CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Definition:
Pump is a machine which adds energy to the fluid. Energy is capacity to do
work, by adding energy we can make the fluid to do work either moving from
one level to another level or moving from one point to another
Classification of pumps:
All pumps may be divided into two major categories:
1) Positive displacement pumps
- Rotary pumps
- Gear pumps
- Vane pumps
- Piston pumps
- Lobe pumps
Reciprocating pumps
2) Non positive displacement pumps
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal Pumps:
A centrifugal pump consists of a set of rotating vanes, enclosed within a
housing or casing and use to impart energy to a fluid through centrifugal force.
Thus, stripped of all refinements, a centrifugal pump has two main parts 1) a
rotating element including an impeller and a shaft, and 2) a stationary element
made of a casing, stuffing box, and bearings.
In a centrifugal pump the liquid is forced, by atmospheric or other pressure,
into a set of rotating vanes. These vanes constitute an impeller, which
discharges the liquid at its periphery at a higher velocity. This velocity is
converted to pressure energy by means of a volute or by a set of stationary
diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery.
Classification of centrifugal pumps
1) Impellers are classified according to the major direction of flow in
reference to axis of rotation thus the centrifugal pump may have
a) Radial-flow impellers
b) Axial-flow impellers
c) Mixed-flow impellers
2) Impellers are further classified as
a) Single-suction, with a single inlet on one side
b) Double-suction, with water flowing to the impeller symmetrically
from both the side
3) The mechanical construction of the impellers gives a still further
subdivision into
a) Closed, enclosed with shrouds or sidewalls enclosing the
waterways.
b) Open, with no shrouds
c) Semi open or semi closed
A pump in which the head is developed by a single impeller is called a single-
stage pump. Often the total head to be developed requires the use of to or
more impellers operating in series each taking its suction from the discharge
of the preceding impeller. For this purpose two or more single-stage pumps
can be connected in series or all the impellers can be incorporated in a single
casing the unit is then called multistage pump.
The mechanical design of the casing provides the added pump
classification of axially split or radially split, and the axis of rotation
determines whether the pump is a horizontal or vertical unit. Horizontal shaft
centrifugal pumps are classified still further according to the location of the
suction nozzle:
1) End suction 2) Side suction
3) Bottom suction 4) Top suction

Single suction closed impeller Double suction closed impeller

High specific speed double Open mixed flow impeller
suction impeller

Bottom suction pump Double suction Single suction
Priming:
A pump is primed when all air in the suction line and pump casing has been
evacuated and replaced with liquid. Priming of Pumps is necessary because
it is required that before starting a pump, its casing together with impeller, and
the suction pipe, must be filled with liquid in order to remove the air, gas or
vapour in that region. The pump will not generate its pressure, if there is any
air left on the suction side.
Pump components:
A Stuffing Box B Packing C Shaft D Shaft Sleeve E Vane
F Casing G Eye of Impeller
H Impeller I Casing wear Ring
J Impeller K Discharge Nozzle



A centrifugal pump has two main
components:
Rotating components comprise of
Impeller, Shaft
Stationary Components Comprise
Of
Stuffing Box, Bearing, Wear Ring
Horizontally split casing double suction centrifugal pump

Impeller:
An impeller is a wheel with a series of backward curved vanes. It is
mounted on a shaft, which is usually coupled to an electric motor.
The impellers are of three types: -
1. Shrouded or Closed Impeller
2. Semi Open Impeller
3. Open Impeller
Shrouded or Closed Impeller:
In this type of impellers vanes are provided with metal cover plate or
shroud on both sides. It provides better guidance for the liquid & has the
high efficiency. It is employed when the liquid is to be pumped is pure &
relatively free from debris.
Semi Open Impeller:





A Semi Open Impeller is one in which vanes have only the base plate &
no crown plate. This impeller can be used even if the liquid contains some
debris.


Open Impeller:
The vanes have neither the crown plate nor the base plate i.e. the vanes
are open from both the sides. Such impellers are employed for pumping
liquid which contain suspended solid matter (e.g. sewage, paper pulp, water
containing sand or grit.)
Casing:
It is an airtight passage surrounding the impeller and it is designed in such
way that the kinetic energy of the water discharged at the outlet of the impeller
is converted into pressure energy before the water leaves the casing and
enters the delivery pipe. The three types of casings are as follows:

Volute casing:
A volute is a curved funnel increasing in area to the discharge port. The
increase in area of flow decreases the velocity of flow.
As the area of the cross-section increases, the volute reduces the
speed of the liquid and increases the pressure of the liquid.
It has been observed that in case of volute casing, the efficiency of
pump decreases slightly as a large amount of energy is lost due to the
formation of eddies in this type of casing
Solid casing implies a design in which the entire casing including the
discharge nozzle is all contained in one casting or fabricated piece.


Split casing implies two or more parts are fastened together. When the
casing parts are divided by horizontal plane, the casing is described as
horizontally split or axially split casing. When the split is in a vertical plane
perpendicular to the rotation axis, the casing is described as vertically split
or radially split casing.






Casing with Guide Blades:
In this type of casing, the impeller is surrounded by series of guide
blades mounted on a ring known as Diffuser.
The design of guide vanes is such that the water from the impeller
enters the guide vanes without shock.
The area of guide vanes decreases the velocity of flow through guide
vanes & consequently increases the pressure of water.
Suction pipe:
Suction Pipe is a connection between the suction flange & the
reservoir.
The suction pipe must be kept free from air leaks. Any horizontal run of
suction piping must have a gradual upslope towards the pump.
Avoid any fittings, which may cause an air trap. A foot valve should be
installed to prevent loss of pump prime
Delivery pipe:
Delivery Pipe is the connection between the delivery flange & tank.
A gate valve and union should be installed in the discharge line.
Foot valve:
The lower end of the suction pipe is fitted with a foot valve.
The liquid first enters the strainer, which is provided in order to keep
the debris, dirt etc. away from the pump.
It is then passed through the foot valve to enter the suction pipe.




Foot valve is a non-return valve that opens only in the upward
direction.
Liquid passes through the foot valve only in upward direction & does
not allow the liquid to move in the downward to the sump.
Check valve
Check valve is a Non-Return Valve, preventing back-flow of liquid
entering the pump.
Gate valve:
Controls the flow of liquid.
Gate valve is a regulating valve, which is of sluice type & is required to
be provided in order to control the flow from the pump into delivery pipe
Stuffing box:
Stuffing boxes have the primary function of protecting the pump against
leakage at the point where shaft passes out through the pump casing.
If a pump handles a suction lift and the pressure at the interior stuffing
box end is below atmospheric, the stuffing box function is to prevent air
leakage into the pump.

Stuffing box Foot valve








Mechanical seals:
Basic Components


The sealing surfaces are perpendicular to the shaft, with contact between the
primary and mating rings to achieve a dynamical seal. The primary ring is
flexibly mounted in the seal head assembly, which usually rotates with the
pump shaft, and the mating ring is usually fixed to the pump gland plate. Each
of the sealing planes is lapped flat to eliminate any visible leakage. Wear
occurs at the seal faces from sliding contact between the primary and mating
rings. The amount of wear is small, as a film of the liquid sealed is maintained
between the sealing faces. Normally the mating surfaces of the seal are of
dissimilar materials and held in contact with spring. The preload from the
spring is required to produce the initial seal. The spring pressure holds the
primary and mating rings together during shutdown or when there is a lack of
liquid pressure.
Any seal installation is made up of two assemblies (Fig.1). The seal head
assembly includes the primary ring and its associated component parts. The
mating ring assembly includes those parts required for the mating ring to
function. During operation, one of the components is in motion. Normally, the
seal head is rotating and the other component is stationary. There three
different points of sealing common to all mechanical seal installations:
(1) At the mating surfaces of the primary and mating rings
(2) Between the rotating component and the shaft or sleeve
(3) Between the stationary component and the gland plate
When a seal is installed on a sleeve, there is and additional point of
sealing between the shaft and sleeve. Certain mating ring designs may also
require an additional seal between the gland and plate and the stuffing box.
The secondary seal, between the rotating seal component and the shaft
or sleeve, must be partially dynamic. As the seal faces wear, the primary ring
must move slightly forward. Because of vibration from machinery, shaft
runout, and thermal expansion of the shaft against the pump casing, the
secondary seal must move along the shaft. This is not a static seal in the
assembly. Flexibility in sealing is achieved from such secondary seal forms as
bellows, O-ring, wedge, or V ring. Most seal designs fix the seal head to the
shaft and provide for a positive drive to the primary ring.
The mating ring is usually a separate replaceable part. A static seal is
used to prevent leakage between the mating ring and the gland plate. The
static seal and the mating ring form the mating ring assembly. Although
mechanical seals may differ in various physical aspects, they are
fundamentally the same in principle. The wide variation in design is a result of
the many methods used to provide flexibility, ease of installation, and
economy.



Bearings:
The function of bearings in centrifugal pumps is to keep the shaft or
rotor in correct alignment with the stationary parts under the action of
radial and transverse loads.

Wear ring

Wear rings are usually used to stop the back flow of pressurized liquid
into the eye of the impeller.
The wear rings can be placed either on the impeller or the casing.
Shaft:
The basic function of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques
encountered in the starting and during operation while supporting the impeller
and other rotating parts. It must do this job with a deflection less than the
minimum clearance between the rotating and stationary parts. The loads
involved are 1) torques, 2) the weight of the parts, & 3) both radial and axial
hydraulic forces. In designing a shaft, the maximum allowable deflection, the
span or overhung, and the location of the loads all have to be considered, as
does the critical speed of the resulting design.
Shaft sleeves:
Pump shafts are usually protected from erosion, corrosion and wear at the
stuffing boxes, leakage joints, internal bearings, and in the waterways by
renewable sleeves. The most common shaft sleeve function is that of
protecting the shaft from wear at a stuffing box.


THEORY OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Terminology:
Suction lift (h
s
)
It is the vertical distance between the reservoir level and the pump centre line,
when the reservoir is below the pump centreline.
Suction head (h
s
)
It is the vertical distance between the reservoir level and pump centre line,
when the reservoir is above the pump centreline.
Delivery head (h
d
)
It is the vertical distance between the pump centerline and the point of
delivery of liquid the level of liquid in the delivery tank.
Total static head (H
S
)
It is the vertical distance between the reservoir level and the point of delivery
of liquid or the level of liquid in the delivery tank.
H
S
= h
s
+ h
d

Or H
S
= h
d
h
s


Manometric head (H)
It represents the net work done on a unit weight of liquid in passing from the
inlet or suction flange s to the discharge flange d. it is given by


Discharge (Q)
The discharge Q of the pump is the volume of liquid delivered by the pump
per unit time. It is usually expressed in liters per minute. (LPM)
Power (P
O
)
The pump output is given by liquid power pumped.
P
O
= wQH = gQH
Efficiency ()
The pump efficiency is the pump output (liquid power) divided by the power
input to the pump shaft. The efficiency is usually expressed in percent. (%)
Theoretical head (H
i
)
Theoretical head of centrifugal pump is obtained by applying the principle of
angular momentum to the mass of liquid going through the impeller passages.
This principle states that the torque applied on the body about an axis is equal
to the time rate of change of angular momentum of the body about the same
axis.





( ) ( )
( )
s d
s d s d
z z
g
v v
g
p p
H +

=
2
2 2

T =
dt
dm
(V
W2
r
2
- V
W1
r
1
)
= Q (V
W2
r
2
- V
W1
r
1
)
Power input P applied to the liquid by the impeller
P = T = Q (V
W2
u
2
- V
W1
u
1
)
P represents power applied to the liquid by impeller vanes. This power is
available as the pump output of an idealized pump. (Pump having no losses)
wQH
i
=
g
wQ
(V
W2
u
2
- V
W1
u
1
)
H
i
=
g
1
(V
W2
u
2
- V
W1
u
1
)
Since all hydraulic losses between the points where the actual total dynamic
head is measured have been disregarded, the head H
i
is a theoretical head;
the equation is known as Eulers equation. If the liquid enters the impeller
without a tangential component or if V
W1
= 0, Eulers equation reduces to
H
i
=
g
1
(V
W2
u
2
)
If V
W2
and

V
W1
are actual velocities of all liquid particles. Then above
equations will represent actual power input to the liquid and will represent
actual theoretical head or input head.
Theoretical characteristics
By taking Eulers head equation in its simplest form as given above, it can be
shown that it is the equation of straight line which will give variation of Eulers
head with capacity. H
i
=
g
1
(V
W2
u
2
)
V
W2
= u
2

u tan
2 f
v

H
i
=
g
u
2
2
-
u tan
2 2
g
v u
f
--------- (a)
In the above equation v
f2
is proportional to the discharge since Q = v
f2
x area.
Thus equation (a) is an equation of straight line. The slope of this line
depends on the angle . When = 90
0
the head capacity line is parallel to
the axis of capacity. For less than 90, the head decreases as the capacity
increases. With > 90
0
, the head increases with capacity. This can be
realized by only impulse action with an impeller similar to the Pelton wheel
reversed, as the absolute velocity leaving the impeller V
2
> the peripheral
velocity u
2
. It is impossible to devise a pump casing, which would catch the
high velocity jets, convert velocity into pressure, and permit impulse action
In an idealized pump the input is equal to the output. The shape of the
theoretical power curve is obtained by multiplying equation (a) by Q or v
f2

When = 90
0
equation (b) represents a straight line passing through the
origin for < 90
0
, it is a parabola tangent to the above straight line at the
origin with > 90
0
the power curve is also a parabola tangent to the first
straight line but lies above it. The later shape of the power curve is never
realized in actual pumping machinery. Whereas the discharge angle is
selected to meet the required head capacity characteristics, the entrance
angle is determined from velocity triangle, depending upon the impeller
capacity, profile and speed.
Efficiencies:
All the head in a centrifugal pump is generated by the impeller. The rest of the
parts contribute nothing to the head but incur inevitable losses- hydraulic,
mechanical, and leakage. All losses of head, which take place between the
points where the suction and discharge pressure are measured, constitute
hydraulic losses. These include skin friction losses along the liquid path from
suction to the discharge nozzle, losses due to sudden change in area or
direction of flow, and all losses due to eddies whatever their causes.
Hydraulic efficiency is defined as the ratio of available total dynamic head to
the input head or

h
=
i
i
H
osses hydraulicl H
=
i
H
H

Besides the losses of head there are losses of capacity in each pump known
as leakage losses. These take place through the clearances between the
rotating and stationary parts of the pump. The capacity available at the pump
discharge is smaller than that passed through the impeller by the amount of
leakage. The ratio of the two is called the volumetric efficiency.



v
=
i
Q
Q
=
L
Q Q
Q
+
Where Q
L
is the amount of leakage
Mechanical losses include loss of power in bearings and stuffing boxes, and
the disc friction. The disc friction loss is hydraulic in nature but is grouped with
mechanical losses since it is external to the flow through the pump and does
not result in a loss of head. The mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the
power actually absorbed by the impeller and delivered to the liquid and the
power applied to the pump shaft.

m
=
shaftpower
losses mechanical shaftpower ,
=
i
i i
P
H wQ

The overall efficiency of the pump is the ratio of power developed by the
pump to the power supplied by the shaft

o
=
i
P
wQH


o
=
h

v

m


Pumping system:
In any pumping system, the liquid must be moved through pipes that offer
certain resistances or in other words, cause certain frictional losses. This
energy dissipation, or head loss, is called frictional head whereas the energy
that has been converted in velocity energy is called velocity head. Thus, static
heads, pressure head and velocity heads may all be encountered in any
system. When considering a pump by itself, head is a measure of the total
energy imparted to the liquid at a certain operating speed and capacity.
System head:
The total head of the system against which a pump must operate is made up
of following components:
Total static head
Friction head
Entrance and exit losses
Velocity head

Total static head:
The total static head of a system is the difference in elevation between the
discharge liquid level and the suction liquid level. The static discharge head
is a difference in elevation between the discharge liquid level and the
centerline of the pump. The static suction head is the difference in elevation
between the suction liquid level and centerline of the pump. If the static
suction head is a negative value because the suction liquid level is below the
pump centerline, it is called as a static suction lift.


Friction head:
Friction head is the equivalent head, expressed in meters of the liquid
pumped that is necessary to overcome the friction losses caused by the flow
of the liquid through the piping, including all the fittings. The friction head
varies with
1. The quantity of flow
2. The size, type, and condition of the piping and fittings
3. The character of the liquid pumped.
System friction curve:
The friction head loss in a system of pipes, valves, and fittings varies as a
function of the discharge (as the square) through the system. For the solution
of pumping problems it is often convenient to show the relation between
capacity and friction head loss through the system graphically.
H = h
f
+
g
V
2
2
+ K
g
V
2
2

H = KQ
2
-------------------(a)
This is called system equation and K is called system resistance constant
System-head curve:
The friction head losses and static heads of any system can be graphically
related. The resulting curve is called the system-head curve. The capacity that
a pump will be able to deliver under varying conditions can be predicted by
superimposing such system-head curves on a pump head-capacity curve.

H = H
S
+ KQ
2
--------------------- (b)
Pump characteristic curve:
The pump characteristic is given by the equation
H = A
1
N
2
+ B
1
NQ + C
1
Q
2

Where A, B, C, are constants which depend upon the pump design, and n is
the speed of pump.
For constant speed,
H = A + BQ + CQ
2
-----------------(c)
Operating point:
When a pump has to overcome the pipeline resistance in addition to a static
head, the head against which the pump has to work varies with the capacity,
pipeline resistance increasing with the capacity. The operating conditions of
the pump in that case are best determined graphically by plotting on the same
sheet and to the same scale, both the pump head-capacity curve and the
pipeline resistance curve. The operating point is obtained by the intersection
of the two.



PERFORMANCE CHARECTERISTICS
Unlike positive displacement pumps, a centrifugal pump operating at constant
speed can deliver any capacity from a zero to a maximum value dependant
upon the pump size, design, and suction condition. The total head developed
by the pump, the power required to drive it, and the resulting efficiency vary
with capacity. The interrelation of capacity, head, power, and efficiency are
called pump characteristics. These interrelations are best shown graphically,
and the resulting graph is called the characteristic curves of the pump. The
head, power, and efficiency are usually plotted against capacity at a constant
speed as shown below.

Types of H- Q characteristics:
1. Rising characteristic meaning a curve in which the head rises
continuously as the capacity is decreased.
2. Drooping characteristic: indicating cases in which the head
developed at shutoff is less than that developed at some other
capacities.
3. Steep characteristics: a rising head capacity characteristic in which
there is large increase in head between that developed at design
capacity and that developed at shutoff.
4. Flat characteristic: a H- Q characteristic in which the head varies only
slightly with capacity from shutoff to design capacity.
5. Stable characteristic: head progressively falling as the capacity
increases.
6. Unstable characteristic: in stable H-Q characteristics each value of H
corresponds to a single value of Q. while in unstable characteristic.
Each value of H corresponds to two values of Q in the range above the
straight line H
o
= constant


H





Q Q

Comparing the head discharge characteristics for different types of
impeller pumps, it fallows that the characteristic of centrifugal pumps
can be both stable and unstable while the characteristics of helicoidal,
diagonal and propeller pumps are always stable. The greater the value
of the specific speed is, the more steeply the H-Q characteristic falls.
In single stage centrifugal pumps, stability of the curve may be attained
in various ways, by reducing the number of blades, by using small
values blade angle and by extending the blades in the direction of the
impeller inlet.
Power characteristics:
Non-overloading power characteristic: these correspond to the stable H-Q
characteristics.
Overloading power characteristics: these correspond to H-Q unstable
characteristic.
The names non-overloading and overloading characteristic derive from the
impossibility or possibility of transmitting larger power to the liquid after Q
n
has
been exceeded. Non-overloading characteristic rise up to peak point situated
near the operating point Q and afterwards fall. Overloading curves rise
progressively upwards.
The advantage of Non-overloading characteristic is the impossibility of
overloading the motor driving the pump; as a result the motor requires a small
power reserve.
Two boiler feed pumps in parallel, pumps with unstable characteristic
cannot be used due to the possibility of overloading one of the two
pumps and the danger of vibrations occurring in the pipeline.
The resistance (system) may vary for the two pumps. The pump with
less system resistance (flat system curve) will have more discharge
and hence may be overloaded

Hydraulic Performance of Centrifugal Pumps:
A study of losses in centrifugal pumps may be undertaken for one of the
following reasons
1. Information about the nature and magnitude of losses may indicate
the way to reduce these losses.
2. Since the H-Q curve of an idealized pump is a straight line, the
shape of the head-capacity curve of an actual pump is determined
by the hydraulic losses. Thus it would seem possible, when
something is known about the losses, to change the shape of
headcapacity curve to suit some special requirement.
Hydraulic losses
These are the least known of all the losses in pumps and at the same time,
they are the most essential ones for the attainment of the above objectives.
The reason for this is that there are so many factors contributing to the
hydraulic losses. Even the combined effect of these factors cannot be
ascertained accurately. In general it can be said that the hydraulic losses are
caused by (i) skin friction and (ii) eddy and separation losses due to changes
in direction and magnitude of the velocity of flow. The latter group includes so
called shock loss and diffusion loss.
In the channels from the suction to the discharge nozzle, there is not a single
stretch of path where either direction of flow or the area and the shape of the
channel is constant; besides, part of the channel is rotating, thus upsetting the
velocity distribution and further complicating the study of hydraulic losses.
Under such conditions it is impossible to calculate the friction loss through the
pump with degree of accuracy sufficient to serve any purpose.
General discussion of hydraulic losses, without any attempt to evaluate
individual losses, will show the relation between the characteristics of an
actual pump and those of an idealized pump, and will illustrate the manner in
which different types of characteristics are obtained.

(a) Friction and Diffusion losses:
The general equation for friction loss is

h
f
= f
m
L
4 g
V
2
2
-------------- (1)
f = friction coefficient
L = length of channel
m = hydraulic radius of the channel
V = velocity at the section where hydraulic radius is = m
This could be applied to the several parts of the total path, as the suction
nozzle, impeller channel, volute, and discharge nozzle. However actual
measurements of the length L, and the hydraulic radius m may present
difficulty in many cases. The selection of suitable friction coefficient is
problem in itself. For these reasons several investigations combine all the
friction losses in one term expressing it by simplified equation.
h
f
= K
1

g
V
2
2
1
= K
1
Q
2
--------------------(2)
Where K
1
is a constant for a given pump and includes all lengths, areas
and area ratios, and friction coefficients. Thus K1 covers all the unknown
factors and also any errors caused by the inability to find a better
expression for the several items contributing to the friction losses. Similarly
an expression can be set up for the diffusion loss in the impeller channel
or discharge nozzle and stated by

h
d
= f
2
g
V
2
2
2

= K
2
Q
2
-------------(3)
Where K
2
is constant for a given pump.
Since the losses expressed by equation (2) and (3) both vary as the
square of capacity they can be combined into one equation

h
fd
= h
f
+ h
d
= K
1
Q
2
+ K
2
Q
2
= K
3
Q
2
--------------(4)

(b) Eddy and separation losses:
It should be noted that even at b.e.p. the average volute velocity is
considerably lower than the tangential component of absolute velocity at
the impeller discharge. (Vw
2
)
If we assume that the impeller design is such that at a capacity Qs
(shockless) the direction of flow agrees with the vane angles at both
entrance and discharge. Thus incurring no additional losses at these
points, then at capacity above and below Qs there will be sudden change
in the direction and magnitude of the velocity of flow. This change results
losses, which can be expressed as
h
s1
= K
4
g
V
W
2
2
1
A

h
s2
= K
5
g
V
W
2
2
1
A

For equal increments of V
f1
and V
f2
or Q V
W1
OR V
W2
increases the
same amount.
h
s
= K
6
(Q-Q
S
)
2
----------------- (5)
This represents a square parabola with apex at Q
S

H = H
i
K
3
Q
2
K
6
(Q-Q
S
)
2
---------- (6)
From the figure it will be noticed that the b.e.p. will always occur at a capacity
lower than the shockless capacity Q
S
because the sum of friction and shock
losses determines the location of the peak efficiency.

General Pump Characteristics
By expressing the constants K
3
& K
6
of equation (6) in terms of pump physical
dimensions (ratios) and angles it is possible to transform equation (6) to the
form

H = A
1
N
2
+ B
1
NQ + C
1
Q
2

Where A, B, C, are constants which depend upon the pump design, and n is
the speed of pump.
For constant speed,
H = A + BQ + CQ
2
----------------- (7)
This is called pump equation.
Specific speed and its significance
The usual way of expressing the performance of a particular pump is to state
its speed, its rate of discharge, and the head it generates. However, if we wish
to compare one pump with another, it is better to use a single term which
would itself convey a general description of the type and characteristic
performance of a given machine.
One of the most convenience of these descriptive terms, especially in the
case of rotodynamic pumps, is the specific speed would operate if reduced
proportionally in size so as to deliver a unit capacity against a unit total head.
In order to avoid misunderstandings which might arise when using the
term of specific speed for impellers which have two inlets (double entry
impellers), or in the case of multi-stage pumps, specific speed refers to the
performance of one impeller eye only, ie in the case of a single-stage pump
with a double entry impeller, only half the capacity of the impeller must be
inserted into the formulae for specific speed, whilst in the case of multi-stage
pumps, specific speed refers to one impeller only.
Specific speed is mathematically expressed as

Ns =
4 / 3
gH
Q N

In which:
N
S
= Specific speed
N = rotative speed
Q = Capacity
H = head
g = gravitational constant
The specific speed concept can be used in such a manner that for
homologous designs, the performance of any impeller of the series can be
predicted from the knowledge of the performance of any other impeller of the
series. Because the physical characteristic and the general outline impeller
profiles are intimately connected to their respective specific speeds, the value
of N
s
will immediately describe the approximate impeller shape in question.

Above figure represents few typical impeller outlines tied down to their specific
speeds. It also indicates the maximum range of efficiencies obtainable from
pump impellers of different specific speed. Low specific speed impellers have
a lower maximum efficiency than medium specific speed impellers because
the former have considerably more disk area for a given set of operating
conditions and therefore, a greater loss in disk friction. high specific speed
impellers also have a lower maximum efficiency than medium specific speed
types because, although they have still further reduced areas and therefore
still lower disk friction losses, they present poor flow conditions from inlet to
discharge.
The specific speed of a given pump will also definitely reflected in the
shape of pump characteristic curves, and whereas some variations in the
shape of these curves can be obtained by changes in the designs of the
impeller and casing water-ways, the variation that can be obtain without
adversely affecting the pump efficiency is relatively small.




AXIAL THRUST AND RADIAL THRUST
Axial thrust:

Single suction impellers are subjected to an axial thrust because the area
apposite the impeller eye is under suction pressure at the front of the back
shroud and under discharge pressure at the rear of the back shroud. The
magnitude of the thrust can be calculated from
T = (A
1
-A
S
) (P
1
-P
S
) ------------ (1)
T is axial thrust in Newtons
A
1
is the area corresponding to the diameter or of the impeller wearing ring
A
S
is the area of the shaft
P
S
is the suction pressure in Pa
P
1
is the pressure on the back shroud at diameter D
r
in Pa

The pressure difference (P
1
-Ps) is less than the total head of the pump
because the liquid behind the impeller is in rotation. The actual thrust is
somewhat less than the value given by equitation (1) the reduction being
caused by the change in momentum of the flow through the impeller eye,
which in a straight centrifugal pump makes 90
0
at this point. The opposing
force is equal
F = Q (V
1
o) = A
e
V
1
x V
1
= A
e
V
1
2


Where A
e
is net impeller eye area and V
1
is the velocity of flow through the
impeller eye. When the axial thrust can be safely carried by a thrust bearing
this is the most efficient way to take care of it otherwise some means should
be provided to reduce the thrust on the bearing. This can be done only at the
expense of pump efficiency.
There are two methods, which are employed to reduce or eliminate axial
thrust in single stage pumps. In the first a chamber on the back of the impeller
is provided with a closely fitted set of wearing rings, and suction pressure is
admitted to this chamber either by drilling holes through the impeller back
shroud into the eye or by providing a special channel connecting the
balancing chamber to the suction nozzle.
In the 2
nd
method, radial ribs are used on the back shroud to reduce pressure
in the space between impeller and the pump casing. It is evident that the first
method doubles the leakage loss of the pump, which in turn, increases as
wearing rings are worn. The second method requires some additional power
however, does not change with time. In addition it is cheaper and more
effective than the first method.
Balancing with Radial Ribs

Figure shows the pressure distribution between the impeller shroud and the
casing walls for an impeller with radial back ribs. All the pressure are taken
above the suction pressure the axial forces on the impeller shrouds are
represented by volumes enclosed by the surfaces of revolution. ABCD on the
front shroud and ABEF on the back shroud. The unbalanced axial thrust on
the back shroud is equal to volume CDEF.
The pressure distribution in the space between the impeller shrouds is based
on the assumption that the angular velocity of rotation of the liquid in this
space is equal to one half that of the impeller. This has been confirmed by
tests by Stepanoff. To balance the axial thrust T radial ribs are provided on
the back shroud with these ribs closely fitted to the casing walls the liquid will
rotate approximately with full impeller angular velocity. This will further reduce
the pressure on the impeller back shroud over the area A
R
determined by the
diameter of the radial ribs. The reduction of the axial forces on the back
shroud is given by the volume GFKG.
Radial thrust:
The pressure on the inlet circumference of volute casing is not same
everywhere even at the normal discharge of the pump owing to the pressure
difference acting on the side elevation of the cylindrical surface of the impeller
there exist an unbalanced radial force. This force is called radial thrust.
It causes additional deflection of the shaft; wear in bearings, and leakage
from glands.
The non-uniform pressure distribution is caused by eddying and back
flow at the beginning of the volume; near the tongue.
Unequal pressure on the inner wall of the volute, and hence periphery
of the impeller causes the delivery to very around the circumference of
the impeller.
Radial thrust can be calculated by equation
T
r
= K
r
PD
2
B
2

Where K
r
= experimental coefficient
P = pressure generated by impeller
D
2
= impeller diameter, B
2
= breadth of impeller

Balancing radial thrust:
Double volutes are used for balancing radial thrust in single stage
pumps.
Employing circular casing in which part of the casing is of constant
cross section while the remainder has volute shape may also reduce
the thrust
The use of the diffuser ring also reduces the radial thrust.
In multistage pumps with volute casing the radial thrust in balanced by
rotating the odd volutes through 180
0
in relation to the even ones.
NPSH & CAVITATION
Net positive suction head
In order for a pump to deliver the necessary flow enough oil must enter the
Suction line of the pump. This is generally no problem when the pump is
mounted below the fluid level and there is no restrictions to the flow of fluid
this is called Flooded Suction. This means that the pump needs to supply a
minimum of energy to draw the fluid into the inlet. Gravity causes the fluid to
enter the inlet but what happens when a pump is mounted on top of the
reservoir?
With the pump on top of the reservoir, energy must be exerted on the
fluid in order to draw it into the pump. This energy will be in the form of lower
than atmospheric pressure (vacuum) induced at the inlet side of the pump.
This is needed for the following reason.
In order to have flow, a pressure drop must exist. In figure below flow
will exist from left to right, because the pressure at the gauge on the right is
lower than that on the left.
With the pump on top of the reservoir the following representation can be
made.
In order for flow to exist, the gauge at the pump must be lower than 10.3 mwc.
The pump is quite capable of lowering this pressure, but it must not use an
excessive amount of this energy drawing the fluid in to the inlet.
Pump uses this lowering of pressure at the inlet to accomplish two phases.
Phase I: Supplying the liquid to the inlet
Phase II: NPSH: Accelerating the liquid and filling the rapidly moving rotating
group.
NPSH is dependant on the type, the displacement and the RPM of the pump.
Phase I is dependent on the size, height and configuration of the inlet line.
The largest portion of the energy available on the suction side of the pump is
used in accelerating the liquid into the pump cavities. However the action of
supplying the pump with liquid takes first. If too much is used in this phase,
not enough energy is left to accelerate the liquid into the rotating group. This
may cause the flow to the pump to diminish and pump failure will probably
follow due to cavitation. To avoid destroying the pump, we must control the
inlet conditions; first one must consider the maximum energy available for the
two phases.
The maximum energy a pump can deliver for phase I and NSPH is the
atmospheric pressure available at the site where the pump is being used. This
is because the pump can at best achieve on almost perfect vacuum at its
inlet. We must now proportion this energy between phase (1) and NPSH.
e.g. Inlet conditions: Not to exceed 2.4 mwc, vacuum (on petroleum base
fluids)
This means NPSH must be at least
NPSH = Atm pr.- inlet pr
= 10.3 mwc - 2.4 mwc
= 7.9 mwc
Cavitation
The term cavitation refers to conditions within the pump where, owing to
a local pressure drop, cavities filled with water vapour are formed; these
cavities collapse as soon as the vapour bubbles reach regions of higher
pressure on their way through the pump.
In order to form such vapour cavities, the pressure first has to drop to the
vapour pressure corresponding to the prevailing water temperature.
The cavitation can appear along stationary parts of hydraulic machine or
along a moving vane, as in centrifugal pump impellers.
The reduction of absolute pressure to that of vapour pressure may be either
general for the whole system or merely local.
A general pressure drop (system) may be produced by:
An increase in static suction lift
A decrease in atmospheric pressure with the rise in altitude
A decrease in the absolute pressure of the system, as in the case of
pumping from vessels under vacuum
An increase in the temperature of the pumping liquid

A local decrease in pressure may occur because of
An increase in velocity by speeding up by the pump
Separation and contraction of flow
Deviation of streamlines from their normal trajectory, as in case of
taking turn or passing obstruction to the flo
Signs of cavitation:
Noise and vibration
This is caused by the sudden collapse of vapour bubbles as soon as they
reach the high-pressure zones within the pump; the bigger the pump, the
greater the noise and vibration. Noise and vibration are present in all pumps
to a varying degree when they are operated at points far removed from the
b.e.p because of a bad angle of attack at the entrance to the impeller.
Drop in head-capacity and efficiency curves
This appears in varying degrees with pumps of different specific speeds. With
low specific speed pumps, the head capacity, the efficiency and the power
curves drop off suddenly when Q is increased to the point where cavitation is
reached. With higher specific speeds pumps, however, the head-capacity and
efficiency curves begin to drop along the whole range gradually before the
point of sudden break-off is reached. The degree of drop in the head-capacity
and efficiency curves depends on the specific speed and the suction
pressure, increasing for higher specific speed and lower suction pressure.
The difference in the behavior of pumps of different specific speeds results
from the difference in the impeller design. Low specific speed impeller vanes
form a different channel, the length of which depends on the vane angles, the
number of



vanes, and the ratio of the impeller eye diameter D
1
to the impeller outside
diameter D
2
(Fig a above). When the pressure at the impeller eye reaches the
vapor pressure, usually on the back side of the vane entrance tips, it extends
very rapidly across the whole width of the channel, A-B, Fig (a) with a small
increase in capacity and decrease in head. A further drop in the discharge
pressure does not produce any more flow because the pressure differential
moving water to impeller eye cannot be increased any more. This differential
is fixed by suction pressure outside the pump, and the vapor pressure across
the whole channel between any two vanes at th impeller entrance.
With high specific speed impellers, the channel between two vanes is
wider and shorter; see Fig (b) above more drop in head and a greater
increase in capacity are required to extend the vapor pressure zone across
the whole channel. Therefore, the drop in the head capacity curve extends
through a wider range before the sudden break-off occurs. With propeller
pumps the vanes do not overlap; see Fig. (c). Therefore, although the low
pressure zone extends when the pump head is reduced, there always parts of
the channel which remain at pressures higher than vapor pressure and the
flow through the impeller will steadily increase even though cavitation has
definitely set in.
In multistage pumps cavitation affects only the first stage; therefore
the drop in head capacity and efficiency is less pronounced than in a single-
stage pump. The cut-off capacity is determined by the first stage.
Impeller vane pitting and corrosion fatigue failure of metals
If a pump is operated under cavitation conditions for a sufficient length of
time, impeller vane pitting appears, the amount of metal lost depending on the
material in the impeller and degree of cavitation. Foettinger showed very
conclusively that vane pitting is caused solely by the mechanical action of
collapsing vapour bubbles, and that electrolytic and chemical action is entirely
insignificant in this process. He proved this by producing cavitation in a
venturi-shaped channel made of neutral glass, which was pitted in the same
manner as the metal in a centrifugal pump or water turbine impeller vanes. If
electrolytic or chemical action is active, it should affect all the parts of the
same material and not only the spots subject to cavitational water hammer.
There seems to be no correlation between the hardness and the cavitation
erosion of metals, but apparently the molecular size and the viscosity of
liquids play an important part in cavitation pitting.
Cavitation pitting should be distinguished from corrosion and erosion. The
first is caused exclusively by chemical and electrolytic action of the pumped
liquids; the second is the wearing away of the metal parts in a pump by
foreign bodies carried by the pumped liquids, such as sand, grit, coke, and
coal. There is no difficulty in distinguishing these three kinds of pitting by the
appearance of the attacked parts and their location in the water passages of
the pump.
FIELD TROUBLES
Pump does not deliver liquid:
Pump not primed
Pump or suction pipe not completely filled with liquid
Suction lift too high
Suction pressure very near to vapour pressure
Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
Speed too low
Total head of system higher than design head of pump
Wrong direction of rotation
Insufficient capacity delivered:
Pump or suction pipe not completely filled with liquid
Suction lift too high
Suction pressure very near to vapour pressure
Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
Speed too low
Total head of system higher than design head of pump
Excessive amount of air or gas in liquid
Air pocket in suction line
Air leaks into suction line
Air leak into pump through stuffing boxes
Foot valve too small
Foot valve partially clogged
Viscosity of liquid differs from that for which design
Parallel operation of pumps unsuitable for such operation.
Wearing rings worn
Impeller damage
Pump requires excessive power:
Speed too high
Wrong direction of rotation
Total head of the system higher than design head
Total head of the system lower than design head
Specific gravity of liquid different from design
Viscosity of liquid different
Misalignment
Shaft bent
Wearing rings worn
Packing improperly installed
Incorrect type of packing for operating conditions
Gland too tight, resulting in no flow of liquid to lubricate packing
Pump loses prime after starting:
Excessive amount of air or gas in liquid
Air leak into pump through stuffing boxes
Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
Pump or suction pipe not completely filled with liquid
Air pocket in the suction line
Suction lift too high
Air leaks into suction line
Pump vibrates or noisy:
Suction lift too high
Operation at very low capacity
Insufficient margin between suction pressure and vapour pressure
Pump or suction pipe not completely filled with liquid
Inlet of suction pipe insufficiently submerged
Foot valve partially clogged
Misalignment
Shaft bent
Bearings worn
Shaft running off-center because of worn bearings or misalignment
Foundations not rigid
Rotating part rubbing on stationary part
Rotor out of balance, resulting in vibration
Excessive grease or oil in bearing housing
Dirt getting into bearings
Rusting of bearings due to water getting into housing
Excessive thrust caused by a mechanical failure inside the pump or by
the failure of hydraulic balancing device, if any
Insufficient pressure developed:
Excessive amount of air or gas in liquid
Speed too low
Wrong direction of rotation
Total head of the system higher than design head
Wearing rings worn
Impeller damaged
Casing gasket defective
Stuffing box leaks excessively:
Misalignment
Shaft bent
Shaft or shaft sleeves worn or scored at the packing
Packing improperly installed
Incorrect type of packing for operating conditions
Shaft running off-center because of worn bearings or misalignment
Rotor out of balance, resulting in vibration
Gland too tight, resulting in no flow of liquid to lubricate packing
Dirt or grit in sealing liquid leading to scoring of shaft or shaft sleeve
Pump overheats and seizes:
Pump not primed
Insufficient margin between suction pressure and vapour pressure
Operation at very low capacity
Misalignment
Rotating part rubbing on stationary part
Bearings worn
Shaft running off-center because of worn bearings or misalignment
Rotor out of balance, resulting in vibration
Excessive thrust caused by a mechanical failure inside the pump or by
the failure of hydraulic balancing device, if any