Table Of Contents

1. Extraction & Water Source for the City ...........................................................................2

1.1 Storage Reservoir........................................................................................................... 3 1.1.1 Design for Regulating Reservoir Capacity ....................................................................... 4

2. Treatment Systems ........................................................................................................4

2.1 Screening........................................................................................................................ 6 2.2 PH Adjustment .............................................................................................................. 6 2.3 Sedimentation................................................................................................................ 6 2.3.1 Design Calculation for Sedimentation Tank .................................................................... 8 2.4 Roughing Filters ............................................................................................................ 9 2.4.1 Design for Roughing Filter ............................................................................................... 10 2.5 Microstrainers .............................................................................................................. 10 2.6 Filtration....................................................................................................................... 10 2.7 Disinfection .................................................................................................................... 12 2.8 Treatment Process Diagram ........................................................................................... 12 2.9 Water improvement summary ....................................................................................... 13

3. Water Distribution ....................................................................................................... 13 4. Water Supply to the 8 Towns ....................................................................................... 14

4.1 Assumptions ................................................................................................................... 15 4.2 Water Demand ................................................................................................................ 16 4.3 Water Treatment Arsenic Removal ............................................................................. 17 4.4 Distribution .................................................................................................................... 18

5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 18
Appendix 1 ........................................................................................................................... 20 Appendix 2 ........................................................................................................................... 21

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2 Sedimentation tank fitted with inclined lamella system ...............................................12 Figure 3 Cross-sectional of sedimentation basin (lamalla system not shown)................. 12
Figure 5 - Section layout of a slow sand filter .................................................................12

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Proposed unit treatment for water treatment ....................................................7

CIVE5007M/5520M Water Engineering 1. INTRODUCTION

Project objective To design a treatment plant for the city of Abundance having a population of 20,000 with an annual growth rate of 2.5%. the city is in the banks of the Enuff river, a perennial river. The rainy season lasts for 4 months with remaining of the year being relatively dry. In addition to the citys supply it is responsible for the surrounding 8 towns too, and also an arsenic treatment facility for the surrounding towns system. 1.1 Assumptions The following were the assumptions made for in to design a water treatment system for the Abundance city. 1. The water consumption per person per day is 50L in developing countries. Since the city of Abundance is in a developing country; this would be adopted as the value. 2. The storage reservoir would be upstream to facilitate water flow through gravity. This is to cut the costs on power supply. 3. Single treatment plant would suffice a city with such a population. 4. The plant is considered to have a design life of 15 years; for which a safety factor of 1.2 would be applied to mitigate uncertainties. 5. Surplus land availability for plant set up 6. Given that the city has periodic problems with supply of imported chemicals. So implementation of sedimentation tanks wouldn't be worth as it involves coagulation and flocculation which needs chemical injection. Roughing filters would be the better option for the filtration process. 7. Retention time would be 150-200 days varying with the seasons in accordance to the pathogen count. This is for control over pathogen die-off as the count is higher in dry season in comparison to that off rainy season. 8. Regulating reservoir would be equipped; keeping in mind the fact that the city is dry for about 8 months in a year. And so it is advantageous, as it reserves the excess water obtained in rainy seasons for use in dry season. 9. The depth of reservoir is assumed to be 5m.

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10. Slow sand filters are used for their ease in handling, effective removal of pathogens and reduction in turbidity. 11. End water turbidity is less than 1NTU. 12. Chlorination method of disinfection is applied as there is a chlorine manufacturing unit nearby, and hence the supply would be continuous and easy. 1.2 Extraction & Water Source for the City Enuff River in Abundance runs continuously throughout the year at a rate sufficient to meet the needs of the city. Therefore the water for the main city treatment works will be sourced from this river. In case of a drought or pollutants entering the river, a storage reservoir will be provided to ensure that there is always access to water in the city. The storage reservoir will not only provide for the city but it is also the primary process for the treatment of raw water. The reservoir will be open and constructed underground to store water prior to the water treatment. It will be used not only for the settlement of debris and particles, which prevent blockages in following treatment operations, but it also improves the microbiological quality of the water. According to the World Health Organization, a six month retention time would result in a reduction of 2.2 logs for E.coli, 2.3 logs for Giardia, 1.41.9 logs for cryptosporidium and 1.7 logs for faecal streptococci. 1.3 Storage Reservoir There are three options when choosing the storage reservoir: direct supply, regulating and pumped storage. Direct supply reservoirs store water and supply it straight to the water treatment works, but in this case there is a lack of control over the output of the water. Pumped storage reservoirs pumps water to the top of the reservoir used to store gravitational potential energy, and then released back to the treatment works or back to the river. These are very expensive to build and require a complex pipe network. For the city of Abundance a regulating reservoir will be used. To justify the decision to use a storage reservoir, it is considered that although the Enuff River runs all year round, we might need to seize extraction at certain time due to incidences like pollution upstream. The choice of a regulatory reservoir is to regulate the release of the water in the river. Water released from the reservoir compensates flow by meeting the requirements of the water downstream and water for the treatment process. The reservoir will be located close to the

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treatment plant, allowing a saving on pipe work. It also requires minimum energy as it provides water by gravity, which is of importance due to the lack of power access in the city. 1.3.1 Design for Regulating Reservoir Capacity

There will be 2 regulating reservoirs for maintenance purposes, allowing one to operate and the other to act as a backup. In order to design the reservoir the population and per capita water usage is considered.

Population of Abundance Annual population growth rate Design life of treatment plant Design population (A)

= 20,000 people = 2.5% = 15 years = 20,000(1.025)15 = 29,000 people

Daily water usage per person (B)

= 50litres/person day = 0.05m3/person day

Safety factor (C) Design flow rate

= 1.2 = A*B*C = 29,000 x 0.05 x 1.2 = 1740m3/day

The water will be stored in the reservoir for 180 days as this will greatly improve the microbiological quality of the water. Capacity of the reservoir = 1740m3/day x 180 days = 310,000m3 Capacity for each reservoir = 310,000m3 /2 = 155,000m3 Assume a depth for the reservoir as 5m Area of each regulating reservoir = 155,000/5 = 31,000m2

2. TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Once the water sources have been allocated it must run through a series of different processes to ensure that it is desirable for its end use. The water will be used for various reasons in the city other than drinking, such as industrial processes or medical use. The general processes for water treatment is to initially remover large solids then gradually

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remove smaller and smaller particles, and finally remove any remaining unwanted bacteria or viruses. There are many options available throughout the treatment of water, it is important that the processes best suited to Abundance are chosen. The general water treatment process can be seen in table 1. Table 1: Proposed unit treatment for water treatment Stage Abstraction Function Harvest water from source Method Water transported from source to treatment works or reservoir Screening Remove large debris Water is passed through bar screens PH adjustment Change PH to desirable level Flocculation Clarifies water, removes any turbidity or colour Sedimentation Group and remove floc Addition of substance to alter PH Addition of flocculant to floc smaller particles Large tank, slow flow allows floc to settle and be removed Filtration Remove any remaining small suspended solids or unsettled floc Water is forced through filter Membrane filter, Slow sand filter, lava filter, UV filter, Ozone Sedimentation, Roughing Filters Fine, Medium, Coarse screens Lime, soda ash, lime softening Options Pump or gravity

The treatment works will need to balance time, cost and quality accordingly. The limited resources of Abundance also need to be taken into considered. Factors that were taken into account when designing the treatment process are as follows: Minimise use of electrical machinery due to problems with power supply (productivity however also needs to be considered) Use gravity when possible instead of pumps

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Use processes that use locally available materials (problems with importing chemicals) Low cost (as Abundance is a developing country)

2.1 Screening The initial stage in the treatment process is to remover large floating objects such as sticks, leaves, debris and rocks. Removal of these objects helps to prevent possible damage to machinery and possible blockages further on in the process. Screens can be split into three categories: Fine screens spacing less than 10mm Medium screens spacing between 10mm and 40mm Coarse screens spacing greater than 40mm

For surface water screens between 20 and 40mm are generally used therefore medium screens will be used for the system spaced at 30mm centres. Screenings are generally removed mechanically. Mechanical scraper will be adopted to reduce labour costs however means for manual removal also need to be included due to the problems linked with electrical power.

2.2 PH Adjustment The desirable PH level for drinking water is around 6.5 7.5 meaning that it is relatively neutral. If the water is too acidic, lime or soda ash should be added to increase the PH (http://www.excelwater.com/eng/b2c/ph.php). If the water is too alkaline, lime softening can be used or the insertion of a mineral acid (http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/watereducation2/74-alkalinity-water.htm).

2.3 Sedimentation The next stage of the water treatment process is to remove settleable solids. Sedimentation is a water treatment process that is used to allow suspended solids to settle under gravity where they can then be removed. Sedimentation tanks reduce the velocity of the raw water before this settling can take place. There is a high turbidity of the water from the Enuff River and there will also be a high level of suspended solids that will need to be removed before the treatment process can advance.

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The sedimentation tanks will operate under type I settling, discrete particle settling where particles settle individually without interaction with neighbouring particles. An option to enhance the sedimentation process is coagulation and flocculation. Coagulation destabilizes the charge of the particles in the water by neutralizing the forces that keep them apart. Once the water has been mixed rapidly, a flocculating agent is added and mixed gently, allowing the particles to attract and form large particles, which then settle at the bottom of the sedimentation tanks. This process is more effective than discrete particle settling, however is heavily reliant on chemicals and will therefore not be used in gas treatment process. (http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IITKANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%206.htm) Sedimentation speed in the tanks needs to be optimised. If sedimentation speed is too low the tanks will be of an excessive size, if too high only a small amount of suspended solids will settle. For the settling of solids to occur, velocity needs to be controlled. To ensure this a baffle will be constructed across the basin close to the inlet. This will dissipate inlet velocities and provide uniform flow (http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IITKANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%206.htm). The sedimentation tanks will also be fitted with an incline lamella system (also known as inclined plate separation). This system operates with the up-flow of the incoming water in the opposite direction to the down-sliding sludge that settles on the plates. This system increases the surface area of the tank and reduces the distance particle need to travel before they settle, both reducing retention time. A diagram of a lamella system in operation can be seen in figure 2 below.

Figure 2 Sedimentation tank fitted with inclined lamella system (Water treatment lectures slide 13)

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Horizontal sedimentation tanks will be used. These are usually constructed out of bricks or concrete, meaning they are relatively cheap and easy to construct. The tanks can also be built in parallel, sharing walls that also help to reduce costs. The tanks can be manually cleaned; therefore electrical power is not required. Horizontal tanks are not as efficient as radial flow tanks. The sedimentation process can also reduce the E-coli and BOD levels in the water (reference). A cross-sectional view of a horizontal sedimentation tank can be seen in figure 3.

Figure 3 Crosssectional of sedimentation basin (lamalla system not shown) (http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/ws/pictures_ws /roughfilter1.gif) 2.3.1 Design Calculation for Sedimentation Tank Design flow rate = 1740 m3/ day

Assuming 30% losses in the treatment and distribution process, Enhanced design flow rate = 1740m3 * 1.3 = 2262 m3/day Design Flow 95 m3/hr

Assume retention time of 3 hours (Water treatment lectures slide 14) Volume (V) = Flow (Q) * Time (T) = 95 m3/hr * 3 hrs Volume (V) Depth of tank Area of sedimentation tank = 285 m3 = 3m = 285 m3 / 3m = 95 m2(http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcoursecontents/IIT-KANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%206.htm)

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Three sedimentation tanks will be constructed each 50 m2 in area. Two can run constantly and the third can be used in cases of desludging or repair/maintenance.

2.4 Roughing Filters As mentioned previously, sedimentation is required in order to reduce the turbidity of the water and remove settleable solids. In order for this process to work most efficiently, coagulations and flocculation is required. As Abundance has poor access to imported chemical, this means that the process will not achieve maximum performance. Therefore to add to the sedimentation performance, roughing filters will be introduced. Roughing filters are introduced after sedimentation, and they are essentially an improved sedimentation process. The filter is made up of large compartments filled with successive layers of filter media, typically gravel or rock filters, which decrease in size in the direction of flow. Roughing filters are very effective in removing turbidity from the water, achieving 60% to 90% turbidity removal. Turbidity reductions are also more effective when the level of turbidity is high, so during the rainy season when the Enuff River has a turbidity level of 230NTU, it can be reduced to 10-20NTU. Roughing filters can have horizontal or vertical flow. Whilst the vertical flow gives better turbidity removal, the horizontal-flow roughing filter will be used for this treatment plant, as these are easier to operate and maintain, which will be preferential for unskilled labour. As well as the removal of turbidity, horizontal flow roughing filters also help reduce the pathogen population in the water, for example faecal coliform bacteria can be reduced by 93% to 99.5% (LeChevallier, M.W. & Kwok-Keung, Au, 2004. Water treatment and pathogen control: process efficiency in achieving safe drinking water. IWA Publishing) Colour in the water can be removed up to 95%. A roughing filter can be seen in figure 4.

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Figure 4 - Section layout of a typical horizontal flow rough filter (http://www.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/schwerpunkte/ws/pictures_ws /roughfilter1.gif) 2.4.1 Design for Roughing Filter Two roughing filters will be designed for maintenance purposes. This means that when one is being cleaned the other filer will continue the operation. Design flow rate (Q) = 1740m3/d = (1740/24) m3/hr = 72.5m3/hr Approach Velocity (V) = 0.8m/hr

Area of Roughing Filter (A) = Q/V = (72.5/0.8) m2 = 90m2 A typical depth for a roughing filter is 1.5m, therefore the dimensions can be assumed as 1.5m x 3m x 20m.

2.5 Microstrainers Microstrainers are used after the roughing filter in order to remove algal cells and large protozoa. They consist of woven stainless steel or polyester wire fabric meshes, capable of removing 40-70% of algae and 5-20% turbidity. This process will not be used in the treatment works in Abundance due to the cost of construction, and its inability of removing of small bacteria and viruses. Algae and protozoa, which can be removed by Microstrainers, can also be removed by the roughing filter and slow sand filter, making it an unnecessary expense. Microstrainers are capable of reducing the level of coagulant needed, but because this is not used in the sedimentation stage it further reinforces that it should not be used. 2.6 Filtration The purpose of filtration is to further remove particles from the water, producing clean water with an acceptable level of turbidity. There are two filtration options; Rapid Gravity Filters and Slow Sand Filters. Rapid Gravity filtration uses coarse sands and granular media to remove particles and impurities through flocculation. This process has a high flow rate and requires a small area

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of land. However it is not sufficient for the filtration process in Abundance as it is power and chemically dependent on flocculation, with skilled maintenance required. Alternatively slow sand filtration can be used to further reduce turbidity. It is most effective when the initial turbidity of the water is low, which it will be after the Roughing Filter process. The filtration occurs through two layers, the first layer being sand, followed by a graded gravel layer. The water is passed through the filter by gravity at a very low filtration rate. As the water passes through, the upper layers of sand grains become coated with partly decomposed organic matter within the first two weeks. After two to three weeks, a dense slimy biologically active film of algae, bacteria and protozoa develops. The slow sand filter is also effective in removal of microbial pathogens. After two weeks, once the grains become coated with organic matter, pathogens are removed by natural dieoff due to the physical barrier presented by the organic matter. The pathogens are then removed by biological action through the bacteria that is created. E.coli can be reduced by 23 logs units, which is important due to the large number present in Enuff River. In order to ensure maximum pathogen removal, the sand particle sizes and depths should be considered. For the slow sand filter in Abundance, the sand bed should have a depth of 1.2m, and the gravel layer a depth of 0.3m. By having particle sizes of 0.25mm and a uniform coefficient of 2, maximum filtration and pathogen removal will be achieved.

Figure5 Section layout of a slow sand filter (Retrieved from www.oasisdesign.net/water/treatment/slow- sandfilter.htm)

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Maintenance of the slow sand filter is simple, with cleaning occurring at weekly to monthly intervals. It is done when the flow rate through the filter slows by dropping the water level below the sand, scrapping off the top sand layer and replacing it with a clean sand layer. The cleaning process requires little to no power usage because it is based on manpower, making it suitable for Abundance where power is limited. The power required for operation is also low and instead requires labour, which is preferential because Abundance is a developing country and labour costs are low. In order for the slow sand filter to be effective it must have a large surface area. The treatment plant will have two filters working in parallel, allowing one to be cleaned during operation. For the filter in abundance, there will be two constructed parallel to each other with dimensions of 100m x 30m, creating an overall slow sand filter size of 100m x 60m. A slow sand filter can be seen in figure 5.

2.7 Disinfection

2.8 Treatment Process Diagram Screening River Sedimentation Roughing Filters

Distribution

Disinfection

Filtration

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2.9 Water improvement summary The water improvement summary can be seen in table 2. Worst-case scenarios for the water quality over the rainy and dry seasons have been selected in order to show that the treatment process is adequate for any raw water quality.

Treatment Process Prior to treatment Screening Sedimentation Roughing filters Slow Sand Filtration Disinfection

Average BOD5 (mg/l) 3.6

E.coli (cfu/100ml) 12000 12000

Turbidity (NTU) 230 230 161 23

2-3log

0.46 0.46 < 1 OK

3. WATER DISTRIBUTION
The following enumerate the proposed water supply system for the city of Abundance city; A Multiple-tap in-house supplies system is proposed due to the increasing population and city type urban setting of the city of Abundance. Like most developing economies, once a city settlement type is to be designed, future considerations on the development rate mostly indicate rise to a fully urban settlement. Due to the projected population growth, two service reservoirs of similar capacity to the storage a reservoir is proposed to receive store treated water. These reservoirs are raised to induce an adequate pressure for distribution thereby inducing the advantages of follow by gravity. A Branched networks is proposed for the city, particularly chosen because of its predominantly used for small capacity water supplies, delivering water mostly through standpipes. The alternative was to propose a looped distribution networks, however they are more difficult to design, since the consumer can be supplied from more than one direction. They have the advantage of better hydraulics, and the possibility of water supply in the event of the mains being out of operation for cleaning or repair works. Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/small-communitywater-supplies.htm#9._Water_distribution#ixzz0fKuFyHas

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Since the daily water demand varies during the year. The maximum is calculated by adding 10-30% to the average daily demand. Which originally stands at 1740m3/day Hence a 25% increment would give an estimated 2175 m3/day. A much greater variation takes place during the same day (hourly variation), with two peaks, one in the morning and one in the evening. Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/smallcommunity-water-supplies.htm#9._Water_distribution#ixzz0fKv905yO

The distribution area is divided into districts. Estimates of the population figures in each district aids to determine the water demand for each district at the nodal point.

Subsequently, an estimation of the required pipe diameter making up the supply network can be designed.

The service reservoirs are placed at a higher elevation than the distribution area, but as close as possible to it.Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/small-community-watersupplies.htm#9._Water_distribution#ixzz0fKz0TqKj

These stations and reservoirs are operated so that peak water-consumption demands can be met while a sufficient supply of water is available to meet extraordinary demands, such as fire-fighting requirements.

Although power is a constraint, the reservoirs capacity has been adjusted to accommodate pumping from the pumping station once every 3 days. With two reservoirs in use, the city of Abundance should have enough reserved treated water stored in cases of power shortages.

The reservoirs and elevated tanks also provide storage space, allowing occasional repairs to the supply and distribution system to be carried out without major impact on our water customers. Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/small-communitywater-supplies.htm#9._Water_distribution#ixzz0fKVJVsdl

4. WATER SUPPLY TO THE 8 TOWNS

Towns generally exhibit more rural characteristics. As a result, service provision in these towns presents special challenges that require a rethink of conventional approaches. On the other hand, unlike cities, these towns often lack the financial and human resources to plan, finance, manage and operate their water supply independently.

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For the eight surrounding towns, since the option of transfer of raw or treated water from the city has been ruled out on account of distance, the 20 tube wells provide an excellent water source. Subjecting the extracted raw water to similar treatment as utilized for raw water extracted from the river Enuff is unnecessary and counterproductive, as ground water in most cases requires little treatment before feeding into the distribution system. Therefore, a separate treatment process is to be designed before supply to end-users. The proposed design for water treatment and supply is summaries as follows; Hand pumps are erected at each tube well site as a secondary plan to pumps, attached to each tube well. A compact treatment unit is constructed beside each tube well. Both pumps are designed to pump water directly into the arsenic treatment unit. Direct extraction of water can only be done at the end of the treatment works. Consequently electric pumps are only required to transfer water to the overhead water tank. Hence, the entire unit supplies piped born water to centralized locations assessable to all households. 4.1 Assumptions The following assumptions were made in planning a water treatment, supply and distribution system for the eight surrounding towns in Abundance. These towns are a significant sub sector comprising 20%-40% of the population (Approximately 6800) who are low-income earners, such as crop and livestock Farmers The Enuff River is not in proximity to these surrounding towns and this rules out collection or transfer of water from its current location. All tube wells in each small town will feed water to a small scale arsenic removal and disinfection treatment works, before its direct distribution to standing pipes and water taps draw points distributed within each town. It is not expected that water demand within these towns would exceed that which is available from the tube wells. The assumption however is that the 20 tube wells are evenly distributed within the 8 towns, resulting in an average 2 or 3 tube wells for each town. A lower population growth of 1.5% is adopted. The assumption is, in most developing countries, as the cities become more urbanized, more people move from the much smaller and rural towns to the bigger cities in search of jobs and better lively hood.

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Reagents required for arsenic treatment are readily available in Abundance and require no importation. 4.2 Water Demand It is not expected that water demand will exceed that which is available from tube wells, however based on the estimated average population of each town, to calculate the amount of overhead water reservoirs supplying stand pipe tap systems, the water demand for each town should be calculated as follows; Assume a safety Factor Population Daily water usage per person Projected population growth Design period Design Population = 1.2 = 6800 (Averagely 850 persons per town) = 50 litres/person day (0.05m3/person day) = 1% (Refer to assumptions) = 15 years, Hence = 850 * (1 + .01)15 = 12877.5 (approximately 12,900 people) Design flow rate = (Design population) x (Daily water usage per person) x (Safety factor) Design Flow= 12,877.5 * 0.05 * 1.2 = 772.65 m3/day

Due to erratic power supply, a 2 day retention time is assumed for storage of this capacity. That is, in a circumstance where no power supply is available for 3 days, the community will have water supply lasting this duration.

Capacity of the service reservoir

= 772.65m3/day x 2 days = 2,317.95m3 2350m3

For two tanks(recall 2 tube wells per town) Assuming a reservoir height of 3m, Area of service reservoir= (2350 3) m2

= 1175m3,

395m2

Design Summary:

Number of overhead gravity tanks

=2 = 395m2

Volume of each regulating reservoir = 1175m3 Area of each regulating reservoir

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4.3 Water Treatment Arsenic Removal It has become quite common for drinking water from tube wells to contain arsenic, and there are several literatures reviewing its causes, effects if identified in high concentrations, and its significant hazard to human health. A description of the various treatment methods and effects of arsenic on human health is not particularly essential at this point; however the key consideration and reasons for adopting any treatment method will better suffice. Selecting a suitable treatment method for the satellite towns around the city of Abundance is not just a matter of choosing and installing one in a number proven treatment technologies, but rather, selecting the appropriate and conducive treatment method based on a number of peculiar factors typical to the Abundance city satellite towns water treatment, supply and distribution system. Table 3.1 in appendix 3 show a comparison of current treatment technologies, the complexities of selecting a suitable treatment option for the surrounding towns is further complicated by the following factors; 1. It is already recorded that the high levels of arsenic was evident in the communitys health assessment and is increasingly a source of concern. 2. These communities are relatively small communities of averaging 850 people per town. Consequently, large and elaborate treatment schemes might prove too cumbersome considering maintenance and daily operations. 3. The shortages in electricity supply suggest that any effective treatment process should not depend wholly on electrification as a source of power. 4. The constraints on the supply of chemicals would suggest less dependency on chemical treatment method. 5. Any treatment process to be applied must be free of producing a secondary pollutant or waste, must be cost effective considering the number of towns to be implemented. 6. Any form of complexity in installation, operation or maintenance must be avoided. Current methods are either not efficient in the use of natural resources, cause a second pollution (toxic waste), too elaborate or costly for smaller municipalities and rural communities, or heavily depend on the use of chemicals. After careful consideration, arsenic removal by alum coagulation, sedimentation and filtration has been selected based on the points considered previously. The arsenic removal plant attached to hand tube well as shown in Figure 3.16 has been found effective in removing 90 percent arsenic from tube well water having initial arsenic

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concentration of 300 mg/l. The treatment process involves addition of sodium hypo-chloride (Cl2), and aluminium alum in diluted form. These are readily available and simple to use, as they are simply placed in the jars above the mixing compartment (A) and then released automatically in exact concentrations into the mixing chamber. This promotes flocculation in the chamber (B) before water moves to chamber (C) for sedimentation. The entire unit is compact, easy to build with minimal waste produces. The sedimentation Chamber is further fitted with a sludge draw off point at the base of the tank.

Figure ? Arsenic Removal Plant attached to Tube well 4.4 Distribution Arsenic treatment units described are constructed adjacent to every tube well in each of the eight towns. It is generally known that in the majority of cases a gravity system is to be preferred even though its first cost may be somewhat high. Gravity supply systems generally imply a very low maintenance cost and little depreciation as well simplicity in operations. For farming areas where irrigation is of major concern, a collective water supply system Alternatively, mechanical pumps for collective water supplies can be utilized if electrification is an inherent problem or in situations where gravity systems are not practically feasible.

5. CONCLUSION

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6. REFERENCES
Saha, K.C. (1998) Diagnosis of arsenicosis. Abstracted In: Int. Conf. On Arsenic Pollution of Ground Water in Bangladesh: Causes, Effects and Remedies. Organized by DCH & SOES GED Auditorium, Dhaka 8-12 February (1998) .94-96 pp.

WHO (1997). Arsenic contamination of Drinking water in Bangladesh. Report No. SAE/EH /506 19 June 1997. 1-9 pp. Retrieved from website: http://www.unu.edu/env/Arsenic/Hussain.pdf

World Health Organisation (2004). Water treatment and pathogen control online: Available at: http://vle.leeds.ac.uk/site/nbodington/civileng/cive5520/)

http://www.lenntech.com/library/clarification/clarification/screening.htm) (http://www.excelwater.com/eng/b2c/ph.php)

http://www.freedrinkingwater.com/water-education2/74-alkalinity-water.htm

(http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IITKANPUR/wasteWater/Lecture%206.htm) LeChevallier,M.W. & Kwok-Keung, Au, 2004. Water treatment and pathogen control: process efficiency in achieving safe drinking water. IWA Publishing

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CIVE5007M/5520M Water Engineering Appendices

Appendix 1

Table 3.1 A comparison of main arsenic removal or treatment technologies

Method

Advantages

Disadvantages

No monitoring of a break through Serious short and long term problems is required. Co-precipitation Relatively low cost simple chemicals. Low capital costs. Alum coagulation Iron coagulation Lime softening Durable powder chemicals normally available. More efficient than alum on weigh basis. Most common chemicals with toxic sludge. Multiple chemicals requirement Operation requires training and discipline. Efficient pre-oxidation is a must.

Medium removal of As (III). Re-adjustment of pH is required. Requires monitoring of break through or filter use. Requires periodical regeneration or medium shift.

Sorption Techniques No daily sludge problem.

Activated alumina Iron coated sand

Relatively well known and commercially available. Expected to be cheap. No regeneration is required. Well defined medium and hence capacity. Plenty of possibilities & combinations Well defined performance. High removal efficiency.

Re-adjustment of pH is required. Yet to be standardized. Toxic solid waste. High cost medium. High tech operation & maintenance. Regeneration creates a sludge problem. Not yet properly studied. High running costs. High investment costs.

Ion exchange resin Other Sorbents Membrane Techniques

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No solid waste. Low space requirement. Capable of removal of other contaminants, if any. Reverse Osmosis Electrodialysis Membrane does not withstand oxidizing agents. Membrane does not withstand oxidizing agents. High tech operation and maintenance. Toxic wastewater. Re-adjustment water quality is required.

Appendix 2

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