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Inertial Navigation
Positioning Lecture 4
Dr Paul D Groves
7 February 2012
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 2
Session Objectives
Introduce inertial navigation
Show the basics of how inertial sensors work
Show how to compute an inertial navigation solution
Discuss inertial navigation performance
Introduce INS/GNSS integration
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 3
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
3. The Navigation Solution
4. Performance
5. INS/GNSS Integration
6. Further Work and Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 4
1. Introduction
Navigation
Navigation
Art of Navigation
Planning and maintenance
of a course from one
location to another, avoiding
obstacles and collisions
Science of Navigation
Determination of the
position and velocity of a
moving body with respect to
a known reference Dead
Reckoning
Position
Fixing
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 5
1. Introduction
Positioning Fixing
Determines absolute position
Historically: used landmarks, e.g. buildings, stars
Contemporary: radio ranging, e.g. GNSS
Errors independent of distance travelled
External components required - not always available
X X
A B
X
u
B
A B
r
A
r
B
A
u
A
r
A
Bearing Distance Distance & Bearing
u
A
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 6
1. Introduction
Dead Reckoning
Historically: manual measurements and calculations
Contemporary: automated e.g. inertial navigation
Position solution continuously available
Position errors are cumulative - they get bigger!
r(0)
r(t)
}
dt v
Measures
Change in position (3D), or
Velocity (3D), or
Distance & direction, or
Speed & direction
Summed or integrated to give
absolute position
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 7
1. Introduction
Dead Reckoning
Methods include
Odometers (wheel speed sensors) in road vehicles
Doppler radar on aircraft
Doppler sonar on ships and submarines
Pedestrian dead reckoning
More details in Lecture 5
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 8
1. Introduction
Fundamentals of Inertial Navigation
Integrate
twice
Old position
& velocity
Sensor
orientation
Old
orientation
Current
position
Measure
Acceleration
Angular
Rate
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 9
1. Introduction
Inertial Navigation System (INS)
A form of dead reckoning
The only form of navigation independent of external components
Position,
velocity &
attitude
Inertial
Measurement
Unit (IMU)
3
Accelerometers
3 Gyros
Navigation
Equations
Gravity model
Initial conditions
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 10
1. Introduction
Inertial Navigation Pros and cons
High bandwidth (> 50 Hz) navigation solution
Low short term noise
Provides attitude, angular rate and acceleration as well as
position and velocity
Position accuracy degrades over time
For high performance (1.5 km drift in 1 hour):
Cost is high (> 50 000)
Size, mass and power consumption are high
Small, lightweight, low-cost inertial sensors are available:
Navigation performance orders of magnitude poorer
Only useful for seconds or minutes
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 11
1. Introduction
INS and INS/GNSS Applications
Aircraft Navigation
Civil, military, general,
helicopters, UAVs
Submarine Navigation
Motorsport testing and training
Guided weapon Navigation
High-value land vehicle navigation
(including trains)
Stabilisation of electro-optic sensors
Navigation for ships (particularly
military)
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 12
1. Introduction
Inertial Navigation for Mobile Mapping
Requires attitude as well as
position
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 13
Surveying underground
and in GNSS-denied areas
Zupt Backpack-portable INS
1. Introduction
Inertial Navigation for Surveying
Borehole surveying for oil
and gas
GNSS is not available
underground
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 14
1. Introduction
Inertial Navigation for Seabed Mapping
Kongsberg HUGIN autonomous
underwater vehicle
GNSS and other radio
signals (except VLF) do not
penetrate water
An integrated sonar/ inertial
system offers a much higher
bandwidth and lower noise
solution than sonar alone
For underwater mapping,
INS also provides attitude
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 15
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
3. The Navigation Solution
4. Performance
5. INS/GNSS Integration
6. Further Work and Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 16
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Earth-Centred Inertial (ECI) frame
An inertial co-ordinate frame does not
accelerate or rotate with respect to the
rest of the universe
ECI frame approximates this
z axis is Earth rotation axis
x and y axes are fixed w.r.t. the stars
Also need time at which ECI axes
coincide with ECEF
Symbol i
Accelerometers and gyroscopes
measure motion with respect to an
inertial frame
z
i
y
i x
i
o
i
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 17
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Specific Force and Acceleration (1)

ib ib ib
a f =
Specific force is the nongravitational force per unit mass on a
body (sensed w.r.t. an inertial frame)
People and instruments sense specific force
Gravitation (the mass-attraction force) is not sensed because it
acts equally on all points, causing them to move together
Other forces are sensed as they are transmitted from point to
point
The sensation of weight is caused by forces opposing gravitation
Inertially-referenced
acceleration
Specific force Acceleration due to
gravitational force
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 18
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Specific Force and Acceleration (2)
m
Free-fall
case
Gravitational force
m
m
Stationary
case
Non-gravitational
force, exerted by
spring on mass
Mass
Spring fixed
Downwards acceleration =
Downwards specific force = 0
Downwards acceleration = 0
Downwards specific force =
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 19
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Specific Force and Acceleration (3)
Velocity
(up)
Specific
force (up)
Time
Example: a lift moving up
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 20
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Gravity and Rotating Reference Frames (1)
People and instruments that are stationary with respect to a rotating
reference frame (such as the Earth) sense the reaction to the
acceleration due to gravity
Gravity = Gravitation + Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force is a virtual force arising in a rotating reference frame
Another virtual force, the Coriolis force occurs when moving

ib ib ib
a f =
Inertially-referenced acceleration
Specific force
Gravitational
acceleration

b eb ib
g a f =
Earth-referenced acceleration
Specific force
Acceleration
due to gravity
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 21
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Gravity and Rotating Reference Frames (2)
z
e
L
b
Body b
Ellipsoid
Acceleration
due to gravity
Equatorial plane
Gravitational
acceleration
Centrifugal
acceleration
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 22
Inertial sensors comprise:
Accelerometers: measure specific force of sensor body frame
with respect to an inertial frame f
ib
Gyroscopes (gyros): measure angular rate of sensor body
frame with respect to an inertial frame
ib
Measurements are made without an external reference
Devices that measure the velocity, acceleration or angular rate
of a body with respect to features in the environment are not
inertial sensors
An inertial measurement unit (IMU) comprises 3
accelerometers and 3 gyros with orthogonal sensitive axes
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Inertial Sensors
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 23
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Grades of sensor
Grade Navigation Performance Uses Cost (IMU)
Marine 1.8 km drift per day Military ships,
Submarines,
Some spacecraft
> 1 000 000
Aviation 1.5 km drift per hour Airliners and
Military aircraft
~ 60 000
Intermediate ~15 km drift per hour Small aircraft,
Helicopters
~30 000
Tactical ~10100 m drift per minute
(>100 km per hour)
UAVs,
Guided weapons
~5000
Automotive/
consumer
> 100 m drift/min (calibrated) Cars,
Smart phones
<1000 (cal)
Unsuitable (uncalibrated) ~100 (uncal)
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 24
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Simple Accelerometer
Sensitive
axis
Displacement Proof mass Pick-off Spring
Case
Equilibrium
Accelerating force
(non-gravitational)
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 25
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Force-feedback Pendulous Accelerometer
Sensitive
axis
Proof
mass
Capacitive
pick-off
Permanent
magnet ()
Case
Hinge
Pendulous
arm
Permanent
magnet (+)
Electromagnet
High performance
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 26
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Low-cost Pendulous Accelerometer
Hinge bends under force
resistor stretches and compresses
changes resistance
Input Axis
Proof Mass Hinge
Case Deposited Resistor
Low performance
Strain gauge pick-up
Micro-electromechanical
systems(MEMS) technology
- Enables mass production
- Small and light
Can also have a
capacitive pick-up
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 27
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Vibrating-Beam Accelerometer
Sensitive axis
Proof mass
Vibrating
beams
Case Hinge
Pendulous arm
Frequency of a vibrating
beam changes under
tension or compression
Frequency difference
between the two beams is
proportional to acceleration
Medium performance (Quartz)
Or Low performance (MEMS)
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 28
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Gyroscopes
Three classes of gyro :
Spinning mass:
Traditional gyroscope now limited to specialist applications
Medium or High performance
Optical:
Ring Laser Gyro (RLG)
Interferometric Fibre-optic Gyro (IFOG)
Medium or High performance
Vibratory:
MEMS Low performance
Or Quartz Medium performance
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 29
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Optical gyros The Sagnac Effect
Rotation in same
direction as light path
length increases
No rotation Rotation in opposite
direction to light path
length decreases
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 30
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Ring Laser Gyro (RLG)
Two resonant lasing modes
One in each direction
These differ when laser is
rotated
Beat frequency
proportional to angular rate
Measured at detector
Cathode
Detector Mirror
High reflectivity mirrors
Laser
beams
Partially
transmitting
mirror
Anode
Anode
Dither
wheel
Laser cavity,
containing
He-Ne gas
Honeywell
GG1320
0.04 /hr drift
8.6 cm
diameter
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 31
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Interferometric Fibre-optic Gyro (IFOG)
Light sent in both directions
around coil
Phase difference between light
output from the two directions is
proportional to angular rate
LITEF LFK95
500 m coil
1 /hr drift
8 cm
diameter
Beam splitters
Detector Polarizer
(Broadband) Light source
Fiber
optic coil
Phase modulator
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 32
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Vibratory Gyro
Driven vibratory element
Can be string, beam, 2 beams, tuning fork, ring, cylinder,
hemisphere
Coriolis effect produces vibration driven vibration & sensor
rotation axis
Output axis
Drive axis
Mount
Input
axis
Vibrating
element
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 33
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
Typical output rates:
100 Hz 1 kHz
IMU processor
x accelerometer
y accelerometer
z accelerometer
x gyro
y gyro
z gyro
Temperature
sensor
Calibration
parameters
Clock
Closed-
loop
inertial
sensor
control
Unit
conversion,
compensation
and range
checks
Communication
Power supplies
Power
input
Output
data
bus
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 34
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
3. The Navigation Solution
4. Performance
5. INS/GNSS Integration
6. Further Work and Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 35
3. The Navigation Solution
Inertial Navigation Processing

IMU (accelerometers
and gyros)
Initialization
process
Attitude
update
Specific force
frame
transformation
Velocity
update
Position
update
Previous
navigation
solution
Angular rate
measurement
Specific force
measurement
Inertial navigation solution
(position, velocity, and attitude)
Gravity or
gravitation
model
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 36
3. The Navigation Solution
Euler Attitude (1)
z

= z
|
y
|
x
|
y

Euler angles are the most intuitive way of describing attitude


Yaw
An attitude solution is needed to
determine the orientation of the
inertial sensors
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 37
3. The Navigation Solution
Euler Attitude (2)
y
|
x
|
y

y
u
= y

z
u
x
u
u
u
Yaw Pitch
z

= z
|
Euler angles are the most intuitive way of describing attitude
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 38
3. The Navigation Solution
Euler Attitude (3)
y
|
x
|
y

y
u
= y

z
u
x
u
u
u
x
o
= x
u
y
u
z
u
y
o
z
o
|
|
Yaw Pitch Roll
z

= z
|
Euler angles are the most intuitive way of describing attitude
But they are very difficult to manipulate mathematically
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 39
3. The Navigation Solution
Coordinate Transformation Matrix (1)
A co-ordinate transformation
matrix (or direction cosine
matrix) performs 2 functions:
Representing an attitude i.e. the
coordinate frame with respect
to the frame
Transformation of a vector x
from representation in one frame
to representation in another
=
|
o
C
o
x
|
x
o
y
|
x
o
z
|
x
o
x
|
y
o
y
|
y
o
z
|
y
o
x
|
z
o
y
|
z
o
z
|
z
o
o
|
o
|
o
x C x =
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 40
3. The Navigation Solution
Coordinate Transformation Matrix (2)
To reverse a rotation or co-ordinate
transformation, use the transpose of
the matrix
Co-ordinate transformation matrices
are orthonormal matrices
Only 3 components are independent
To perform successive
transformations or rotations, multiply
the matrices
The order of multiplication is critical
A physical property of rotations
( )
T
o
|
|
o
C C =
3
I C C =
o
|
|
o

|
|
o

o
C C C =
|
o

o
C C C =
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 41
3. The Navigation Solution
Angular Rate
The angular rate vector is the rate of rotation
of the a frame axes with respect to the b
frame axes, resolved about the g frame axes
Example: Gyros measure the
angular rate of the IMU body frame,
b, with respect to inertial space, i,
resolved about body-frame axes

|o

w
rotation
angular
rate
vector
b
ib

Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 42


3. The Navigation Solution
Inertial Navigation Equations Trade-offs
Coordinate frames
ECI frame referenced and resolved
ECEF frame referenced and resolved
ECEF-referenced, NED-resolved, curvilinear position
Complexity
First-order simple, quick, approximation errors (presented here)
Precision complex, slower, errors minimised (see textbooks)
Iteration rate
Best to match to the IMU output rate
Minimises impact of approximation and quantisation errors
Slower rate reduces processing load, but increases errors
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 43
3. The Navigation Solution
ECI-frame Navigation Equations
Simplest implementation
Outputs must be
transformed to Earth-
referenced for use

1. Update
attitude
2. Transform
specific force
frame
3. Update
velocity
4. Update
position
Gravitation
model
b
ib

b
ib
f
i
ib
f
i
ib

) (
i
ib
v
) (+
i
ib
v
) (
i
ib
r
) (+
i
ib
r
) (
i
b
C
) (+
i
b
C
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 44
3. The Navigation Solution
ECI-frame Step 1: Update attitude (1)
Time derivative of attitude
where
is a skew-symmetric matrix:

1. Update
attitude
2. Transform
specific force
frame
3. Update
velocity
4. Update
position
Gravitation
model
b
ib
b
ib f
i
ib f
i
ib
) (
i
ib v
) (+
i
ib v
) (
i
ib r
) (+
i
ib r
) (
i
b C
) (+
i
b C
b
ib
i
b
i
b
C C =

| | . =
b
ib
b
ib

| | | | b a b a . .
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

= .
0
0
0

, ,

, ,

, ,
b
x ib
b
y ib
b
x ib
b
z ib
b
y ib
b
z ib
b
ib
e e
e e
e e
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 45
3. The Navigation Solution
ECI-frame Step 1: Update attitude (2)
Integrating over the interval,
i
:
Expressing this as a polynomial
Simplest form is 1st order approximation
where

1. Update
attitude
2. Transform
specific force
frame
3. Update
velocity
4. Update
position
Gravitation
model
b
ib
b
ib f
i
ib f
i
ib
) (
i
ib v
) (+
i
ib v
) (
i
ib r
) (+
i
ib r
) (
i
b C
) (+
i
b C
) exp( ) ( ) (
i
b
ib
i
b i
i
b
t t t t C C = +
( )

=
= +
0
!
) ( ) (
r
r
i
b
ib i
b i
i
b
r
t t
t
t

C C
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

= +
1
1
1
, ,
, ,
, ,
3
i
b
x ib i
b
y ib
i
b
x ib i
b
z ib
i
b
y ib i
b
z ib
i
b
ib
t e t e
t e t e
t e t e
t I
Small angle
approximation
( )
i
b
ib
i
b
i
b
t I C C + ~ +
3
) ( ) (
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 46

1. Update
attitude
2. Transform
specific force
frame
3. Update
velocity
4. Update
position
Gravitation
model
b
ib
b
ib f
i
ib f
i
ib
) (
i
ib v
) (+
i
ib v
) (
i
ib r
) (+
i
ib r
) (
i
b C
) (+
i
b C
3. The Navigation Solution
ECI-frame Step 2: Transform specific force
Specific force is transformed from body
to inertial by applying the C matrix
Measurement is averaged over time t to
t +
i
and C is available at both times.
Thus...
Note the mean of the 2 attitudes is not
exactly the mean of the 2 C matrices
b
ib
i
b
i
ib
f C f =
( )
b
ib
i
b
i
b
i
ib
f C C f ) ( ) (
2
1
+ + ~
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 47

1. Update
attitude
2. Transform
specific force
frame
3. Update
velocity
4. Update
position
Gravitation
model
b
ib
b
ib f
i
ib f
i
ib
) (
i
ib v
) (+
i
ib v
) (
i
ib r
) (+
i
ib r
) (
i
b C
) (+
i
b C
3. The Navigation Solution
ECI-frame Step 3: Update velocity
Acceleration is the specific force + the
gravitational acceleration
In an inertial frame...
Where variations in the acceleration
over the update interval are not known..
) , (
b b
i
ib
i
ib
i
ib
h L f a + =
i
ib
i
ib
a v =
i
ib i
i
ib
i
ib
a v v t + = + ) ( ) (
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 48

1. Update
attitude
2. Transform
specific force
frame
3. Update
velocity
4. Update
position
Gravitation
model
b
ib
b
ib f
i
ib f
i
ib
) (
i
ib v
) (+
i
ib v
) (
i
ib r
) (+
i
ib r
) (
i
b C
) (+
i
b C
3. The Navigation Solution
ECI-frame Step 4: Update position
In an inertial frame...
Velocity is known at the start and
finish, so is modelled as a linear
function of time:
i
ib
i
ib
v r =
( ) ) ( ) (
2
) ( ) ( + + + = +
i
ib
i
ib
i i
ib
i
ib
v v r r
t
Higher precision, but more complex, navigation equations may be found in books
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 49
3. The Navigation Solution
ECEF-frame and NED-frame Equations
Benefit is the navigation solution is already Earth-referenced
Drawback is increased complexity extra terms required for:
Impact of Earth rotation on attitude update
Centrifugal force of Earths rotation
Gravitation Gravity
Coriolis acceleration
Plus, for NED implementations, further terms due to the transport rate
(rotation of NED axes w.r.t. Earth as the object moves)
See the lecture notes on Moodle for more
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 50
3. The Navigation Solution
Initialisation and Alignment
Before an INS can be used to provide a navigation solution, that
navigation solution must be initialised
Previous
navigation
solution
Inertial
measurement
unit
Integration
New
navigation
solution
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 51
3. The Navigation Solution
Position Initialisation
INS position & velocity must be initialised from an external source
Position may be initialised in a number of ways
By placing the INS at a pre-surveyed point
By taking range and/or bearing measurements to pre-surveyed points
From GNSS
From another INS
In each case the lever arm from the INS to the known position must
be measured. Attitude may be needed to convert from the body frame
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 52
3. The Navigation Solution
Velocity Initialisation
Velocity may be initialised in a number of ways
By maintaining the INS stationary with respect to the Earth
From GNSS
From another INS
In the latter two cases the lever arm and angular rate are needed to
calculate the lever arm velocity
Sometimes position and velocity initialisation requires attitude and
vice-versa. Either
rough r and v precise r and v
simultaneous initialisation of r , v and
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 53
3. The Navigation Solution
Attitude Initialisation
Attitude may be initialised in a number of ways
Self alignment (next two slides)
Magnetic compass
Bearings from known objects
From another INS
Multi-antenna GNSS
Most INS applications require attitude to 1 mrad or better
Most initialisation techniques do not meet this
Therefore, initialisation is typically followed by fine alignment
INS/GNSS integration; transfer alignment; quasi-stationary
alignment (see textbooks)
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 54
3. The Navigation Solution
Self Alignment: Levelling
10
-3
g accelerometer accuracy 1 mrad levelling
z
b
y
b
x
b
D
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
)

(
0
0
C
~ ~
b b
b
n
b
ib
h L g
f
b b
ib
g f =
For a stationary vehicle, the sensed
specific force is due to gravity only
Solving gives pitch, , and roll, ,
attitude
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Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 55
3. The Navigation Solution
Self Alignment: Gyrocompassing
0.01 /hr (710
-8
rad s
-1
) gyro accuracy 1 mrad heading
For a stationary vehicle, the sensed rotation is due to Earth rotation only
z
b
y
b
x
b
D (from levelling)
Earths
rotation
b
ie

Given.
pitch, ,
roll, ,
latitude, L
b
,
longitude,
b
,
Heading, , can be
calculated
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 56
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
3. The Navigation Solution
4. Performance
5. INS/GNSS Integration
6. Further Work and Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 57
4. Performance
Inertial Navigation Errors
Accelerometer and gyro errors are normally dominant
Systematic Errors:
Biases
Scale Factor and Cross-Coupling errors
Various higher-order errors
Can be calibrated using other navigation sensors, e.g. GNSS
Noise
Electrical noise, vibration resonance
Accelerometer random noise produces a velocity random walk
Gyro random noise produces an attitude random walk
Random walk error SDs vary as \time
Can not be calibrated
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 58
4. Performance
Accelerometer and Gyro Bias Error
Accelerometers:
SI units: m s
2
Customary units: mg
Gyros:
SI units: rad s
1
Customary units: /hr
Output
Input
Output = input
Output error due
to bias
Instrument
output
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 59
4. Performance
IMU Scale factor & Cross-coupling Errors
Customary units: ppm
Input
Output
Output =
input
Output error due to
scale factor error
Instrument
output
z
b
y
b
o
b
x
b
x
accel.
y
accel.
z
accel.
x
gyro
y
gyro
z
gyro
Scale factor error Cross-coupling
error
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 60
4. Performance
Variation of IMU Systematic Errors
Applies to biases, scale factor errors, cross-coupling errors etc
Constant component
Can be calibrated out by the manufacturer
Temperature-varying, time-fixed component
Can be calibrated out with a temperature sensor
Turn-on component
Different each time the instrument is used
Can be calibrated through integration with GNSS or other
positioning sensors
In-run variation component
Difficult to calibrate
1/30/2012
11
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 61
4. Performance
Inertial Error Propagation
Where an INS is the sole navigation sensor
Accelerometer and gyro errors will integrate up to give position,
velocity & attitude errors that grow with time
There will be cumulative errors due to navigation equations
approximations
Initialisation errors propagate through the nav. equations
Accurate determination of INS error propagation is complex
Full simulation is required to study it properly
Some case studies follow
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 62
4. Performance
Short-term Error Propagation
Linear Quadratic
Quadratic
Cubic
Constant attitude error
0
100
200
300
400
0 100 200 300
time (s)
p
o
s
it
io
n
e
r
r
o
r

(
m
)
Constant angular rate error
0
100
200
300
400
0 100 200 300
time (s)
p
o
s
it
io
n
e
r
r
o
r

(
m
)
Constant velocity error
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 100 200 300
time (s)
p
o
s
itio
n
e
rr
o
r
(
m
)
Constant acceleration error
0
100
200
300
400
0 100 200 300
time (s)
p
o
s
itio
n

e
r
r
o
r
(
m
)
0.1 ms
1 0.01 ms
2
1 mrad 10
5
rad s
1
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 63
4. Performance
Error Propagation: Case Studies
Initial velocity error
Acceleration error
Initial attitude error
Angular rate error
Tactical-grade sensors
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
0 100 200 300
Time (s)
P
o
s
it
i
o
n

e
r
r
o
r

S
D

(
m
)
Aviation-grade sensors
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 100 200 300
Time (s)
P
o
s
it
i
o
n

e
r
r
o
r

S
D

(
m
)
Horizontal
Vertical
All axes
Tactical-grade
0.1 m s
1
0.01 m s
2
1 mrad
510
5
rad s
1
Aviation grade
0.01 m s
1
0.001 m s
2
0.1 mrad
510
8
rad s
1
Tactical-grade sensors Aviation-grade sensors
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 64
4. Performance
High-Grade Inertial Navigation System
Grade Navigation Performance Uses Cost (IMU)
Marine 1.8 km drift per day Military ships,
Submarines,
Some spacecraft
> 1 000 000
Aviation 1.5 km drift per hour Airliners and
Military aircraft
~ 60 000
Suitable for stand-alone navigation
Sold as a complete inertial navigation system
178 178 259 mm is a standard size for aviation-grade units;
marine-grade units are larger
Can determine heading by gyrocompassing
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 65
4. Performance
Medium-Grade Inertial Navigation
Grade Navigation Performance Uses Cost (IMU)
Intermediate ~15 km drift per hour Small aircraft,
Helicopters
~30 000
Tactical ~10100 m drift per minute
(>100 km per hour)
UAVs,
Guided weapons
~5000
Usually integrated with GNSS
Typically sold as an INS/GNSS package or as an IMU (sensors and
associated calibration only)
Can bridge short GNSS outages
Useful for augmenting GNSS with attitude
Smaller (down to 65 65 40 mm) & lighter than high-grade systems
Requires external heading initialisation
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 66
4. Performance
Low-Grade Inertial Sensors
Grade Navigation Performance Uses Cost (IMU)
Automotive/
consumer
> 100 m drift/min (calibrated) Cars,
Smart phones
<1000 (cal)
Unsuitable (uncalibrated) ~100 (uncal)
Not much use for inertial navigation unless foot-mounted
(reset on each step)
Sold either as an IMU (with calibration)
or as individual sensors (uncalibrated)
Sensors based on MEMS Technology
Individual sensors can be as small as 5 5 1 mm
Can augment GNSS with attitude
Can be used for step detection
1/30/2012
12
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 67
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
3. The Navigation Solution
4. Performance
5. INS/GNSS Integration
6. Further Work and Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 68
5. INS/GNSS Integration
Benefits of INS/GNSS Integration
INS and GNSS are complementary
INS bridges short-term GNSS outages, boosting continuity
INS increases the bandwidth of the position solution and
smoothes the noise on a code-based GNSS solution
INS can be used to aid GNSS signal tracking
GNSS prevents the INS position solution error growing with time
GNSS aids calibration of the inertial sensor biases
GNSS integration enables useful navigation with much lower-cost
inertial sensors
Inertial sensors improves the robustness of GNSS
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 69
5. INS/GNSS Integration
INS/GNSS Integration (Open & Closed Loop)
Independent INS solution Minimises KF linearisation errors
INS
GNSS
user
equipment
Inertial
navigation
processor
Integration algorithm
Corrections
Integrated
navigation
solution
IMU
INS
GNSS
user
equipment
Inertial
navigation
processor
Integration algorithm
Integrated
navigation
solution
Corrections
IMU
Open-
loop
Closed-
loop
Open-loop Closed-loop
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 70
5. INS/GNSS Integration
Loosely-coupled INS/GNSS Integration
Can work with any
INS and GNSS user
equipment
Maintains stand-
alone GNSS solution
as back-up
Cascaded Kalman
filters (see Lecture 5)
INS/GNSS filter gain
must be low to avoid
instability
Limits performance
r, v
Aiding information
INS/GNSS
Integration
Kalman filter
GNSS
Kalman filter
IMU
Inertial
navigation
equations
INS
Correction
Integrated navigation
solution (open-loop)
GNSS
receiver
GNSS
ranging
processor
Integrated navigation solution (closed-loop)
Inertial navigation solution (open-loop)
GNSS
navigation
solution
Closed-loop
corrections
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 71
5. INS/GNSS Integration
Tightly-coupled INS/GNSS Integration
Requires suitable
GNSS user
equipment with
pseudo-range and
range-rate (Doppler)
outputs
No Kalman filter
cascade
Optimal INS/GNSS
filter gain
Better performance
than loosely-coupled
Aiding information
INS/GNSS
Integration
Kalman filter
IMU
Inertial
navigation
equations
INS
Correction
Integrated navigation
solution (open-loop)
GNSS
receiver
GNSS
ranging
processor
Integrated navigation solution (closed-loop)
Inertial navigation solution (open-loop)
Closed-loop
corrections
,
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 72
5. INS/GNSS Integration
Deep INS/GNSS Integration
Combines INS/GNSS
integration and GNSS
signal tracking into a
single estimation
algorithm
Extra robustness under
challenging GNSS
reception conditions
Difficult to implement
requires specially-
modified GNSS user
equipment
Still largely experimental
Is and Qs
INS/GNSS
Integration
Kalman filter
IMU
Inertial
navigation
equations
INS
Correction
GNSS
receiver
Integrated navigation solution
GNSS NCO
control
algorithm
Calculation of satellite
positions and velocities;
clock, ionosphere, and
troposphere corrections
NCO co
f
,

NCO ca f ,

rc rc
o o

,
i r
o o /
1/30/2012
13
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 73
5. INS/GNSS Integration
Kalman Filter States To Estimate
3D Position error Always estimated
3D Velocity error Always estimated
3D Attitude error Usually estimated
3 Accelerometer bias Usually estimated
3 Gyro bias Usually estimated
GNSS clock offset and drift Estimated for tightly-coupled integration
Higher-order IMU errors Estimated only in high-dynamic applications
GNSS ionosphere propagation errors and/or range biases
Rarely estimated as costs usually outweigh benefits
Position and clock error covariance may be adjusted after the
Kalman filter
Must be selected
together
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 74
5. INS/GNSS Integration
Kalman Filter Noise Modelling
System Noise
Accelerometer random noise = velocity random walk
Gyro random noise = attitude random walk
Accelerometer bias random walk
Gyro bias radomwalk
GNSS clock noise (as for GNSS KF in Lecture 3)
Measurement Noise
Loosely-Coupled: GNSS solution position and velocity error, weighted
for time correlation
Tightly-Coupled: GNSS Tracking noise and multipath errors
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 75
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Accelerometers and Gyros
3. The Navigation Solution
4. Performance
5. INS/GNSS Integration
6. Further Work and Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 76
6. Further Work
On Moodle
Extracts from Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and
Multisensor Integrated Navigation Systems
No Problem Class or Practical This Week
Lecture 5 on Thursday instead
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 77
Groves, P. D., Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multisensor
Integrated Navigation Systems, Artech House, 2008
Extracts on Moodle
Farrell, J. A., Aided Navigation: GPS with High Rate Sensors,
McGraw Hill, 2008.
effectively 2
nd
edition of Farrell and Barth, 1999
Grewal, M. S., L. R. Weill, and A. P. Andrews, Global
Positioning Systems, Inertial Navigation, and Integration, 2
nd
Edition, Wiley, 2007 dont use 1
st
edition
Titterton, D. H., and J. L. Weston, Strapdown Inertial
Navigation Technology, 2nd ed., IEE, 2004
6. Reading List
Positioning Lecture 4 Inertial Navigation (7 Feb 2012) 78
Notation Converter
Quantity Navigation symbol Geodesy symbol
Geodetic latitude L |
Equatorial Earth radius R
0
a
Polar Earth radius R
p
b
Transverse radius of curvature R
E
v
Meridian radius of curvature R
N
ECEF position components X, Y, Z
e
eb
e
eb
e
eb
z y x , ,

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