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ME 515 Mechatronics

11/22/2006

ME 515 Mechatronics

Introduction to Actuators
Asanga Ratnaweera Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering University of Peradeniya Tel: 081239 (3627) Email: asangar@pdn.ac.lk

Actuation Systems
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling action on a machine of device: Most common types of actuators
Electric Actuator Mechanical Actuators Hydraulic & Pneumatic Actuator
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Electrical Actuators
Electrical energy transformed to mechanical energy
DC Motors Stepper Motors AC Motors Linear Motors

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Electrical Actuators
easy to control from mW to MW normally high velocities 1000 - 10000 rpm several types accurate servo control ideal torque for driving excellent efficiency autonomous power system difficult

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ME 515 Mechatronics

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DC Motors
The most common actuator in Mechatronic systems is the Direct Current (DC) motor
Rotary actuators Power range: Fractions of watts to 100s of kW. Power supply by grid, diesel generator, or batteries Easy to control accurately

Advantages:
simple Cheap various sizes and packages.

Disadvantages:
limited overloading on high speeds Wear at rubbing surfaces

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Basic Operation
Current flowing through a conductor in a magnetic field induces a force perpendicular to the field and to itself

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Brushed Motor
The stator is the stationary outside part of a motor. The rotor is the inner part which rotates. In the motor animations, red represents a magnet or winding with a north polarization, while green represents a magnet or winding with a south polariztion. Opposite, red and green, polarities attract.
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Commutation is through brushes

ME 515 Mechatronics

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Permanent Magnet DC Motors


The permanent magnet gives a constant value of flux density. For an armature conductor of length L and carrying a current i
the force resulting from a magnetic flux density B at right angles to the conductor is BiL.

With N such conductors the force is NBiL. The forces result in a torque T about the coil axis of Fb, with b being the breadth of the coil. Thus: T = NBLi = ki i Back emf vb = k v
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Kv, back emf constant


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Permanent Magnet DC Motors


The equivalent circuit
T = kt i = kt (V k v ) R

Neglecting the inductance of the armature coil,

i=

V vb V k v = R R
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Permanent Magnet DC Motors


T (starting) = (kt/R)V

T = kt i =

kt (V k v ) R

Max torque is starting torque and maximum speed is no load speed


(no load) =V/kv Linear torque speed variation: Good for control applications Used for low power applications (max about 4kW) Direction of rotation can be changed by reversing the polarity
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DC Motors with field Coils


D.C. motors with field coils are classified according to how the field windings and armature windings are connected.
Series Motors Shunt Motors Compound Motors Separately excited Motors

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DC Motors with field Coils


Series Motor
Starting torque

Torque
Run away

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no load speed

Speed
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DC Motors with field Coils


Series wound motors
Exerts the highest staring torque and has the greatest no-load speed. With light loads there is a danger that a series wound motor might run at a too high speed.
Motor can get damaged if suddenly unloaded run away (ex: belt failure in belt drives)

Reversing the polarity of the supply to the coils has no effect on the direction of rotation of the motor:
both the field and armature current have been reversed

Speed is significantly varies with varying load conditions


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DC Motors: An Electrical Overview


Apply a voltage to armature Armature rotates in magnetic field Speed control by: Armature voltage Field Strength Speed proportional to Voltage Torque proportional to current Power=Speed x Torque

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DC Motors: Series motor basics


ia Vr L R Speed proportional to back emf Vr = Ke K torque constant Ke back emf constant - Efficiency Tr Magnetic torque Power induced P = Vr ia Power produced P = Tr Ke = K
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From Kirchoff law

V =L

dia + ia R + Vr dt

Torque proportional to armature current Tr = K ia


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DC Motors: Series motor basics


Mechanical torque output (T)
Viscous friction coefficient

If motor inductance L is negligibly small

Tr

1 ia = V R

K e R

From Newtons second law

d = Tr B T dt
T = JL d + bL dt

d K B 1 = ia T J dt J J
Can be solved using Matlab Simulink

Load torque T

load friction coefficient

Load inertia
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DC Motor Specs

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Matlab Simulink Model

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DC Motors with field Coils


Shunt wound motor
Starting torque

Torque

Speed nearly constant

no load speed

Speed
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DC Motors with field Coils


Shunt wound motor
Provides the lowest starting torque, a much lower no-load speed Nearly constant speed for a large range of load conditions To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or field supplied must be reversed. Speed control is easy
Potentiometer in series with the field coil is enough
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DC Motors with field Coils


Compound motor
Torque Speed
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DC Motors with field Coils


Compound motor
The compound motor has two field windings, one in series with the armature and one in parallel. Compound wound motors aim to get the best features of the series and shunt wound motors, namely a high starting torque and good speed regulation

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DC Motors with field Coils


Separately excited motor
the separately excited motor has separate control of the armature and field currents and can be considered to be a special case of the shunt wound motor. To reverse the direction of rotation, either the armature or field supplied can be reversed.
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DC motors: Performance
Good DC motors can be made to be efficient in the 90th percentile. Cheap DC motors can be as low as 50%. Other types of effectors, such as miniature electrostatic motors, may have much lower efficiencies still. Most DC motors have unloaded speeds in the range of 3,000 to 9,000 RPM (revolutions per minute), or 50 to 150 RPS (revolutions per second). This puts DC motors in the high-speed but lowtorque category (compared to some other actuators).
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Brushless DC Motor (PM synchronous motor)


Evolution of the Brushless Motor
Brushed motors are thermally limited due to the heat dissipation of the motor
The heat generated in the windings must dissipate through the air gap to the magnets, through the case to the outside air or through the shaft

In order to make it more efficient, the windings were placed on the outside (stator), and the magnets were moved to the inside (rotor)
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Brushless DC Motors
A brushless dc motor has a rotor with permanent magnets and a stator with windings. It is essentially a dc motor turned inside out. The control electronics replace the function of the commutator and energize the proper winding.
no brushes no wearing parts high speeds coils on cover => better cooling excellent power/weight ratio needs both speed and angle feedback more complicated controller From small to medium power (10W 50kW)
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Commutation is through rotor position sensor

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Brushless DC Motor (PM synchronous motor)

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Speed control: Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)


Rapidly switch on and off the voltage supply by using transistors:
Change in duty cycle changes the average voltage hence current through the motor.
Duty cycle = pulse width/period*100 %

This will change the speed and the torque

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DC motor control: Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

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DC motors: Direction Control


H-bridge circuit

H-bridge
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DC motors: Positon and Speed Control


Encoder Feedback

Another option: potentiometer


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DC motors: Positon and Speed Control

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DC Servo Motors

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DC Servo Motors
Servo motors are adapted DC motors, with the following additions:
some gear reduction a position sensor for the motor shaft an electronic circuit that controls the motor's operation

Some common features


high maximum torque allows high (de)acceleration high zero speed torque high bandwidth provides accurate and fast control works in all four quadrants robustness
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DC Servo Motors: Gear systems

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DC Servo Motors: When to use


Accurate position or velocity control Low noise, high efficiency Cost not too critical Speed and power payoff (gearing)

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Servo Control of an Electrical Motor


Micro-controller
Logic Level

Motor Drive Components


Switches and relays Transistors Linear push-pull stage with op amp

H-bridge and Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)


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Stepper Motors
Typical Use: Position Control Relative position (without feedback) Easy to control:
# Steps moved = number of pulses in Desired Velocity Step Rate

Inexpensive Good holding torque No brushes Can lose steps if load or pulse rate too high

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Stepper Motor types


Permanent magnet stepper motors
Rotor is a permanent magnet and the stator is an electromagnet Rotor field is switched to create a rotating magnetic field

Variable reluctance stepper motors


The rotor is made of soft steel (ferromagnetic) Motion is based on the attraction of rotor and stator poles to position with minimum magnetic reluctance which allows maximum magnetic flux.
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Stepper Motors: Types


Unipolar stepper motors

There is a center tap on each of two windings. Center taps of the windings are typically wired to the positive supply The two ends of each winding are alternately grounded to reverse the direction of the field For higher angular resolutions, the rotor must have proportionally more poles.
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PM Stepper Motors: Principle of operation


Full step operation
The stator has two pairs of windings. Just as the rotor aligns with one of the stator poles, the second phase is energized. The two phases alternate on and off and also reverse polarity. There are four steps. One phase lags the other phase by one step. This is equivalent to one forth of an electrical cycle or 90.

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Stepper Motors: Step Sequence


Step 1 1 2 3 4 ON ON OFF OFF Transistors 2 OFF OFF ON ON 3 ON OFF OFF ON 4 OFF ON ON OFF

Full step sequence showing how binary numbers can control the motor
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Stepper Motors: Principle of operation


Half step operation
The main difference is that the second phase is turned on before the first phase is turned off. Thus, sometimes both phases are energized at the same time. During the halfsteps the rotor is held in between the two fullstep positions.

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Stepper Motors: Step Sequence


Half step sequence of binary control numbers
step 1 1.5 2 1.5 2.5 3 3.5 4 4
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1 ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF

2 OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON ON OFF

2 ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF ON ON

4 OFF OFF ON ON ON OFF OFF OFF


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Stepper Motors: Principle of operation

Full step operation

A half-step motor has twice the resolution of a full step motor. In full step mode, 4 steps per revolution, 900 per step In half step mode, 8 steps per revolution, 45o per step
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Half step operation

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Stepper Motors: Types


Bipolar stepper motors

The two windings are wired more simply, with no center taps The motor itself is simpler but the drive circuitry needed to reverse the polarity of each pair of motor poles is more complex The drive circuitry for such a motor requires an H-bridge control circuit for each winding
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Stepper Motors: Types


Bipolar stepper motors

Phase A

Phase B

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Stepper Motor Control


Stepper motor: rotates fixed number of degrees when given a step signal
In contrast, DC motor just rotates when power applied, coasts to stop

Rotation achieved by applying specific voltage sequence to coils Controller greatly simplifies this

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Stepper Motor Control


Step angle or angular resolution
r = 360/N

In open loop control the controller has to generate a constant frequency pulse train for the desired velocity (vd) in revolutions/sec, over a time period of td
vd= N/ Vd
Vd step freequency (steps/sec)

Number of steps to be generated


Td=Vdtd
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Stepper Motor Control


input

Controller (PC) Driver

Number of steps for PC clock cycle V = Vd/f f PC clock frequency


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Stepper Motor Control

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Stepper Motor characteristics


Pull-in torque: maximum torque against which a motor will start, for a given pulse rate, and reach synchronism without losing a step. Pull-in rate: maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor can start without losing a step. Pull-out torque: maximum torque that can be applied to a motor, running at a given stepping rate, without losing synchronism. Pull-out rate: switching rate at which a loaded motor will remain in synchronism as the switching rate is reduced. Slew range: the range of switching rates between pull-in and put-out within which the motor runs in synchronism but cannot start up or reverse.

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Stepper Motor Applications

Film Drive Optical Scanner Printers ATM Machines


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I. V. Pump Blood Analyzer FAX Machines Thermostats


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Stepper Motors: Advantages


More accurately controlled than a normal motor allowing fractional turns or revolutions to be easily done Low speed, and lower torque than a comparable D.C. motor Useful for precise positioning

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AC-motors
Single or three phase motors 100 Watts MW High power high torque applications Brushless, durable, easy to maintain Now fully digital vector controlled
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AC-motors: Types
Two types of AC motors
Synchronous motors
Since the current is alternating, the motor will run smoothly only at the frequency of the sine wave.

Induction motors
electric current is induced in the rotating coils rather than supplied to them directly

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AC-motors: Induction
Motors

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AC Induction Motor
The stator windings of an ac induction motor are distributed around the stator to produce a roughly sinusoidal distribution. When three phase ac voltages are applied to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field is produced. The rotor of an induction motor also consists of windings or more often a copper squirrel cage imbedded within iron laminates. Only the iron laminates are shown. An electric current is induced in the rotor bars which also produce a magnetic field.

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AC Induction Motor
The rotating magnetic field of the stator drags the rotor around. The rotor does not quite keep up with the the rotating magnetic field of the stator. It falls behind or slips as the field rotates. In this animation, for every time the magnetic field rotates, the rotor only makes three fourths of a turn. If you follow one of the bright green or red rotor teeth with the mouse, you will notice it change color as it falls behind the rotating field. The slip has been greatly exaggerated to enable visualization of this concept. A real induction motor only slips a few percent.

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AC-motors: Synchronous
Motors

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AC-motors: Main Features


Brush free full digital control Requires sophisticated algorithms to control speed (hence recent) Frequency control via power converter (field control) Suitable for high speed and/or high power applications Complex structure, heavy weight

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AC motors: Some applications


Large Cranes or material handling systems Belts or conveyors High Speed Trains Electric Drive Haul Trucks (930E)

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Electric Motors: Selection


Selection of a motor for a particular application is based on following requirements
Moment of inertia Torque Power Cost

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Electric Motors: Selection


Moment of inertia
For optimum performance, the load moment of inertia should approximately satisfy the following condition.

2.5 J m J L / N 2 5 J m
Jm polar moment of inertial of the motor JL - polar moment of inertial of the load N gear ratio JL/N2 rotor equivalent load inertia
Remember kinetic energy = *I*2

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Electric Motors: Selection


Torque
For the optimum operation, Motor should supply sufficient torque Tm

Tm =

TL + J m m N

TL = T f + J L L
TL Load torque Tf Frictional torque m Motor acceleration L Load acceleration
Remember power = T
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Electric Motors: Selection


Power
Total power requirement is to overcome the friction and power to accelerate the load

P = T f + J
Cost
Motor with a given inertia , can deliver a wide range of torques, depending upon the magnetic strength Motors with high magnetic strength is always expensive

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