician specimen] ______________________________________________ 21

2.-WINNIPEGOCERAS-Upper Ordovician Cyrtocone. [based upon W.

laticurvatu~ (VVhiteaves)] _________________________________________ 21

-
 115

PLATE 32.
 ,

116

PLATE 33

MOLLUSCA-Goniatite. Ceratite and Ammonite Cephalopods

FIGURES PAGE

l.-GONIATITE AMMONOID. Devonian to Permian. Lateral view.

Note the outer wall obscuring sutures on the lower part of specimen.
[based upon Permian Pseudogastrioceras /ortieri Harker] ___ ______ _ 22 •

2.-CERATITE AMMONOID. Mississippian to Triassic: mainly Triassic

in Canada and Alaska. NQte the outer wall covering most of the
sutures. Lateral view. [based upon a Triassic specimen] ______ ___ _ 22 -
3.-AMMONITE AMMONOID. Triassic to Cretaceous. Lateral view.
Note the extremely complicated sutures : see also Fig. 4. [based upon
Jurassic Warrenoceras henryi (Meek and Hayden)] ___ _______ ___ ___ 22

4.- BACULITES. Upper Cretaceous. Lateral view of the orthocone por-

tion. [based upon an Upper Cretaceous specimen] ___ _______________ 23
 I

117

..

"
,
Jr-

, ..,.
,

PLATE 33.
 1

118

--

PLATE 34

MOLLUSCA-Ammonite Cephalopod

FIGURE PAGE

1. -NEOGASTROPLITES. Lower Cretaceous. [based upon a specimen

from Peace River area, British Columbia] _____ ___ _____ ___________ __ 23

-.
 I

119

PLATE 34.
 I

120

PLATE 35

MOLLUSCA-Ceratite Cephalopods, and Belemnites

FIGURES PAGE -•
1, 2.-NATHORSITES. Middle Triassic ceratite ammonoid. Lateral and
ventral views. No sutures are shown: these are rarely preserved on
this genus. [based upon N . mcconnelli (Whiteaves)] _______________ _ 22

3. -BELEMNITES. Jurassic. Various aspects are shown. Note the fib-

rous construction of guard. Portions or traces of phragmocones are
present in the two belemnites in the upper right hand corner. [draw-
ing is composite : based upon various species] ______________________ 23

--
 121

PLATE 35.
 1

122

PLATE 36

ARTHROPODA-Trilobites

FIGURES PAGE
-•
1.-0LENELLID TRILOBITES. Lower Cambrian. [based upon Paed-
eumias transitans Walcott] 24
••
2. -0LENELLID TRILOBITE. Lower Cambrian, X2. Such cephala are
the most commonly preserved parts of these trilobites. [based upon
Fremontia sp.] ____________________________________________________ 24
 ,

123

PLATE 36.
 1

124

PLATE 37

ARTHROPODA-Trilobites

FIGURES PAGE

l.-ALBERTELLA. Middle Cambrian. Such pygidia are most commonly

preserved in this genus. See Fig. 2. [based upon A. helena Walcott] 24

2.-ALBERTELLA. Middle Cambrian. [based upon A. helena Walcott] 24

3.-AGNOSTID TRILOBITE. Middle to Upper Cambrian; X2. Note the two

thoracic segments, compared with the three of EodiscU8 (PI. 39, Fig.
3), [based upon A . monotis Matthew] _________________ ________ _____ 24

4.-AGNOSTID TRILOBITES. Middle to Upper Cambrian. [based upon

A. White] ___________________ ______________ ___ _________
inter8tr~u8 24
 ,

125

PLATE 37.
 M r T'
I

126

PL,A T'E 38

ARTHROPODA-Trilobites

FIGURES PAGE

I. - OLENOIDES (NEOLENUS)' Middle Cambrian. The spinose pygid-

ium is the most commonly preserved structure. [based upon O.
serratus (Rominger)] ____ __ __ ___ __ __ _________ __ __ _________________ _ 24

2.- ENCRINURUS. Silurian. [ based upon E . punctatus (Wahlenberg)] 24

3.- ENCRINURUS. Silurian. Such pygidia are the most com monly pre-
served feature of this genus. [based upon E. sp., cf. E. princeps
Poulsen] _________________________ _____ ____________________________ 24
 1

127

--

-.

PLATE 38.
 - , .,, =
1

128

PLATE 39

ARTHROPODA-Trilobites

FIGURES PAGE
•
l.- BUMASTID TRILOBITE. Ordovician to Silurian. [based upon Iso-
telus brachycephalu8 Foerste] ______________________________________ 24

2.- BUMASTliD TRILOBITE. Ordovician to Silurian. Fragment show-

ing part of thorax. Note the similarity to an orthocone cephalopod
surface (see Pl. 30, Fig. 2). [based upon an Ordovician specimen] __ 24

3.-EODISCID TR1LOBITE. Lower and Middle Cambrian, X6. Com-

pare with Agnostus (PI. 37, Fig. 3), [based upon E. punctatus (Salter)] 24

-
;
 1

129

..

'.

PLATE 39 .
 7 PECCI I

130

PLATE 40

ARTHROPODA-Trilobites and Ostracods

FIGURES PAGE

I.-SCUTELLUM. Silurian. [based upon S. borealis Poulsen] _______ _ 24 •

2.- SCUTELLUM. Silurian. Such pygidia are the most commonly pre-
served features of this genus. [based upon S . borealis Poulsen] ___ _ 24

3.-0STRACODS. Ordovician to Recent. Ostracod swarms like that

shown are most characteristic of the Silurian. [based upon a SilUlian
specimen] - - ---------------------_________________________________ 24
 1

131

/
/-it
? ,.... ,
,

PLATE 40.
 I

132

PLATE 41

CHORDATA-Fish Remains

FIGURES PAGE

I.-FISH PLATES. Devonian to Recent. These thick disc like structures

typically have a light grey to bluish colour due to the phosphatic
content. [based upon Mississippian specimens] ______________________ 25
•
2.-FISH BONES. Devonian to Recent. The rather porous bone frag-
ments are very rare ; often they may have a bluish hue. [based upon
specimens of various ages] ___ _____________________________________ 25

.-
-
 i

133

. ....

PLATE 41.
134

PLATE 42

MARINE PLAm'S

l.- "SPIROPHYTON." Permian. Such cone shapes with spirally radiat-

ing ridges are very diagnostic for Leonardian (Lower Permian ) strata
.I
[based upon a Permian specimen] _____________________ __________ __ _ 25

2.-"SPIROPHYTON." Permian. Occasionally Spirophyton may occur

like these flattened ,swirl-like markings along bedding planes. Caution
should be used in dating as such markings may have other origins.
[sketch based upon memory of structures on Dave Lord Ridge, Yukon
Territory] _____ __ ___ ____________________________________ ___________ 25
 135

PLATE 42.
 •

136

INDEX

Agnostid Trilobites 24, PI. 37 Spiralia 17

AlberteZla 24,26, PI. 37 Spiriferids 13, 16, 27, 28,
Alveolites 10, 27, PI. 10 PIs. 22, 23
Amphipora 7,28, Pl. 4 Spondylium 14
Confusion with Strophomenids 13, 14, 28, PI. 15
Fusulinids 7, 13 Terebra tulids 13, 17, 28, PI. 24
Aragonite (Mother of Waagenoconchid
Pearl) in 'Molluscs 30 productids 15, 29, Pl. 20
Archaeocyathids
(Pleosponges) 5,26, PI. 2 Brevicone cephalopods 21, Pl. 32
Distinguished from Buchia (Aucella) 20, 30, PI. 29
cup corals 5 Confusion with
Archimedes 18, 29, PI. 27 Inoceramus 20
Ascocone cephalopods 22, PIs. 30, 31 Cambrian System 25
Atrypa 17,27,28, PI. 25 Catenipora 9, 10, 27, PI. 9
Aucella (see Buchia) Cenozoic 30
Aulacera 6,27, PI. 4 Cephalopods 21-23
Baculites 23, 30, PI. 33 Ammonites 22, 29, 30, PI. 33
Ammonoids 21, 22, PI. 33
Beatricea 6,27, PI. 4 Ascocone 22, PIs. 30, 31
Belemnites (Belem-
noids) 21, 23, 30, PI. 35 Beaded siphuncles 21, PIs. 30, 31
Fragments 23,30 Belemnites 23, 30, Pl. 35
Guard (Rostrum) 23 Belemnoids 21,22 •
Phragmocone 23 Brevicone 21, PI. 32
Confusion with corals 23 Ceratites 22, 29, PIs. 33, 35
Cyrtocones 21, PIs. 31, 32
Bighornia 11, 27, PIs. 12, 14 Goniatites 22, 27, 28, PI. 33 •
Billingsastraea Nautilicones 21, PI. 30
(Phillipsastraea) 12, 28, PI. 1'3 Nautiloids 21
Billingsites 21,22,27, PIs. 30,31 Ornamentation 22
Brachiopods 12-18 Orthocones 6,21, PI. 30
Articulates 12,13 Phragmocone 23
Atrypids 13,17 Sutures 20,21,22
nalmanellids 12, Pl. 14 Chonetina 14,29, PI. 16
Dictyoclostid Chordata
productids 15,29, PIs. 16, 17 25
Distinction from Claraia 20,29
pelecypods 12 Climacograptus 8,26, PI. 8
Echinoconchid Coenites
productids 14,15,29, PI. 19 10, PI.U
Horridonid productids 14,29, PIs. 18, 19 Colonial corals 11
Inarticulates 12, 13, Pl. 14 Corals 9 -12
LeiorhY'nchids 16, 27, 28, PIs. 20, 21 Breaking habit 12, PI. 13
Linoproductid Cerioid 9
productids 15, 29, PIs. 17, 18 Chain corals 9
Orthids 13, PI. 14 Confusion with
Pentamerids 13,14,27, PI. 15 archaeocya thids 5
Productellid Colonial 11
productids 14,15,28, PI. 20 Columnar breaking
Productids 13,14,28 habit 12
Punctae 13, PIs. 23, 24 Cup corals 11
PUnctospiriferids 1'3, 16, 28, 29, PI. 23 Dissepimentarium 11, PI.13
Rhynchonellids 13, 15, 28, PI. 21 Fasciculate 9
Rostrospiriferids 13, 17, 28, PI. 24 Favositids 28

/
 137

Halysitids 9 Dichotomy 8,26

Halysitoid 9 Graptoloids 7
Heliolitids 10, Pl. 11 Monoserial 8, 26, PIs. 7,8
Horn corals 11 Multibranched 8, 26, PIs. 6, 8
Lonsdaleoid Quadriserial 8, PI. 6
dissepimentarium 11, 12, PI. 13 Shaly facies 26
Mural pores 10, PI. 10 Guide (Index) fossil 2.
Organ pipe 9. 10
Septate 9, 11
Syringoporids 10 Halobia 20,29
Tabulate 9 Halysites 9, 10,27, PI. 9
Heliophyllum 11, PI. 12
Cretaceous System 30
Honeycomb corals
Crinoid columna Is 19 (favositids) 9
Cyrtogomphoceras 21, '2:7, PI. 31 Horn corals (cup
Cyrtograptus 9,26, PI. 7 corals) 11
Cystiphyllum 11, '2:7, PI. 12 Horridonia 15, 19, PI. 19
Horridonid (productid)
brachiopods 15, 29, PIs. 18, 19
Daonella 20, 29, PI. 29
Devonian System 27
Index (Guide) fossil 2
D icellograptus 8, 9,26, PI. 7
Impunctate brachiopods 13
D icranograptus 9,26, PI. 7
Inoceramus 20, 30, PI. 29
Dictyonema PI. 8
Confusion with
Dielasma 17, 18, PI. 24 Buchia (Aucella) 20,30
Didymograptus 9, PI. 7 Isograptus 8, 9, 26, PIs. 6, 7
Diestoceras 21,27, PI. 32
Diplograptus 8,26, PI. 8 Jurassic System 30
Dissepimentarium 1'1, PI. 13
Labechid stromatopo-
Echinodennata 18 roids 6, PI. 4
Eleutherozoan Confusion with ortho-
echinodenns 18 cone cephalopods 6
Encrinurus 24, '2:7, Pl. 38 Leiorhynchus Pl. 20
carboni/erum Girty 15, 16, 29, PIs. 20, 21
Favosites 9, 10, 27, 28, PI. 10 sp. 16, 29, Pl. 21
"Favosites limitaris" Lingula 13, 25, PI. 14
Rominger 10, 28, PI. 1:1 Lithostrotionella 12, 29, PI. 13
Fenestellid bryozoans 18, 28, PI. 27 Lobocorallium (Strep-
Fish bones telasma) trilobatum
24, PI. 41 (Whiteaves) 11, 27, PI. 12
Fish plates 24, PI. 41 Lower Devonian
Foraminifera 5 crinoids 19, '2:7, PI. 27
Fusulinid foraminifera 5,29, PI. 1
Confusion with Maclurites 19, 27, PI. 28
Amphipora 7, 13 Confusion with Devo-
nian Buchelia 19
Goniograptu8 8,26, PI. 6 Manganese dendrites-
confusion with grap-
Graptolites 7 tolites 7
Biserial 8, 26. PIs. 7, 8 Manipora 9, '2:7, PI. 9
Confusion with fene-
stellid bryozoans /eildeni (Etheridge) 9, PI. 9
8,18
Confusion with man- Mesolobus 14
ganese dendrites 8 Mesozoic braehiopods 29
Confusion with p,l ant Mississippian£ystem 28
fossils 7 Monograptus 8, 26, PIs. 7, 8
Dendroids 7, PI. 8 ((~i1'al~" 8,26, PI. 7
 138

With distal twist 8,26, Pl. 7 Quaternary System 30

Monotis 20, 29, PI. Z8
Mother of Pearl Receptaculites 5, 27, PIs. 2, 3
(Aragonite) in Distinguished from
Syringopora 6
molluscs 30
Rensselandia 17, 28, PI. 26
Muirwoodi a 15, 29, PI. 18
Mytiloid pelecypods Confusion with pen-
20, PI. 29 tamerid brachio- •
pods 18
Nathorstites 22, 29, PI. 35 Rostrospiriferid
N eogastroplites 23, 30, Pl. 34 brachiopods 13, 17, 28, PI. 24
Neolenus (Olenoides) 24, 26, IFI. 38 Confusion with
N eospirifer 16, 29, PI. 22 terebratulids 17

Olenellus 24, 26, PI. 36 Scutellum 24, 27, PI. 40

Olenoides (Neolenus) 24, 26, PI. 38 Shaly facies 26
Orbiculoidea 13, PI. 14 Shelly facies 26, 27
Ordovician 'System 26 Silurian System 26
Orthograptus 8,26, PI. 7 Solitary corals (cup
Ostracods 23, 24, PI. 40 corals) 9
Swarms 27, PI. 40 Spiriferella 16, 29, PI. Z3
Ostreoid pelecypods 20, PI. 29 "Spirophyton" 25, 29, PI. 42
Oysters 20, 30, PI. 29 Sponges 5
-
As environmental Sponge spicules 5, PI. 2
indica tOIlS 20 Stringocephalus 17,18,28, Pl. 26
Stromatoporoids 6, 7, 28, PI. 5
Palaeofavosites 10, 11, 27, PI. 10 "Sunflower Coral" (see
Pecten 20,28 Receptaculites) 5
Pectinoid pelecypods 20, 28. PIs. 28, 29 Syringopora 9, 10, 29, PI. 11
Pelecypods 19,20,29 columbiana Wilson 10, PI. 11
Distinguished from Distinguished from
brachiopods 12 Receptaculites 6
Mytiloids 20, Pl. 29
Ostreoids 20, PI. 29
Pectinoids 19, Pls_28, 29 Tabulate corals 9
Pelmatozoan Tentaculitids 19, 20, 27, PI. 28
echinoderms 18 Terebratulid
Pennsylvanian System 28 brachiopods 13, 17, 28, PI. 24
Pentacrinus> 19, PI. 27 Distinguished from
rostrospiriferids 17
Permian and Carbon-
iferous systems Z8 Tertiary System 30
Phillipsastraea Tetragraptus 8,26, PI. 6
( Billingsastraea) 12, 28, PI. 13 Triassic 'System 29
Phyllograptus 8,26, PI. 6 Trilobites 23
Plaesiomys occidentalis Agnostids 24, PI. 37
(Okulitch) 13, PI. 14 Bumastids 24, PI. 39
Pleosponges Eodiscids 24, PI. 39
(Archaeocya thids) 5, 26, Pl. 2 Olenellids (iM esona-
Productella hirS'Uti- cids) 24,26; PI. 36
formis Girty 15,16, 29, PI. 20 Two-holed cr inoid stems 27, PI. 27
Productid brachiopods 13,14, 28 Thamnopora 10
Dictyoclostids 14, 29, PIs. 16, 17
E chinoconchids 15, 29, PI. 19 Waagenoconcha 15, PI. 20
Horridonids 15, 29, PIs. 18, 19
Linoproductids 15, 29, Pl. 17 Waagenoconchid
Productellids 15, PI. 20 brachiopods 14,15,29, PI. 20
Waagenoconchids 15, 29, PI. 20 W innipegoceras 21,27, PI. 32
Pseudomonotis 20, 29, PI. 28
Pycnostylus 12, 27, Pl. 13 Zygograptus 8,26, PI. 6