Design Study of Grain Dryer

Design & Study of Grain Dryer
CHAPTER - I
INTRODUCTION
I) HISTORY & IMPORTANCE OF DRYING India produces about 150 million tonnes of food grains per year. The major components of production are 47 million tonnes of wheat, 64 million tonnes of rice, and 13 million tonnes of pulses (Anon. 1987). Due to technological advances in agriculture and the introduction of high-yielding varieties, this may increase. From this production, an average 10% is lost during postharvest operations between the field and consume. This means that about 15 million tonnes of food grain, valued at about $A240 million (Indian Rupees 10,800 million) goes to waste. The major share of the loss occurs during storage of surplus stock. Among the various causes of losses, the most important one is improper drying before storage. The preservation of agricultural produce by drying is a long-established technique. Sun drying in the open, on mud-plastered or concrete floors, is the conventional method of drying grain and also cash crops like chillies, and plantation and horticultural crops. The drying time required in the open sun for these crops ranges from 5 to 45 days depending upon the crop to be dried. Unfavourable weather conditions are likely to occur during the drying period and degradation in quality of the final produce therefore becomes unavoidable. It is well-known that deterioration in quality caused by improper drying cannot be eliminated until improved drying systems based on mechanical dryers have been adopted. However, for many reasons, these systems have not been adopted. The main reason that is encountered is a lack of organizational or government incentive to the farmer to deliver a quality product that might command a premium price. This results in not only a negative attitude, but also leads to the overall quality of the product gathered at market points being alarmingly poor.
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A second important reason for not using dryers is their high initial costs. Most of the commercially available dryers are designed to suit the needs of the processing industry and their output capacity is therefore far above the needs of individuals, or even of farmer groups. An awareness of availability of dryers and of their use and advantages in drying food grain for better storage and marketing is lacking among crop growers. The main reason for this is inadequate extension programs. So far, extension agencies have concentrated on increasing production. The time has now come to see that grain saved is equivalent to grain produced. High technology has led to production targets being achieved, but much less attention has been given to minimising losses, which have remained constant since the beginning of the 'Green Revolution'. Annual postproduction losses by crop in India, expressed as a percentage of total production, are estimated to be as follows: wheat, 8%; paddy, 11%; pulses, 9.5%; and all food grains, 9.3%. Commercial use of dryers Dryers are used extensively in grain processing industries such as rice milling, pulse milling, and oil extraction. Here the need for dryers has been realised not only for proper storage of stock but also for timeliness of subsequent operations where wetting of grain and redrying are involved. In the case of the rice milling industry, parboiling of rice is a common practice. The population of the coastal belt of the country consumes parboiled rice and about 70% of production is processed in this manner. The paddy is soaked in water for variable lengths of time depending on the process used and is then steaming. High moisture content (m.c.) paddy is dried to 12-14% m.c. for milling. There are about 100 000 rice mills with a total installed capacity of about 40 000 tonnes of paddy per hour. About 30000 dryers of 1-2 t/h drying capacity are in use in the industry. The most commonly used dryer is the LSU type in which air is heated for drying by burning rice hulls. The steam requirement for drying is 21.3% of the total steam produced in the boiler, which consumes about 4% of the total power required by the mill. In this type of dryer, the grain is
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tempered for 30 minutes after every hour of drying so to equilibrate the moisture and avoid stress cracking in further milling operations. Dryers are also used in the pulse milling industry. Here both LSU-type and flat-bed perforated-floor dryers are well, ranging in capacity from 1-4 t/h. There are about 4000 pulse mills in India having an average processing capacity of 10-20 t/day. Dryers are required in industry for the following reasons: To dry the stock purchased from market before storing it; and To dry the grain which has become wet during processing. In the LSU-type dryer, steam is used as the heating source, while in the flatbed dryers, light diesel oil is used, fuel consumption being 7-12 lt/h One such commercial dryer. It consists of a drying tray or platform, an oil-fired burner, and an air blower. The cost of a 3 t/h dryer is about SA13 500. Use of dryers at farmer level About 70% of total grain production in India is retained at farmer level: only 30% is sold on the open market. This means that a sizeable quantity of about 105 million tonnes is kept by farmers. The losses here, though perhaps not felt by individuals, on a collective basis have a substantial impact on the country. It is therefore essential that drying technology be disseminated to this group which is a major custodian of the nation's grain. To promote the use of dryers in rural areas, the concept of a community drying-cum storage system was put forward by T.P. Ojha in 1984. He suggested that changes in ecological balances and the introduction of high- yielding varieties of field crops necessitated the use of mechanical dryers and other devices to protect the food grains from spoilage due to untimely rains. If rain-soaked food grains are not dried properly, farmers have to sell their excess stocks at low prices to meet urgent financial needs. A community drying-cum-storage centre would therefore serve them well by way of protecting the grain from spoilage and also by advancing temporary loans on their grain deposits. As soon as grain prices stabilise, stocks can be sold and payments can be made to the farmers after deducting dues such as rental and service
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charges, loans paid, and interest on advances. Such a system would no doubt benefit farmers. They would not be required to make forced sales of their produce and, as a result, storage losses would be minimised. For such complexes, selection of a dryer of the correct design is very important. The large capacity dryers used in grain-processing industries are not economical or feasible for most farmer groups. In India, the average village has a population of about 1000 and the small amount of surplus grain available for drying at this level suits dryers of 2-4 t/day capacity operating for 60 days per year. In India, many research organizations have developed, or are currently developing dryers for village groups, but so far with little success. The main considerations for selection of a grain dryer suited to this level are: The dryer should be of a size that matches the amount of grain available in a village or a cluster of villages; The dryer's cost should be within the reach of users; It must be simple in construction and operation and easily understandable to users; The dryer should be simple in design so that it is easy for local artisans to repair, and The dryer should be suitable for drying a range of crops. Specific Problems Why there is a tremendous need of dryers ? To Farmers : In year 2002 near about 80% loss of crops like black gram, green gram etc. due to heavy rain at the time of harvesting. If there is a facility of dryers in every village may be at Grampanchayat level, this heavy loss may be eliminated. Sorghum crop :- After total maturity period of sorghum crop. is not harvested for near about one month due to presence of moisture. Normally the problem faced by farmer is that rain comes during this period and sorghum is affected, which results in bad quality as it turns black. Due to this reason, the cost in market is reduced. This loss can be recovered if the dryers are used at this stage.
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After drying farmers can store the grains for a long period and it will send in market at the highest rate. To Dal Mill: In the Dal mill the pulses are dried at different stages. The drying is done on the platform by using solar energy, which is time consuming and large manpower required. So to avoid this the dryers are used in the Dal mills. To Food Corporation of India (FCI) In foreign countries the grains are stored in Silos where there is on line drying of grains but in India grains are stored in bags which is unhealthy. So, by applying dryers, the problems of storage should be overcome. To Industries Different types of dryers are used in following industries 1) Textile industries, paper mills. 2) Plastic and polymer industry. 3) Chemical industries. 4) Food storage plants.
II) CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GRAIN:Grain is a living biological product, which germinates and respires also. The grain is composed of both organic and inorganic substances, such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, fats, water, mineral salts and enzymes. III) EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON QUALITY OF GRAIN. Proteins: - At temperature above 500C denaturation and even coagulation of proteins takes place. As a result, the water absorbing capacity of proteins and their capacity for swelling decreases.
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Starch: - At temperature above 700C and especially in presence of high moisture in the grain, gelatinisation and partial caramelisation of sugars with the formation of caramel may take place which causes deterioration in colour of the product. Fats: - At temperature above 700C, fats may also undergo a partial decomposition resulting in an increase of acid numbers. Vitamins: - The heat sensitive B - vitamins present in the germ and aleurone layer are destroyed at high temperature.
IV) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: The knowledge of physical properties such as shape, size, volume, surface area, density, porosity, colour etc. of different grain is necessary for design of various storing and drying systems. Porosity: - It is the percentage of volume of inter grain space to the total volume of grain bulk. Sphericity: - Sphericity is the ratio of surface area of sphere having same volume as that of particle to the surface area of particle. Coefficient of friction: - The coefficient of friction between granular materials is equal to the tangent of the angle of internal friction and depends upon grain shape, surface characteristics. Angle of repose: - Angle of repose is the angle between base and slope of cone formed on a free vertical fall of the grain mass to a horizontal plane.
V) THERMAL PROPERTIES: The raw foods are subjected to various types of thermal treatment namely, heating, cooling, drying etc. for processing. The change of temperature depends on the thermal properties of the product. Therefore, knowledge of thermal properties namely,
specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity is essential.
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Resistance of grain bed to air flow: In the design of blowers for grain dryers, it is necessary to know resistance exerted by grain bed to the air current blown through it. The resistance is dependent upon i) bed thickness ii) air velocity iii) orientation of the grains and iv) type of grain.
VI) CHANGES IN STORED PRODUCTS There are many changes, which occurs to a product during transportation, handling, storage and preserving. Chemical Changes - The effect of canning upon the minerals, proteins and vitamins of various food products is a large scientific field in itself. In stored hay and grains, changes occur in fat acidity, enzymes, color and vitamins. These changes are influenced greatly by moisture content and temperature, which are often used as a means of indicating the quality of stored products. Respiration and Heating: - In hay, grains, fruit and vegetable products respiration or breathing continues after storage. Heat is produced by respiration process. The quantity of heat produced is greatly influenced by moisture content and temperature of product. Loss of viability or germination often occurs after heating. Movement of air through the products helps to prevent excessive temperature by removing heat and excess moisture. Microorganism: - Changes occurs in the amount of mold and yeast growth in stored product. The changes largely depend upon temperature and moisture. Insects and Rodents: - The population of insects is affected by moisture and temperature of environment of stored product. Ventilation presents a method of controlling growth of insects, but after they get out of control, chemical means are commonly used. VII) LOSSES OF FARM CROPS: The losses of farm crops can be used to indicate the importance of proper harvesting, storage and drying.
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Table 1.1 : Estimated loss of production during harvest and storage.
Product Wheat, oat, rice, barley Corn Cotton Potato Soyabean
Harvesting % 5% 4% 2.5% 7% 5%
Storage % 4.5% 6% 0.25% 8% -
Prevention: _ Maximum loss occurs because of an accumulation of moisture in grain, even though dry when placed in the storage. Two terms are used for preservation of grain through moisture control, drying and aeration. Drying is the procedure used to remove excess moisture from the grain to reduce the moisture to a level acceptable for safe storage or for commercial sale. Drying may be accomplished by using either heated or unheated air. Aeration refers to moving a small amount of air through the grain to cool and ventilate the grain at frequent intervals. The reverse operation, turning refers to moving the grain through the air by transferring the grain from one bin to another. ***
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CHAPTER - II
THEORY OF GRAIN DRYING

Generally the term refers to the removal of relatively small amount of moisture from a solid or nearly solid material by evaporation. Therefore, drying involves both heat and mass transfer operations simultaneously. In convective drying the heat required for
evaporating moisture from the drying product is supplied by the external drying medium, usually air. Because of the basic difference in the characteristics of grains in thin layer and deep bed, the whole grain drying process is divided in to thin layer drying and deep bed drying. I) MOISTURE CONTENT: Usually the moisture content of a substance is expressed in percentage by weight on wet basis. But the moisture content on dry basis is more simple to use in
calculation, as the quantity of moisture at any time is directly proportional to the moisture content on dry basis. The moisture content, m per, wet basis m= Wm 100 Wm + Wd
The moisture content, M, dry basis percent M= Where Wm m 100 = x100 Wd 100 m
Wm = weight of moisture. Wd = weight of bone dry material.
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TABLE 2.1 Approximate moisture content for safe storage % (w.b.) CROP Corn Wheat Barley Sorghum Pea beans Rice Soyabeans II) EMC: FOR SAFE STORAGE FOR ONE YEAR FOR TWO YEAR 13 11 13-14 11-12 13 11 13 10-11 17 13 13 10
Most of agricultural products, specially the food grains absorb moisture from
environment or loose moisture. At a particular condition the moisture content of grain depends upon the temperature and relative humidity of environment. If the vapour pressure of water present in grains is more than the vapour pressure of water vapours in the air, the water present in grain vaporises and diffuses in the atmosphere. Alternatively, if the vapour pressure of water present in grain is less than the atmospheric vapour pressure, grain will absorb moisture from atmosphere. This property of gaining or loosing of moisture as per the atmosphere condition is known as hygroscopicity. The moisture content attained by a grain with respect to a set of atmosphereic temperature and relative humidity is called the EMC. In such condition, the grain moisture is in equilibrium with surrounding air. Methods for determination of EMC. There are two methods for determination of EMC i) Static Method: In the static method, the grain is allowed to come to equilibrium with the surrounding still air without any agitation. This method is time consuming; at high relative humidities mould growth in the grain may take place before equilibrium is reached. ii) Dynamic Method: In the dynamic method, the air is generally mechanically moved. The dynamic method is faster and is thus preferred. The EMC is to be determined under constant relative
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humidity and temperature conditions of air. Generally, a thermostat is used to control the temperature and aqueous acid or salt solution of different concentrations are used to control the relative humidity of air. TABLE 2.2 : Grain equilibrium moisture content, %, Wet basis, Relative humidity, %
GRAIN Paddy Paddy Paddy Wheat white Wheat Wheat Shelled corn (WD) Shelled corn (YD) Shelled corn (YD) Shelled corn (YD) Sorghum Sorghum Sorghum Oats Barley Rye
Humidity Temp0C
10 4.9 5.2 5.1 3.9 4.4 4.1 4.4 5.2
20
30
40 9.8 10 9.4 8.6 7.4 9.8 6.6 5.3 9.1 9.8 1 0.2 9.4 9.1 9.7 9.9
50 1 0.9 1 0.9 1 0.5 1 0.3 9.6 11.2 8.3 6.5 1 0.4 11 11.8 1 0.7 1 0.3 1 0.8 1 0.9
60 12.4 11.9 10.3 11.8 11.5 10.4 12.3 10.2 7.8 11.9 12 12.2 11.6 11.8 12.1 12.2
70 13.5 13.1 12.3 13.7 12.9 11.9 13.9 12.1 9.3 13.9 13.8 13.1 12.7 13 13.5 13.5
80 15.9 14.7 14.3 16 14.3 13.6 15.5 13.9 10.7 15.2 15.8 14.8 14.3 14.9 15.8 15.7
90 19 17.1 16.5 19.7 18.9 17.9 18.8 18.5 19.5 20.6
100 26.3 24.6 21.9 24.1 26.8 -
23 30 44 25 32 49 25 32 49 70 25 32 70 25 25 25
7.3 8.7 7.1 8.5 -
7.5 8.6 5.3 7 6.2
7.2 8.5 5.3 -
6.2 7.6 7.3 8.6 7 6.6 8.7 8
6.6 8.1 7 8.5
7.6 8.7
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III) DETERMINATION OF DRYING CONSTANT: There are two methods of determination of drying constant i) Graphical Method: The drying constant, K can be worked out easily by finding out the slope of the straight line. 1
Moisture Ratio ,M-Me / M0Me
.1
y .01
x .001 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 210 220 Drying Time, Min Graph to calculate drying constant
ii) Half life period method: If the time of one - half response in a drying process be defined as the Number of hours necessary to obtain a moisture content ratio of one-half, then drying equation. M Me = Exp [- K] can be written as Mo Me 1 In 2 = exp[K1 / 2 ] or 1 / 2 = 2 K and 1 In 4 = exp [K 1 / 4 ] or 1 / 4 = 4 K
Therefore, by knowing the values of 1/2 or 1/4, K can be found out.

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IV) DRYING EQUATION:Based on Newtons equation for heating or cooling of solids, a simple drying equation is derived as followsThe Newtons equation isdt = K ( t t e ) d
If the temperature term t is replaced by the moisture term M, then dM = K (M M e ) ......................... d where M = Moisture content (d.b), % = time, hr, Me = EMC, (d.b), % K = drying constant , 1/hr Rearranging the equation (1) dM = Kd M Me Integrating the above equation within proper limits, we get M Me = exp[K] M0 Me or = 1 K In Mo Me M Me
(1)
Mo Me is known as the moisture ratio, M.R. M Me V) THIN LAYER DRYING: Thin layer drying refers to the grain drying process in which all grains are fully exposed to the drying air under constant drying conditions. i.e. at const air temperature and humidity. Generally, up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed (with a recommended grain ratio) is taken as thin layer. All commercial flow dryers are designed on thin layer drying principles. i) Constant rate period: -
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Some crops including cereal grains at high moisture content are dried under constant rate period at the initial period of drying. Falling rate period follows subsequently. As for example, wheat is dried under constant rate period when its moisture content exceeds 72%. In the constant rate period the rate of evaporation under any given set of air condition is independent of the solid and is given set of air condition is essentially the same as the rate of evaporation from a free liquid surface under the same condition. The rate of drying during this period is dependent upon. Difference between the temperature of air and temperature of the wetted surface at constant air velocity and relative humidity. Difference in humidity between air stream and wet surface at constant air velocity and temperature. Air velocity at construction air temperature and humidity. Under adiabatic and controlled drying air conditions, the temperature of wetted surface attains the wet bulb temperature. In the constant rate period drying takes place by surface evaporation and moisture moves by vapour pressure difference. The moisture content at which the drying rate ceases to be constant is known as the critical moisture content of the solid. The average critical moisture content Xc for a given type of material depends upon the surface moisture concentration, bed thickness, rate of drying and characteristics of solids such as shape, size and the drying conditions. ii) Falling - rate period: Cereal grains are usually dried entirely under falling - rate period. The falling rate period enters after the constant drying rate period and corresponds to the drying cycle where all surface is no longer wetted and the wetted surface continually decreases until at the end of this period the surface is dry. The falling rate period is characterised by increasing temperature both at the surface and within the solid. Further more, changes in air velocity have a much smaller effect
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than during the constant rate period. The falling rate period of drying is controlled largely by the product and is dependent upon the movement of moisture within the material from the center to the surface by liquid diffusion and the removal of moisture from the surface of the product. The falling rate period of drying can be divided into two stages (a) Unsaturated surface drying. (b) Drying where the rate of water diffusion within the product is slow and is the controlling factor. Practically all cereal grains are dried under falling rate period if their moisture content is not very high. iii) Remarks on thin layer Drying: None of the theoretical equations represents the drying characteristics of grains accurately over a wide range of moisture and temperature, on account of the following limitations The theoretical drying equations are based on the concept that all grains in thin layer are fully exposed to the drying air under constant drying conditions and dried uniformly. Therefore, there is no gradient in thin layer of grain, which is not true for finite mass depth. The grain drying equation developed from diffusion equations are based on the in correct assumptions that Dv and K are independent of moisture and temperature. It is not possible to choose accurate boundry conditions and shape factors for drying of biological materials. Drying equation developed from Newton equation for heating or cooling does not take into account of the shape of the material. Therefore, the uses of theoretical drying equations are limited. However, if accurate results are not desired and the values of Dv and K are known then the theoretical drying equation can be used and give fairly good results within a limited range of moisture.
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Many empirical drying equation for different cereal grains are found to be useful and frequently used as they give more accurate results in predicting drying characteristics of a particular grain for a certain range of moisture, temperature, air flow rate and relative humidity. A few empirical drying equation are presented below: Becker (1959) proposed the following equation for wheat: MR = 1 - 8.78 (Dv )1/2 + 13.22 (Dv ) For (Dv )1/2 < 0.0104 MR = 0.509 x exp [- 58.4 Dv ] For (Dv )1/2 0.0104 where, Dv = 7.135 e-19944/T Dv = m2/hr, = hr and T = 0K Based on drying equation for planar symmetry Pabis and Henderson (1961) developed the following expression for diffusivity for thin layer drying of corn D v corn = 5.853 x 10-10 exp [-12502/T] on the basis of drying equation for sphere, the following expression for drying constant K corn has been developed K corn = 5.4 x 10-1 exp [- 9041/T] Where k = 1/sec, T = 0K
Moisture content of paddy (%)
VI) DEEP BED DRYING: In deep bed drying all the grains in the dryer are not fully exposed to the same
condition of drying air. The condition of drying air at any point in the grain mass changes with time and at any times it also changes with the depth of the grain bed. over and above the rate of overflow per unit mass of grain is small compared to the thin layer drying of grain. All on farm static bed batch dryers are designed on deep bed drying principle. The condition of drying in deep bed is shown in figure.
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Drying time in hr.
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The drying of grain in deep bin can be taken as the sum of several thin layers. The humidity and temperature of air entering and leaving each layer vary with time depending upon the stage of drying, moisture removed from the dry layer until the equilibrium moisture content is reached. Little moisture is removed, rather a small amount may be added to wet zone until the drying zone reaches it. The volume of drying zone varies with the temperature and humidity of entering air, the moisture content of grain and velocity of air movement. Drying will cease as soon as the product comes in equilibrium with the air. i) Time of advances of drying front The time period taken by the drying front to reach the top of the bin is called the max drying rate period. The time taken by the drying front to reach the top of the bed can be calculated by Wa (M 1 M x ) = A G ( H s H 1 ) 1 100 OR 1 = Wa (M 1 M x ) A G (H S H1 ) 100
Where - M1 = Initial moisture content of grain ( d.b) % Mx = Ave moisture content (d/b) % at the end of the drying front advance at the top. 1 = Time of advance, hour. A = C/s area of dryer, through which air passes, m2
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G = Mass flow rate of dry air, Kg/hr m2 Hs = Humidity of the saturated air leaving the dryer Kg./kg. H1 = Humidity of the air entering in to the dryer, Kg/Kg. wd = Weight of dry grain in the bin, Kg.
ii) Decreasing rate period: As soon as the drying front reaches the top of the bin, the rate of drying. Starts decreasing and is termed as decreasing rate period. The time of drying for this decreasing rate period can be expressed by 1 Mx Me 2 = In K M Me where, 2 = Time of drying during decreasing rate period, hr. Me = Equilibrium moisture content of grain (db) K = Drying constant, 1/hr. M = Average moisture content (db) at the end of decreasing rate period. Mx = Average initial moisture content (db) at the beginning of decreasing period. The total drying time for grains in the bin is Total drying time , = 1 + 2 iii) Remark on deep bed drying: (1) If drying air at high relative humidity and relative low temperature is used, then the total drying time will be very long due to slow rate of drying which may cause spoilage of grains. (2) The correct choice of air flow rate is very imp. (3) Drying air at high temperature cannot be used due to the development of moisture gradients within the grain bed. It leads to non - uniform drying of grain. In general an air temperature of 400C ( 150C rise) is recommended for deep bed drying.
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VII) EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT FACTORS ON THE DRYING PROCESS: The drying rate is depend upon many factors, namely air temperature, air flow rate, relative humidity, exposure time, types, variety and size of grain, initial moisture content, grain depth, etc. of them, first four factors are imp. They are i) Effect of air temperature: The rate of drying increases with the rise of air temperature. equilibrium moisture content falls as air temperature increases. ii) Effect of air velocity: Henderson and pabis found that air rate has no observable effect on thin layer drying of wheat when air flow was turbulent. A/c to them, air flow rate varying from 10cm3/sec/cm2 to 68 cm3/sec/cm2 had no significant effect on the drying rate of wheat. But in case of paddy and corn it has been found that air rate has some effect on rate of drying. iii) Effect of air humidity: When the humidity of air increases the rate of drying decreases. The effect is much smaller in comparison to the effect of temperature changes. iv) Effect of air exposure Time: In the case of intermediate drying, drying rate of grain depends on its exposure time to the drying air in each pass. Total drying time, which is the sum of all exposure times, is dependent upon exposure time. Total drying time reduces as exposure time decreases. *** But the
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CHAPTER - III
METHODS OF GRAIN DRYING

So far, drying systems have not been classified systematically. However, drying methods can be broadly classified on the basis of heat transfer to the wet solid. According to mode of heat transfer, drying methods can be divided in to : (a) Conduction drying (b) Convection drying and (c) radiation drying. There are other methods of drying also, namely dielectric drying, chemical or sorption drying, vaccum drying, freeze drying. Of them, convection drying is commonly used for drying of all types of grain. Conduction Drying: - When the heat for drying is transferred to the wet solid mainly by conduction through a solid surface (metallic) the phenomenon is known as conduction or contact drying. In this method, conduction is the principal mode of heat transfer and the vaporised moisture is removed independently of heating media. characterised by a) Heat transfer to the wet solid takes place by conduction through a solid surface, usually metallic. The source of heat may be hot water, steam, flue gases, hot oil, etc; b) Surface temperature may vary widely; c) Dust and dusty materials can be removed very effectively. Conduction drying can be carried out either continuously or batch wise. Convection Drying :- In this drying, the drying agent ( hot gases ) in contact with wet solid is used to supply heat and carry away the vaporised moisture and the heat is transferred to the wet solid mainly by convection. The characteristics of convection drying are a) Drying is dependent upon the heat transfer from drying agent to wet material. b) Steam heated air, direct flue gases of agricultural waste, etc. can be used as drying agent ; c) Fuel consumption per kg of moisture evaporated is always higher than that of conduction drying. Conduction drying is
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Convection drying is most popular in grain drying. It can be carried out either continuously or batch wise. Convection drying further classified as Natural air drying: - The unheated air as supplied by nature is utilised. Supplemental heat drying: - drying with supplimental heat just sufficient amount of heat (temperature rise 50 to 100 C) only is supplied to drying air. Heated air drying:In heated air drying air is heated to a considerable extent. The natural air drying and drying with supplemental heat method which may require one to four weeks or even more, heated air drying is most useful when large quantity of grain is to be dried within a short time. Radiation drying :Radiation drying is based on the absorption of radiant energy of the sun and its transformation in to heat energy by the grain, sun drying is an example of radiation drying. The effectiveness of sun drying depends upon temperature and relative humidity of the atmospheric air, speed of the wind, type and condition of the grain, etc. Sun drying: Sun drying is the most popular traditional method of drying. A major quantity of grain is still dried by the sun in most of the developing countries. Infra - Red Drying: Infra-red rays can penetrate into the irradiated body to a certain depth and transformed into heat energy, special infra red lamps used as generators in infra red radiation. Radiation dryers have been used in many countries for drying the painted surfaces of machinery, textile industry and food industries. Dielectric drying :In dielectric drying, heat is generated within the solid by placing it in a fixed high frequency current. In this method, substance is heated at the expense of dielectric loss
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factor. The molecules of the substance, placed in a field of high frequency current are polarized and begin to oscillate in accordance with the frequency. The oscillations are accompanied by friction and thus a part of the electric energy is transformed into heat. The main advantage of this method is that the substance is heated with extraordinary rapidity. Chemical drying :Various chemicals such as sodium chloride, calcium propanate, copper sulphate, ferrous sulphate, urea etc have been tried for the preservation of wet paddy of these, common salt has been proved to be effective and convenient. The common salt absorbs moisture from paddy but it cannot penetrate in to endosperm through husk layer. This is unique property of paddy. Sack drying: This method is particularly suitable for drying of small quantity of seed. The grain bags are laid flat over holes cut on the floor of a tunnel system so that heated air can be forced up through the grain from an air chamber underneath. ***
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CHAPTER - IV
GRAIN DRYERS
Grain dryers can be divided in to two broad categories, unheated air dryers and heated air dryers. Different types of grain dryers of both groups have been discussed in this chapter. I) UNHEATED AIR DRYERS: Unheated or natural air-drying is usually performed in the grain storage bin. Natural air-drying is commonly used for on farm drying for a relatively small volume of grains. Either full bin or layer drying system is employed in natural air drying. The period of drying for either system may be as long as several weeks depending on the weather. In layer drying, the bin is filled with a layer of grain at a time and drying, is begun. After the layer is partially dried, other layers of grain are added periodically, perhaps daily with the continuation of drying until the bin is full and whole grain mass is dried. In full bin drying a full bin of grain is dried as a single batch. Then the drying bin is used for storage purposes. The air flow rate provided is relatively low. Though natural air is supposed to be used, an air heating system should be kept so that supplemental heat may be supplied to natural air during rainy seasons. Grain containing moisture more than 20 % should not be dried with natural air. As in natural air drying the grain is aerated and stored in the same unit, the complete installation simply consists of a storage unit equipped with ducts for air distribution and devices for air exhaustion and a blower.
II) HEATED AIR DRYERS :Heated air dryers of different types are as follows. i) Deep bed dryers :- These batch in bin dryers are of large capacities to several hundred tonnes. The most common shapes are round or rectangular. To operate deep bed dryers efficiently following rules may be followed :-
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An air flow rate of 2.94 - 3.92 m3/minute per tonne is recommended. Rates above 3.92 m3/minute per tonne may result in uneven drying and is expensive in operation. If the moisture content of grains is up to 18% the layer depth of grain should be limited to 3 m and for above 18% moisture depth recommended is 2.5m. The net perforated are of the floor should be 15% of total floor area. Air velocity of 300 m/minute through opening is preferable. ii) Flat bed dryer :In the flat bed batch type dryer surface area of dryer is more and depth of drying layer is less. These dryers are of usually 1 - 2 tonne capacity. Grains are spread 0.6 to 1.2 m deep over the perforated floor and dried. advantages are The whole batch is dried quickly. There is less likehood of over drying. Lower air pressure is required to force the drying air. iii) Continues flow dryers :These dryers are columner type in which wet grains flow from the top to bottom of the dryers. These dryers are of two types. 1) Mixing and 2) Non - mixing. 1) Mixing type continuous flow dryers :- When the grains are diverted in the dryer, it is called a mixing type dryer. Drying is accomplished by forcing heated air across the falling layers of grains.
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Fig. Continuous flow dryer (mixing) 1.feed hopper2.exit air 3.plenum chamber 4.dry material outlet Fig. Deep bed dryers. 1. Exit air 2.Wet grain 3. Drying zone 4. Dry grain 5. Blower
The main
Fig. Flat bed dryer 1. Exit air 2. Plenum chamber 3. Blower
24

In mixing dryers, baffles are provided to cause the grains to mix during their downward flow. These dryers use low air flow rates of 50-95m3/min tonne and high drying temperature of 650C Zig-Zag columns enclosed by screens on both sides are used primarily to achieve mixing action during drying process. 2) Non-Mixing dryers :- Baffles are not provided in the column and drying takes place between two parellel screens, 15-25 cm apart. In these dryers high air flow rates of 125-250 m3/min - tonne can be used. Drying air temperature of 540C used in non mixing dryers. iv) Recirculating dryers :In this type, a multipass procedure is used to avoid excessive drying stress. During each pass, the grain are exposed to the heated air for short time ( 15-30 minutes ) and about 1 - 3 % of moisture is removed. Drying temperature is 60 - 800C is used. Drying is faster and effective because of continuous movement of grains during short drying times.
Fig. Recirculatory dryer's 1.elevator 2.tempering bins 3.wet material 4.semidried material 5.conveyor Fig. Continuous flow dryer (non mixing) 1.feed hopper2.plenum chamber 3.exit air 4. dry grain outlet 5.screened grain column
v) L. S. U. dryer :- The design of this continuous dryer was developed at the Lousiana State University called LSU dryer. It is a mixing type continuous flow dryer. The layers alternate between hot air intake and exhaust air outlets and are staggered to provide mixing. The LSU dryer is of high capacity and being used in big commercial rice mills.
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Fig. LSU dryer A' 1.garner 2. duct 3. dry material outlet 4. hopper 5.continuous flow 6.door 7.roof B' 1. Cross section of drying chamber 1. air exhaust 2. air intake
vi) Fluidized bed dryer :It is mainly used for granular material, it also applicable in the drying of solutions, pastes and liquids sprayed on to the fluidized inert bed. The principle of operation of fluidized bed dryer is to be provide sufficient air pressure to fluidize a thin bed of grain/product giving excellent air/grain contact. The drying method is based on ventilating hot air through the bed of product kept on the support grid. When the air velocity becomes higher than the critical fluidization velocity, the bed progressively expands until it reaches a state that of boiling liquid. phenomenon is called fluidization. vii) Rotary Dryer :In commercial rotary dryers the diameter of drum is between 1 to 3 m and length is from 3 to 6 m. It is operated at slight inclination. The drum rotates on its axis. The grain flows downward through the rotating drum and is periodically lifted by
Fig. Continuous flow heated sand medium rotary dryer
This
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inclined flights, then dropped, ensuring good air/grain contact. In small scale rotary dryers, the walls are heated by direct contact with flue gases. viii) Tray dryer :In a tray dryer, many shallow trays are kept one above the other with a gap between in the drying chamber. Try dryer is generally used for drying vegetables. If the heated air is coming from the sides of drying chamber, the trays may not have perforated bottom. Products are kept in thin layers in the trays. ix) Tunnel dryer :It is similar to tray dryer. When the group of trays is moving in a tunnel, the system becomes a tunnel dryer. The flow of heated air in a tunnel dryer may be concurrent or counter current. x) Grain drying in bags :This method is useful to dry grains in small quantities. Method requires large number of unskilled labours and more space is needed. The heated air is forced through the racks and bags. During drying, the bags are inverted at least once to accomplish drying on both sides of the bags. xi) Solar dryers :- Solar drying of agricultural products can be advantageous to sun drying for the farmers of developing nations. Two basic principles are inherent in the operation of solar dryers, firstly solar heating of air and secondly the removal of moisture from the wet material by the heated air.
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Direct dryer (natural convention) 1.exit air2.chimney3.transferable panel4.bamboo5.air intake 6.clear plastic sheet Fig. Fig. Tunnel dryer 1.blower 2. heater 3.trays 4.exit air chimney Fig. Tray dryer 1. exit air 2.blower 3.heater 4. inter space between trays 5.trays 6. plenum chamber
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CHAPTER - V
SELECTION OF GRAIN DRYERS

Many factors are to be considered before the final selection of the most suitable type of dryer for a given application. The selection is little but made difficult by a whole range of dryers in to days market. The commercial dryers are not enough flexible enough to compensate design factors and the problems associated with handling of different types of food materials, which are not taken into consideration previously. For this reason, it is particularly important that all pertinent points be considered and drying tests be conducted before the final selection for particular operation. I) PRELIMINARY DRYER SELECTION : The important factors to be considered in the preliminary selection of a crop dryer are as follows :i) Physico chemical properties of the crop being handled. ii) Drying characters of crop. (1) Type of moisture. (2) Initial, final and equilibrium moisture content. (3) Permissible drying temperature. (4) Drying curves and drying times for different crops with different dryers. iii) Flow of crop to and from the dryer. Quantity to be handled per hour. Continuous or batch generations. Process during drying and subsequent to drying. iv) Product Qualities (a) Colour (b) Flavour (c) Shrinkage
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(d) Contamination (e) Uniformity of drying (f) Decomposition or Conversion of product constituents. (g) Overdrying (h) State of subdivision. (i) Product Temperature (j) Bulk density. (k) Case hardening and (l) Cracking and other desirable qualities of the end products. v) Dust recovery problems. vi) Facilities available at the site of proposed installation. a) Space b) Temperature, humidity, cleanliness of air. c) Availability of fuels. d) Available electric power. e) Permissible Norse, vibration dust or heat losses. f) Source of wed feed g) Exhaust gas outlets.
II) COMPARISON OF DRYERS :The dryers selected are to be evaluated on the basis of drying performance and the cast data. Various drying tests for various crops have to be carried out with the dryers under consideration to determine product characteristics. An approximate cost analysis is also useful for evaluation of dryers.
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III) FINAL SELECTION OF DRYERS. From the results of the drying tests and analysis the final selection of the must suitable dryer can be made. For successful introduction of any grain dryer at farm level, a few additional parts are to be borne is mind in the section and design of grain drying system. They are as follows : The dryer should be of proper size matching with the demand of a farmer ; The price of the dryer should be reasonable. The design of layer should be simple and made of different cheap and locally available materials so that it can be manufactured locality. It should be easy to operate. It should be possible to make the dryer portable if necessary. The operating cast should be minimum solar or furnance (i.e. fired with agricultural waste like hustic shells etc.) air heating system should be introduced in grain drying to minimise the cast of grain drying. The repair and maintenance requirement should be minimum. It should be possible to use the dryer for different grains and to be used as a storage bin later for its maximum utilization. ***
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CHAPTER - VI
DESIGN PROCEDURE OF GRAIN DRYERS

The heated air grain dryers can be divided into three major groups. 1) Static deep bed batch dryers. 2) Continuous - flow - batch dryers. (either mixing or non - mixing type) and 3) Continuous dryer. Grain dryers mainly consist of (a) Drying chamber. (b) Air distribution system. (c) Direct or indirect air heating system. (d) Blower. (e) Control system (if any) and (f) Grain conveying system (for flow dryers) The following important factors are taken into consideration in the design of heated air grain dryers DRYER FACTORS: (a) Size, shape and type of dryer ; (b) Grain feeding rate ; (c) Total drying time ; (d) Air flow pattern and air distribution system; (e) Depth of grain bed in the dryer; and (f) System of cooling grain (if any). AIR FACTORS :(a) Velocity and air flow rate per unit mass of the grain. (b) Temperature and relative humidity's of the heated air and exhaust air. (c) Static pressure of the air at which it is blown and (d) Average ambient conditions.
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GRAIN FACTORS :(a) Type, variety and condition of grain. (b) Initial and final moisture contents of grain. (c) The usage of dried grain and (d) Latent heat of evaporation of grain moisture. HEATING SYSTEM: (a) Type of fuel and rate of fuel supply. (b) Type of burner (for liquid fuel) or type of furnace (for solid fuel) and (c) Type of heat exchanger (for indirect heating system) IMP. DESIGN FACTORS: Following are some of the important design factors (1) Size, shape and type of dryer :Size or capacity of a dryer is decided by the amount and variety of grain to be dried per day or for the whole season. The sizes of dryer are express either in terms of holding capacity of amount of grain to be dried per unit time or the amount of grain passing through the dryer per unit time. Thickness of grain layer exposed to the heated air is generally restricted to room for continuous flow dryers. The designs of the continuous flow dryer are based on thin layer drying principles whereas static batch dryers are designed in deep bed drying principles. Choice of a grain dryers largely depends on the situation. Continuous flow dryers are normally used for commercial purpose whereas static deep bed batch dryers are used for on farm drying. Farm level batch dryers can be made of locally available materials, namely, wood, bamboo, etc. if necessary. But commercial big dryers are made of mild steel sheet, angle iron, channel section supports.
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(2) Calculation of air and heat for heated air dryers i.e. Mass and Heat Balance in grain drying:The air flow rate required for heated air drying systems can be calculated as follows : The rate of air flow required for drying may be calculated by making heat balance. The heated air drying system is represented by :
X1.t.c1
AMB. AIR C1V1t1H1,RH1
HEATER
HEATER AIR t2H1,RH2
EXHAUST AIR
DRYER Wd
t3,H3,RH3
where G = air flow rate, m3/min.
X2,tG2
H1, H2 = humidities of ambient and heated air, kg/kg. H3 = humidity of exhaust air, kg/kg.
RH1, RH2 & RH3 = relative humidities of ambient, heated and exhaust air, respectively, per cent. t1, t2 & t3 = dry bulb temperatures of ambient, heated and exhaust air respectively, 0C. Wd X1, X2 t G1 , t G 2 v1 = total weight of bone dry grain in the dryer, kg. = initial and final moisture contents of grain, kg/kg. = initial and final grain temperatures, 0C. = initial humid volume, m3/kg.
Heat supplied by drying air, qa, kcals : qa = (0.24+0.45 H1) G' (t2 - t3 )
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Where G' = rate of air supply, kg/min. = total drying time, min. Amount of heat required : Heat required for evaporation of moisture from the grain, q1, kcals : q1 = W d ( X1 - X2 ) where, = average value of latent heat of vaporisation of moisture from the grain kcals/kg. Sensible heat required to raise the temperature of the grain and its moisture, q, kcals : q = Wd C g ( t G 2 t G1 ) + Wd C w ( t G1 t G1 )X1 where Cg, Cw = specific heats of grain and water respectively, K cal/kg 0C Therefore q a = q1 + q or G' = (0.24+0.45 H1) (t2 - t3 )
= Wd [(X 1 X 2 ) + C a ( t G 2 t G 2 ) + C w ( t G 2 t G1 ) X1 ]
or
G' =
Wd [(X 1 X 2 ) + C a ( t G 2 t G1 ) + C w ( t G 2 t G1 )X 1 ] (0.24 + 0.45 H 1 ) (t 2 t 3 )
G = G' x v1 where v1 = humid volume.
(3) Calculation of fuel requirement:Fuel consumption : The rate of fuel consumption can be calculated as follows : q'a f = . b . ex .C n
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where f = fuel rate, kg/hr. q'a = total heat required to heat the drying air, kcal/hr. Cn = Calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg of fuel. = efficiency of the heating system. ex = efficiency of the heat exchanger. b = efficiency of the boiler, if any. (4) Design of fan and blowers:Selection/Design of a centrifugal blower For a given set of airflow rate and static pressure, the impeller diameter and width of blower may be calculated as below, 1 Calculate the specific speed (Ns) for the specific static pressure, air flow rate and designed motor speed. Ns = Where, N Q
0 p S.75
rpm
N = speed of motor, rpm Q = air flow rate, cfm ps = static pressure, inches water gauge.
2. From Fig. 6.1 determine the type of air moving unit which would operate at high efficiency, at or near peak efficiency at the calculated specific speed. If more than one type of air moving unit has good efficiency, make the final selection on other factors involved in the application such as relative cost, size and shape of space available and the characteristics of the air flow path. 3. From Table 6.1 find the typical value of pressure coefficient by interpolation, for the type of fan or blower selected and the value of Ns. 4. Calculate the diameter of the impeller.
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= 2.35 10 8 p S N 2d 2
where
= pressure coefficient d = diameter of the impeller, inch
5. Find out the typical value of flow coefficient from table and then calculate the width. 175Q W= Nd 2 Where, = flow coefficient W= width of the impeller, inch
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Table 6.1 Values of specific speeds, typical pressure co-efficient, typical flow coefficient and dimensions of centrifugal blowers
Dimension A B C Specifi c Speed Typical pressure coeff. 1 2.0 1.0 1.4 1.0 0.8 Typical flow coeff. 0.15 0.5 0.75 0.002 0.01 0.10
1.7(D) 1.5(D)
Ns 13,000 1.25W+0.1D 20,000 40,000 4,000
1.4(D) 1.35(D) W+0.1D
8,000 20,000
2.0(D) 1.6(D)
W+0.16D
15,000 30,000 45,000
1.0 0.75 0.5
0.08 0.3 0.5
Fig.6.1 Specific speed vs. static efficiency of various impellers
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A review of manufacturer's literature is done to see that whether blower wheel of calculated dimensions is available. If it is not available, then slightly smaller or larger wheel is selected and the performance requirement is revised. Blower housing:The configuration of the housing considerably affects the performance of a centrifugal blower and thus is as important as the blower wheel. The size of the housing must be considered keeping in view the space available. The standard housing dimensions recommended by the blower manufacturers may be followed to maximise performance of a particular blower wheel. These dimensions are generally given as proportions of wheel diameter and width and so can be determined after the selected procedure is completed. The purpose of
centrifugal blower housing as shown in Fig. 6.2, is to control the air flow from intake to discharge, and in the process, to convert the velocity head into the static pressure head. Pressure conversion is accomplished as the cross-section of the air stream increases in the increasing annular space on the periphery of the blower wheel from cutoff to discharge. Since the amount of pressure conversion is determined by the scroll configuration, the shape of the housing considerably affects air performance. The cutoff eliminates almost all free circulation of air within the housing. Diffuser angle:The increase in annular cross-section in the scroll around a blower wheel is proportional to the developed length of the wheel periphery (Fig 6.3). The angle between the
Fig. 6.2 Housing of centrifugal blower
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developed scroll surface and blower wheel periphery is called the diffuser angle. Wheel diameter and diffuser angle determines the shape and dimensions of the scroll.
Fig. 6.3 Scroll development of a centrifugal blower
The diffuser angle can be determined graphically and expressed in terms of impeller diameter and either the maximum height or maximum width of the housing. Diffuser angle may be given as, H h = 12 M 1 d W w = 12 M 1 d .................................. (1)
..................................
(2)
As shown by above equations, the diffuser angle decreases if either dimensions AE or CG decreases. However it is less sensitive to change in AE. As the diffuser angle increases, the flow rate increases significantly at any particular static pressure. Diffuser angle also affects performance of the blower in a particular system. The diffuser angle generally used as the basis for blower performance data is 10. Although large diffuser angle improve performance, the relative amount of improvement gradually diminishes and the size of the housing with respect to the diameter of the blower wheel becomes too large.
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The housing width may be determined by the following equation M=1.25 W + 0.1 d where, M = housing width W = impeller width d = impeller diameter The optimum diameter is based on a blower wheel mounted close to the inlet ring and minimal clearance between the wheel back plate and side of the housing. If the width of the housing recommended for the standard blower wheel is too large, a narrower housing should be selected. If either dimension AE or CG of the recommended housing is too large for the space available, a housing with a smaller diffuser angle should be selected. The resulting reduction in air flow rate should then be determined and compared to the original requirement. Calculating diffuser angle:The diffuser angle, h, equation (1) may be calculated with dimensions AE equal to the maximum dimension Y of the space available (Fig. 6.3). The diffuser angle, w, equation (2) may be calculated with dimension CG equal to the maximum dimension X of the space available. The smaller of two diffuser angles corresponds to the housing that will fit into the space available for blower. If the calculated diffuser angle is 4 or less, the housing is too tight. If possible, a smaller blower wheel that produces the required air performance at a higher operational speed should be selected. (5) Drying air temperature :Correct choice of drying air temperature for a given type of grain is very imp. as it has effects on the quality of dried product. The highest allowable air temperature for drying of grain depends on the type and condition of grain and the usage of dried grain. The upper limit of drying air temperature for different grain to be used for food, feed and seed purpose are different and are given in following table.
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..................................
(3)
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(6) Grain parameters :The grain factors which affect the rate of drying are as follows : Type, variety and condition of grain. Initial harvest moisture content, final moisture and equilibrium moisture content of the grain. Structure and chemical composition of the kernel, seed, coat, husk etc. and Foreign materials present in the grain. The above stated, factors are therefore to be considered in the design of grain dryers. Table 6.2 : Bulk densities of grain at different moisture contents Grain Paddy Wheat Corn (Shelled ) Barley Sorghum Moisture content % (w.b.) 14.0 18.0 11.0 14.1 13.0 16.2 16.8 10.8 12.0 14.3 Density Kg/m3 587.9 615.2 789.8 756.1 736.9 720.9 592.7 576.7 752.9 752.9
Table 6.3 : Latent Heat of vaporization of grain moisture Grain

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Moisture content
Temperature 0C
Heat of vaporisation 41

Wheat %(w.b.) 13 13 17 17 13 13 17 17 13 13 17 17 38 65 38 65 38 65 38 65 38 65 38 65 38 65 Kcal/kg 629.4 611.6 589.9 573.8 698.8 679.4 644.4 626.1 624.4 606.2 593.3 576.6 576.1 560.0
Corn
Sorghum
Water
Table 6.4 : Specific gravity of cereal grains Grain Rice Wheat Corn Barley Millets Oats Moisture content % (w.b.) 8.6 8.5 6.7 7.5 9.4 10.33 Specific gravity of kernel 1.36 1.41 1.29 1.42 1.11 0.99
Table 6.5 : Thermal properties of cereal grains.

Grain Paddy Wheat Wheat, hard Moisture content %(w.b) 12 15 17 9.2 11.7 12 Temperature range 0C 26.50 to 31.0 Specific heat kcal/kg 0C 0.3934 0.4255 0.4469 0.370 0.367 Thermal conductivity kcal/m hr 0C 0.1198 0.128 Thermal diffusivity m2/hr 0.000414 -
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white Wheat, soft white Corn, yellow dent Oats 13.2 12 15 17 26.6-31.1 0.380 0.415 0.439 0.102 15 14.4 9.8 9.0 to 23.0 8.3 - 23.2 0.391 0.5 0.438 0.116 0.1308 0.000295 0.000338
(7) Air flow pattern and air distribution :Any one of the three systems of airflow namely crosses flow; counter flow and co-current flow can be adopted in flow type grain dryers. Generally cross flow of air is preferred. Double screen and baffle type of columnar dryers have a plannum chamber and L.S.U dryer has inverted V shaped air channels for uniform distribution of air throughout the drying chamber. The deep bed batch dryer has the plenums at the bottom of the graindrying chamber. Aeration system Both propeller and centrifugal types of blowers are used for aeration. Centrifugal blowers may have cither forward-curved or backward-curved blades. The airflow and static pressure requirements for different types of grains and for different depths of grains are given in Table. Air distribution system Sufficient care should be taken in selecting and designing the air distribution System so that .air is uniformly distributed throughout the grain bulk and void pockets are avoided. There are five major systems of air distribution : (a) Perforated floor, (b) Central horizontal duct, (c) Main duct and laterals, and (d) Vertical slatted duct.
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(a) Perforated flow The circular storage bin can be fitted with the perforated false floor through which unheated air is blown. Though the system is suitable for small and medium sized round bins and for small depths of grain, it is used for large rectangular bins and for higher grain depths as well. (b) Central horizontal duct This system is used in the quonset type units. This type of duct with openings in the wall can distribute air more uniformly through the grain bulk. (c) Main duct and laterals The system -of main duct and laterals is most commonly used and is adopted in ground, square and rectangular bins. The laterals are open at the bottom and raised off the floor of .the bin so that the air can flow through the mass. The literals are inverted V or U or rectangular in shape and are made of wood or steel or concrete or ferro-cement. The laterals are spaced in accordance with the size of the storage unit, quantity of grain to be aerated or dried and depth of the grain (Figs. 6.4 to 6.6). In round bins the ducts can also be placed in the
Fig form of a6.4 on the bin floor. ring
Fig. 6.7
Fig 6.5
Fig. 6.6 Four common floor layouts for the main duct and lateral in bins
Fig. 6.8
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Fig 6.9
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(d) Vertical ducts This system consists of either a vertical slatted duct or a central vertical perforated tube (Fig.6.7). The air is blown, through the slots or perforations and is spread laterally through the grain mass.
(8) Conveying and Handling System :Bucket elevators, vertical screw lifts for feeding, hopper bottom with proper inclination for grain discharging are commonly used. Forced discharge mechanism with slowly rotating fluted rolls are used for better control of the feed rate and drying rate. Dried grain from the dryer is usually conveyed to different place by belt conveyor or screw conveyor and bucket elevator.
(9) Air Heating System :Generally direct firing system are used for gaseous and liquid fuels and indirect heating system using heat exchangers is employed for solid fuels. But direct flue gas from the husk fired furnace can also be efficiently used for the grain drying. The drying cost can be further reduced by introducing solar - cum - husk fired grain drying system.
Table 6.6 : Approximate Net Heating Values of Various Fuels

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Fuel Density kg/m3 Agricultural Crop residues Bagasse, dry Corn stalks, dry Cotton batting Cottonseed hulls Newspaper Pecan shells Straw Wheat (Straw) Alcohol gas Ethyl (C2H5OH) Methyl (CH3OH) Alcohol - liquid (pure) Ethyl (C2H5OH) 815.3 50.9 6268 26,240 11,280 1.965 1.363 0.122 0.085 6625 5043 27,750 21,115 11,930 9,080 45 4443 3965 3953 4778 4378 4940 3332 4167 18,600 16,600 16,550 20,000 18,330 20,680 13,950 17,445 8,000 7,150 7,114 8,600 7,880 8,890 6,000 7,500 lb/ft3 Kcal/kg Heating Value kJ/kg Btu/lb
Methyl (CH3OH) Coal Anthracite Bituminous
796.1
49.7
4677
19,580
8,420
7112 Specific Gravity=1.121.35 7500
29,772 31.401
12,800 13,500
Semi-bituminous Manufactured briquets Fuel oil No.1 No.2 813.6 863.9 lb/gal 6.79 7.21
8112 7251
33,960 30,355
14,600 13,050
10384 10173
43,473 42,590
18,690 18,310
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No.4 No.5 No.6 Gasoline Kerosene Gas ( CnH2n+2) Natural, methane (CH4 ) Ethane (C2H6) Manufactured Propane (C3H8) Butane (C4H10) Wood 0.680 1.287 0.769 1.924 2.532 932.2 938.2 964.2 736.9 817.2 778 7.83 8.05 6.15 6.82 lb/ft3 0.0424 0.0803 0.048 0.120 0.158 dry 11956 11343 5878 11081 10934 5000 50,055 47,488 24,610 46,390 45,775 20,934 21,520 20,416 10,580 19,944 19,680 9,000 9856 9800 9545 10500 10367 41,263 41,030 39,960 43,960 43,403 17,740 17,640 17,180 18,910 18,600
10) Safety features

Safety Features of Burner Farmers, insurance companies, equipment manufacturers, and equipment dealers are interested in the safe operation of burners used for heated air drying systems. Important considerations of an installation designed for safe operation include the following: (1) a flame control to shut off the fuel supply in the case of ignition failure, (2) a high temperature limit switch which will stop the burner but allow the fan to continue to operate, (3) a temperature control on the bonnet of the burner to prevent overheating of heater, (4) proper electrical wiring connecting the fan and burner to the electric circuit (Fig. 7.3). All units should be designed to "fail safe."
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Fig. 6.10 Automatic control system for a portable dryer heater
There is a tendency to overemphasize the danger of starting a fire from particles of trash getting into the open flame of a heated air dryer operated outside. The velocity of the air passing the flame is so great that straw, chaff, and even cotton lint carried into the airstream do not remain in contact with the flame long enough to ignite, although such a circumstance is not recommended. Safety Features of Installation A properly designed heater can be used in an unsafe manner. Safety features of an installation should include the following: (1) fuel pump and piping located a safe distance from the flame of the burner, (2) the fuel feed line from the tank to the fuel pump protected from mechanical injury, (3) the fuel tank located at least 5 m (16 ft) from the bin and other buildings, (4) oil drums refilled a safe distance from the drying unit or the drying unit shut down when the drums are refilled, (5) separate drying and storage installations provided for safe and efficient grain drying by heated air, (6) if the crop is dried in batches, on wagons, or in a batch bin, drying equipment separated from the main building by 3 m (10 ft), (7) the
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drying unit connected to the bin by a duct of flameproofed canvas or other noncombustible material. Insurance companies may require that a special permit be obtained to install and use a heated air crop dryer. The insurance company representatives will determine if the installation is reasonably safe, and if approved, a permit may be purchased.
CHAPTER - VII
DRYER PERFORMANCE & TESTING

Dryer performance can be expressed in terms of various efficiency factors which are given below :(a) Thermal efficiency :Thermal efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the latent heat of evaporation credited to the heat energy of the fuel charged. Thermal efficiency can be expressed mathematically as follows : dM Wd d q
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where q= 60VA (h 1 h 0 ) v
dM = drying rate, Kg / hr Kg d Wd = weight of dry material, Kg. = latent heat of evaporation, K cal/Kg q = rate of heat flow, K cal /hr V = air rate, m3/min m2 A = area, m2 v = humid volume of air ( at the point of rate measurement ) m3/Kg. h1 and h0 = enthalpy of drying and ambient air K cal/Kg. (b) Heat utilization factor :- (HUF) HUF may be defined as the ratio of temperature decrease due to cooling of the air during drying and the temperature increases due to heating of air. Heat utilised t 1 t 2 HUF = = Heat applied t1t 0 HUF may be more than unity under certain drying conditions. (c) Coefficient of performance :- ( C.O.P.) The COP of a grain dryer is express mathematically as follows :t t COP = 2 0 t1 t 0 where :- t2 = dry bulb temperature of exhaust air, 0C t0 = dry bulb temperature of ambient air, 0C t1 = dry bulb temperature of drying air, 0C (d) Relation Between HUF and COP :HUF = 1 - COP
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Design & Study of Grain Dryer Testing of Grain Dryers

No generalized test procedure can be adopted for all types of grain dryers. The testing method for static deep bed batch dryer cannot be same as that of continuous flow thin layer dryers. It is always preferable that test procedure for each type of dryer be designed separately. However, for convenience, the dryer testing method can be broadly divided into two major heads : simple method and rigorous method. Either of these two methods can be adopted in accordance with the objectives of the test. a) Simple Method A simple test procedure is so designed as to determine the approximate performance of the grain dryer. The simple test procedure for a batch dryer is tabulated as follows :
Table 7.2 : Test Procedure for the Performance of the Static Deep Bed Batch dryer Type and model No. of dryer : Type of grain and variety Grain 1. Initial weight of wet grain (kg) 2. Final weight of dried grain (kg) 3. Initial moisture content (per cent) 4. Final moisture content (per cent) 5. Dryer loading time (hr) 6. Dryer unloading time (hr) Air 1. Air flow rate (maximum) (m3/min) 2. Air flow rate (minimum) (m3/min) 3. Max. static pressure (mm water) 4. Min. static pressure (mm water) 5. Average ambient d.b. temp. ( 0C ) 6. Average ambient w.b. temp. ( 0C) 7. Average heated air d.b. temp. ( 0C ) 8. Average heated air w.b. temp. ( 0C )
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Drying capacity 9. Average exhaust air d.b. temp. ( 0C ) 1. Total drying time (hr) 2. Cooling time (if any) (hr) 3. Total moisture evaporation (kg) 4. Rate of moisture evaporation (kg/hr) 5. Rate of dried grain productions (tonnes/hr) 1. Air heating method (oil fired burner/husk fired furnace/steam heat
Heater and Fuel
exchanger) 2. Type of air heating (direct/indirect) 3. When oil fired burner/husk fired furnance is used (a) type of fuel and cal. value (b) total fuel consumption (kg) (c) rate of fuel consumption (kg/hr) 4. When steam heat exchanger is used (a) incoming steam pressure (kg/cm2) (b) rate of condensate outflow (kg/hr) (c) Temperature of condensate ( 0 C) Power 1. Power consumption for blowing air to burner (KW) 2. Power consumption for pumping oil to burner (KW) 3. Power consumption for blowing heated air (KW) 4. Power consumption for loading and unloading grain (KW) 5. Power consumption for running feed rolls (KW) Quality of dried 1. Germination of grain before drying (per cent) grain 2. Germination after drying (per cent) 3. Head yield before drying (per cent-for paddy) 4. Total yield before drying (per cent) 5. Head yield after drying (per cent) 6. Total yield after drying (per cent) 7. Other quality factors The simple test procedure for continuous flow dryer Besides the test items tabulated in the above. Table, the following items are to be taken into consideration for continuous flow dryers : (1) Moisture content after each pass ( per cent ) (2) Residence time in the dryer for each circulation (hr) ; (3) Number of passes ; (4) Tempering time (hr) ;
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(5) Average rate of moisture reduction or rate of moisture evaporation in each circulation (kg/hr) ; (6) Rate of grain recirculation (tonnes/hr) ; (7) Drying air temperature at each pass ( 0 C) ; (8) Weight of remaining grain in the dryer, elevator, etc.(kg). b) Rigorous method Rigorous test procedures for some batch and continuous flow dryers are given as follows. The whole test procedure can be grouped into the following major heads : (1) Checking of construction ; (2) Drying performance test ; (3) Fan/blower performance test ; (4) Control system performance test ; (5) Handling equipments performance test ; and (6) Checking of different dryer-parts after disassembling (after the drying tests). (1) Checking of Construction The purpose of this test is to ascertain the major dimensions, material of construction and other necessary specifications of the dryer and its accessories. Investigation items: Specifications of : (a) dryer as a whole, (b) drying chamber with air distribution system, (c) blower, (d) heating system and (e) conveying units such as bucket elevator, grain distributor, screw conveyor, belt conveyor, etc. The specifications of the above items have already been discussed earlier. (2) Drying Performance Test The objectives of this test are to determine the drying performance of a dryer on the basis of rate of drying, rate of consumption of fuel and electricity, heat utilisation, quality of the dried grain and other operating conditions. The investigation items have already been tabulated. (3) Blower Performance Test
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The objective of this test is to determine the performance of the fan/blower attached with the dryer. Investigation items : Power input, kw, (b) air flow rate, m3/min., (c) static and total pressure, mm water, (d) static pressure efficiency and (e) vibration, noise and other working conditions of the blower. CHAPTER VIII
SUGGESTED MODELS
DESIGN OF SUGGESTED MODELS FOR DAL MILLS: Case:- Pulses Design a rectangular bin batch dryer having hole capacity of 2.5 tonnes of pulses with 12% w.b. Solution :- Assume the following data. Ambient air temperature = 300C Relative humidity of ambient air = 70 % Initial moisture content of pulses = 17% w.b. Final moisture content of pulses = 12% w.b. Grain inlet temperature = 300C = tG1 Grain Outlet temperature = 700C = tG2 Heated air temperature = 850 = t2 Exhaust air temperature = 400C = t1 Latent heat of water vapour = 600 K cal/Kg (from grain parameters table 6.3) Thickness of grain bed to be dried = 45 cm Bulk density of pulses at 12% w.b.m.c. = 770 kg/m3 (from grain parameters table 6.2) Dimensions of plenum chamber = 8 x 7 = 56 ft2 Drying time = 1 hr
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Assumption specific heat of grain = 0.3934 Kcal/Kg0C parameters table 6.5) Height of the dryer H = height of bin + height of plenum chamber + 3 H = 2.5 + 0.75 + 3 = 6.25 ft Volume of plenum chamber V = 8 x 7 x 0.75 = 42 ft3 Volume of drying chamber 2500 V = = 3.247 m 3 770 = 3.24 10 9 mm 3 Air requirement :- Bone dry paddy = 2500 ( 1 0.12 ) = 2200 Kg m 100 d .b - Initial moisture content = 17% w.b = 100 m = Final moisture content = 12% W.b.= = Weight of moisture evaporated = Weight of bone dry paddy x ( x1 x2) = 2200 ( 0.20482 0.1364 ) = 150.604 Kg From psychrometric chart ( Appendix 1) :Absolute humidity of ambient air = 0.019 Kg/Kg - Humid heat of ambient air
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(from grain
17 100 = 20.482 d.b 100 17 m 100 d .b 100 m 12 100 = 13.64 d.b 100 12
55

S = 0.24 + 0.45 H S = 0.24 + 0.45 x 0.019 S = 0.24855 Kcal/Kg0C Let G be the rate of air supply in Kg/min Heat supplied by the air in 60 min = G. S. ( t2 t1 ) = G (0.24855) (85-40) x 60 = 6.71.085 G Heat Utilised :i) As sensible heat of grain = B. D. grain x Sp. Heat of grain x temperature rise = Wd x Cp9 x ( tG2 tG1 ) = 2200 x 0.3934 x ( 70 30 ) = 34,619.2 Kcal ii) As sensible heat of water = total weight of water x sp.heat of water x temperature rise = Wd (X1) x CPW ( tG2 tG1 ) = 2200 x 0.20482 x 1.0 x ( 7.0 30 ) = 18024.16 K cal iii) As latent heat of water vapour = Water evaporated x latent heat of water = 150.604 x 600 = 90,362.4 Kcal - Total heat utilized = sum of above heats = 34,619.2 + 18,024.16 + 90,362.4 = 143005.76 K cal Suppose heat loss = 10% Net heat required = 143005.76/0.9 = 1,58,896 Kcal.
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Hence, 671.085G = 1,58896 G = 236.774 Kg/min From psychrometric chart humid volume of the ambient air = 0.88 m3/Kg So air required = 236.774 x 0.884 = 209.308 m3/min = 209.308 x 35.34 = 7396.94 = 7397 cfm Static pressure drop - Surface area of plenum chamber = 8 x 7 = 56ft2 - Since maximum 50% area is perforated area through which air passes = 28 ft2 7397 264.18 cfm / ft 2 Air requirement per ft = 28 from shedds curve ( Appendix 2) 60 cfm = 0.7 inch of water per 1 ft grain depth for 264.18 cfm/ft2 = 3.0821 per 1ft grain depth Depth of grain = 1.5 ft 3.0821 18 = 4.62315 inch of water So pressure drop = 12 Packing of grain in bin may cause 50% higher resistance air flow than the values shown Total pressure drop = 6.934725 in of water Add the static pressure drop from the duct and floor, usually about in water if the air velocity is kept at 1,000 fpm or less Total pressure drop = 6.935 + 0.25 = 7.184725 in = 7.185 x 2.54 = 18.25 cm - Density of air = 1.13 Kg/m3
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Pressure drop in terms of air column = 18.25 1000 100 1.13
= 161.5 m
H.P. required Height of air column (m) air flow rate ( kg / min) 4500 161.5 236.774 = 4500 = 8.49 9 hp 10 hp = Heating System :Fuel consumption :Diesel F= = q' a , b ex C n
158896 1 1 41263 / 4.1865 = 16.12 17 Kg / hr Same as above Petrol = 15.13 16 Kg/hr Kerosene = 15.32 16 Kg/hr L.P.G. = 14.33 15 Kg/hr Wood = 31.77 32 Kg/hr Selection/Design of a Centrifugal blower :1) Specific speed (Ns) Ns = N Q rpm Ps 0.75 Where Q = cfm ; Ps = inch Bagase dry = 35.76 36 Kg/hr Cotton batting = 40.19 41 Kg/hr Wheat straw = 38.13 39 Kg/hr
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1440 7397 7.185 0.75 = 28220.85 28221 rpm = = 28221 rpm 2) Figure 6.1 indicates that two types of air units are quite efficient at Ns = 28,221 rpm a forward curved. Centrifugal blower and a backward curved (wide) centrifugal blower. While the forward curved centrifugal blower seems to have a substantially higher static efficiency Table shows that both the pressure and flow coefficient of forward curved centrifugal blower are high. Therefore, a forward curved unit is selected. 3) from Table 6.1 4) Since = 1.5 2.35 108 Ps = N 2d 2 d2 = 2.35 10 8 7.185 (1440) 2 1.5
d = 23.29 24 = 609.6 610 mm 5) from table 6.1 = 0.62 W = 175 Q Nd 2 7397 0.62 1440 ( 23.29) 2
W = 175
W = 2.67 = 67.89 68 mm Blower housing Width of housing = M M = 1.25 W + 0.1 d M = 1.25 x 68 + 0.1 x 610 M = 146 mm Diffuser angle
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146 w = 12 1 610 w = 9.12 10 0 C
Table 8.1 :- Air, fan, heat, fuel, Blower and H.P. requirements for Drying pulses with heated air from different percentage of m. c. & different grain depths
Pulses Capacity 2.5 tonnes/hr
Grain moisture cont-ent % w.b Practica l grain depth, ft Static pressure drop water inch/mm of water 7.19/183 4.079/104 Recommended minimum air flow rate, cfm or m3/min 7397/210 5328/151 Heat required Kcal/hr Fuel consumption , Kg/hr Blower requirement H.P. Required
Ini 17 15
Final 12 12
1.5 1
158896 114497
Diesel-17 Kerosene-16 LPG-15 Diesel-11 Kerosene-10 LPG-9
Ns=28221rpm d=610mm W=68mm Ns=36620rpm d=446mm W=82mm
10 3-5
Suggested Drawing
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Heat output Drying capacity Moisture removing capacity (from initial moisture content of 17) Fuel consumption 1) Diesel 2) Kerosene 3) L.P.G. Power Supply Electric loading Blower motor Fuel pump motor
Kcal/hr kg/hr %/hr
Technical Specification Model 1 1,60,000 2,500 5
Model 2 1,15,000 2,500 3
Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg/hr 415 V 50 Hz HP HP
17 16 15 3 phase 10 0.5
17 10 9 4 wire 3.5 0.5
Cost Estimation
Particulars Burner ( Diesel fired) Heat Exchanger Blower (centrifugal) Blower motor Dryer structure fabrication considering 25% labour cost Unforeseen cost Cost Rs. 40,000 10,000 5,000 15,000 30,000 5000 Prod. cost 1,05,000 Profit 20% 21,000 Selling price 1,26000 61 Reference Quotation (attached ) Local made Local made Standard Local made
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CATALOGUE
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DESIGN OF SUGGESTED MODEL FOR DRYER FOR FARMERS
Case I : SORGHUM Design a rectangular bin batch dryer having holding. Capacity of 2.5 tonnes of paddy with 10% moisture content w.b. Solution: - Assume the following data. Ambient air temperature = 300C Relative humidity of ambient air = 70% Initial moisture content of paddy = 15% w.b. Final moisture content of paddy = 10 % w.b. Grain inlet temperature = 300C = tG1 Grain outlet temperature = 700C = tG2 Heated air temperature = 850C = t2 Exhaust air temperature = 400C = t1 Latent heat of water vapour = 600 Kcal/kg (from grain parameter tables 6.3) Thickness of grain bed to be dried = 45 cm Buck density of paddy grain at 10% moisture = 752.9 kgm3 (from grain parameter tables 6.2) Dimensions of plenum chamber = 8 x 7 = 56 ft2 Drying time = 1 hrs. Assumptions: Specific heat of grain = 0.3934 Kcal/kg0C (from grain parameter tables 6.5) Height of the dryer: H = height of bin and height of plenum chamber H = 1.5 + 0.75 +3 H = 2.25 ft + 3 = 5.25 ft
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Volume of plenum chamber: V = 8 x 7 x 0.75 = 42 ft3 Volume of drying chamber: 2500 = 3.32049409 m 3 752.9 = 3320494cm 3 = 3.32 x10 9 mm 3 Air requirement: Bone dry paddy = 2500 ( 1 0.10 ) = 2250 kg m x 100 Initial moisture content = 15%, w.b. = 100 m = 15 = 17.65 d.b 100 15
V=
Final moisture content = 10%w.b. = 11.111db Weight of moisture evaporated: = wt. of bone dry paddy x (x1-x2) = 2250 (17.65 % - 11.11%) = 2250 (0.1765 0.1111) = 147.06 Kg From psychrometric chart: - ( Appendix 1) Absolute humidity of ambient air = 0.019 Kg/Kg Humid heat of ambient air S = 0.24 + 0.45 H S = 0.24 + 0.45 x 0.019 S = 0.24855 Kcal/Kg0C Let, G be the rate of air supply in Kg/min
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= G.S. ( t2 - t1 ) Co = G (0.24855) (85-40) x 60 = 671.085 G Heat Utilised: i) As sensible heat of grain = S.D. grain x Sp. Heat of grain x temperature rise = Wd x CP9 x (tG2 -tG1) = 2250 x 0.3934 (70-30) = 35406 Kcal ii) A = sensible heat of water = total Wt of water x sp.heat of water x temperature rise = Wd (X1) x CPw (tG2 tG1) = 2250 x 0.1765 x 1.0 x (70-30) = 15885 K cal iii) As latent heat of water vapour = Water evaporated x latent heat of water = 147.06 x 600 = 88236 K cal Total heat utilized = sum of above heats = 35406 + 15885 + 88236 = 1,39,527 K cal Suppose heat loss = 10% Net heat required = If heat loss = 20% Net heat required = 139527 = 1,74,08.75 K cal. 0.8 139527 = 1,55,030 Kcal 0.9
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Hence, 671.085G = 155030 G = 231.013955 kg/min From psychrometric chart humid volume of the ambient air = 0.88 m3/Kg So air required = 231.013955 x 0.884 = 204.22 m3/min = 205 m3/min = 205 x 35.34 = 7244.7 cfm. Static pressure drop:Surface area of plenum chamber = 8 x 7 = 56 ft2 Since maximum 50% area is perforated, area through which air passes = 28 ft2 7244.7 Air requirement per ft2 = = 258.74 cfm/ft2 28 From shedds curve ( Appendix 2 ) static pressure drop For 260 cfm/ft2 = 3 inch of water per 1 ft grain depth. Depth of grain = 1.5 ft. 3 x18 = 4.5 inch of water So pressure drop = 12 - Packing of the grain in bin may cause 50% higher resistance to airflow than the values shown Total pressure drop = 6.75 inch of water - Add the static pressure drop from the duct and floor, usually about in water if the air velocity is kept at 1,000 fpm or less. Total pressure drop = 6.75 + 0.25 = 7 inch of water = 17.78 cm Density of air = 1.13 Kg/m3 17.78 1000 Pressure drop in terms of air column = 100 1.13 = 157.345 m
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H. P. required: = = Height of air column ( m) air flow rate (Kg / min) 4500 157.345 231.013955 4500
= 8.077 9 hp = 10 hp Heating System: Fuel Consumption: f= F= q'a .b ex C n
1,55,030 1 x 1 x 41263 / 4.1865
f = 15.729 16 Kg/hr Using Net heating value F= 155030 1 x 1 x 40785 / 4.1865
F = 15.91 16 Kg/hr
Calculated same as above ---Petrol = 15 Kg/hr Kerosene = 15 Kg/hr L.P.G. = 14Kg/hr Wood = 32 Kg/hr Selection/Design of a Centrifugal blower: 1) Specific Speed (Ns) Ns = N Q Ps 0.75 rpm Bagass (dry) = 35Kg/hr Cotton batting = 40Kg/hr Wheat = 38 Kg/hr
Where N speed of motor rpm = 1440

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- Air flow rate m3/min or cfm Ps = static press m wake gauge or inch. Ns = 1440 7245 7 0..75
Ns = 28481.19 2) Fig 6.1 indicates that two types of air units are quite efficient at Ns = 28451.19 a forward curved centrifugal blower. While the forward curved centrifugal blower seems to have a substantially higher static efficiency Table 6.1 shows that both the pressure and flow coefficient of forward curved centrifugal blower are high. Therefore, a forward curved unit is selected. 3) from Table 6.1 = 1.5 2.35 108 Ps 4) Since = N 2d 2 d2 = d2 = 2.35 103 Ps N 2 2.35 10 3 7 (1440) 2 1.5
d = 22.99 23 d = 584.2 585 mm 5) From Table 6.5 = 0.62 W = 175 W= Q Nd 2
175 7245 0.62 1440 (22.99) 2
W = 2.687 W = 68.246 67 mm
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A review of manufacturers literature is done to see that whether blower wheel of calculated dimensions is available. If it is not available, then slightly smaller or larger wheel is selected and the performance requirement is revised. Blower housing: - Width of housing = M M = 1.25 W + 0.1 d M = 1.25 x 67 + 0.1 x 585 M = 142.25 143 mm Diffuser angle 143 w = 12 1 585 w = 9.067 10 0 TABLE : Air, Fan, Heat, Fuel, blower and H.P. Requirement for drying sorghum grains with heated air from different percentage of M.C. and different grains depths. Sorghum Capacity
Grain moisture cont-ent % w.b Ini 17 15 Final 10 10 Practical grain depth, ft Static pressure drop water inch/mm of water 8.256/2 20 7/178 Recommended minimum air flow rate, cfm or m3/min 9323/264 7245/205 Heat required Kcal/hr Fuel consumption, Kg/hr Blower requirement H.P. Required
Where M = housing width W = impeller width d = impeller diameter
2 1.5
200402 155030
17
10
7/178
5201/148
111771
Diesel -21 L.P.G. -20 Wood - 40 Diesel -21 Wood - 40 cotton Batting -40 Diesel -12 Petrol -11 Cotton Batting -29
Ns-2762 d-640 mm W-69 mm Ns -28482 rpm d-585 mm W-67 mm Ns -24132 rpm d-585 mm W-49 mm
13 10
5-7.5
Case II : Udid or Mug or soyabean
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Design a rectangular bin batch dryer having holding capacity of 2.5 tonnes of Udid or Mug or soyabean with 13% w.b.
Solution: - Assume the following data. Ambient air temperature = 300C Relative humidity of ambient air = 70% Initial moisture content of paddy = 20% w.b. Final moisture content of paddy = 13% w.b. Grain inlet temperature = 300C = tG1 Grain outlet temperature = 700C = tG2 Heated air temperature = 850C = t2 Exhaust air temperature = 400C = t1 Latent heat of water vapour = 600 K Cal/Kg (From grain parameters table 6.3) Thickness of grain bed to be dried = 45 cm Bulk density of paddy grain at 13% w.b.m.c.= 752.9 Kg/m3 parameters table 6.2) Dimensions of plenum chamber = 8 x 7 = 56 ft2 - Drying time = 1 hr Assumption Specific heat of grain = 0.4469 Kcal/Kg0C (From grain parameters table 6.4) - Height of the dryer H = height of bin + height of plenum chamber + 3 H = 1.5 + 0.75 + 3 = 5.25 ft - Volume of plenum chamber V = 8 x 7 x 0.75 = 42 ft3 - Volume of drying chamber V= 2500 = 3.320449409m 3 752.9 = 3.32 10 9 mm 3 73 ( From grain
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Air requirement :Bone dry paddy = 2500 ( 1 0.13 ) = 2175 Kg Initial moisture content = 20% w.b. = = Final moisture content = 13% w.b. = = Weight of moisture evaporated = Weight of bone dry paddy x ( x1 x2 ) = 2175 ( 0.25 0.14943 ) = 218.74 Kg From psychrometric chart :Absolute humidity of ambient air = 0.019 Kg/Kg. Humid heat of ambient air S = 0.24 + 0.45 H S = 0.24 + 0.45 x 0.019 S = 0.24855 Kcal/Kg0C Let G be the rate of air supply in Kg/min Heat supplied by the air in 60 min = G. S. ( t2 t1 ) = G ( 0.24855) (85-40) x 60 = 671.085 G Heat utilised :i) As sensible heat of grain m x 100 d.b 100 m 20 100 = 25 d .b. 100 20 m 100 d .b 100 m
13 x100 = 14.943 d .b 100 13
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= B D. grain x Sp. Heat of grain x temperature rise = W d x Cp9 x ( t G2 tG1 ) = 2175 x 0.4469 x ( 70 30 ) = 38,880.3 K cal ii) As sensible heat of water = total weight of water x Sp. Heat of water x temperature rise = Wd (X1) x Cpw (tG2-tG1) = 2175 x 0.25 x 1.0 x (70 30) = 21,750 K cal iii) As latent heat of water vapour = Water evaporated x latent heat of water = 218.74 x 600 = 13,1244 Kcal - Total heat utilized = sum of above heats = 38,880.3 + 21750 + 131244 = 1918743 1,91,875 K cal Suppose heat loss = 10% 191875 = 2,13,194 Kcal Net heat required = 0.9 Hence 671.0854 = 213194 G = 317.69 Kg/min - from psychrometric chart humid volume of the ambient air = 0.88 m3/Kg So air required = 317.69 x 0.884 = 280.834 m3/min 281 m3/min = 281 x 35.34 = 9925 cfm - Static pressure drop
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Surface area of pleneum chamber = 8 x 7 = 56 ft2 - Since maximum 50% area is perforatged area through which air passes = 28 ft2 Which air passes = 28 ft2 Air requirement per ft2 = 9925 = 354.46 cfm / ft 2 28
from shedds curve ( Appendix)
for 100 cfm/ft2 = 1 inch of water per 1 ft grain depth. for 354.46 cfm/ft2 = 3.55 inch per 1 ft grain depth - Depth of grain = 2.5 ft So pressure drop = 3.55 18 = 5.325 inch of water 12
Packing of the grain in bin may cause 50% higher resistance to airflow than the values shown. Total pressure drop = 7.9875 inch of water
Add the static pressure drop from the duct and floor, usually about in water if the air velocity is kept at 1,000 tpm or less. Total pressure drop = 7.98 + 0.25 = 8.2375 inch of water
- Density of air = 1.13 Kg/m3
= 8.2375 x 2.59 = 20.92325 cm 20.92325 1000 Pressure drop in terms of air column = 100 1.13 = 185.162 m - H. P. required Height of air column (m) x air flow rate (Kg / min) 4500 185.162 317.69 = 4500 = 13.07 hp =
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Heating System :Fuel consumption :Diesel f = q'a 213194 = .b ex C n 1 1 41263 / 4.1865
f = 21.63 22 Kg / hr. Same as above Petrol = 20.30 21 Kg/hr Kerosene = 20.56 21 Kg/hr L. P. G. = 19.23 20Kg/hr Wood = 42.63 43 Kg/hr Selection/Design of a Centrifugal blower :1) Specific Speed (Ns) Ns = N Q Ps 0.75 rpm Where Q - cfm ; Ps - inch Bagase dry = 47.98 48 Kg/hr Cotton Batting = 53.92 54 Kg/hr Wheat = 51.16 = 51.16 52 Kg/hr
Ns =
1440 9925 8.23750.75
Ns = 29,504.019 rpm 2) Figure 6.1 indicates that two types of air units are quite efficient at Ns = 29,504.019 rpm a forward curved. Centrifugal blower and a backward curved (wide) centrifugal blower. While the forward curved centrifugal blower seems to have a substantially higher static efficiency Table shows that both the pressure and flow coefficient of forward curved centrifugal blower are high. Therefore, a forward curved unit is selected. 3) from Table 6.1 4) Since = 1.5 2.35 108 Ps = N 2d 2
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2.35 10 8 8.2375 (1440) 2 1.5 d = 24.94 25" d = 633.66 634mm d2 = 5) from table = 0.62 W = 175 Q Nd 2
9925 0.62 1440 (24.94) 2 W = 3.1276" 80 mm W = 175 Blower housing Width of housing = 14 M = 1.25 W + 0.1 d M = 1.25 x 80 + 0.1 x 634 M = 163.4 164 mm Diffuser angle. 164 w = 12 1 684 w = 8.89 9 0
Table : Air, fan, heat, Fuel, Blower and H.P. requirements for Drying Udid, Mug and Soyabean grains with heated air from different percentage of m.c and different grain depths.
Grain moisture cont-ent % w.b Ini 20 Final 13 Practical grain depth, ft Static pressure drop water inch/mm of water Recommended minimum air flow rate, cfm or m3/min Heat required Kcal/hr Fuel consumption, Kg/hr Blower requirement H.P. Required
1.5
5.325/136
9925/281
2,1319 4
Diesel-22 Wood-43 Wheat straws-52
Ns-29505rpm 15 d-634mm W-80mm
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17 13 1
4.29/109 2.392/61
6605/187 4595/130
142590 98749
15
13
0.667
Diesel-15 Kerosene-14 Wood-29 Wood-20 Bagase-23 Wheat straws -24
Ns-39261rpm 5 d-458mm W-102mm Ns-50750rpm 2 d-342mm W-117mm
Case III : Paddy Design a dryer having holding capacity of 2 tonnes of paddy with 15% m.c.(w.b.) Solution :Assume the following data . Ambient air temperature = 300 = t Relative humidity of ambient air = 70% = H Initial m.c. of paddy = 30% (w.b.) = m1 Final m.c. of paddy = 15% (w.b.) = m2 Grain inlet temperature = tG1 = 300C Grain outlet temperature = tG2 = 700C Heated air temperature = t2 = 850C Exhaust air temperature = t1 = 400C Latent heat of water vapour = 600 Kcal/kg (from grain parameter table - 6.3) Angle of repase = 450 Thickness of grain bed to be dried = 45cm Bulk density of paddy grain at 15% m.c. = 575 Kg/m3 (from grain parameter table - 6.2) Drying time = 3 hrs Assumption specific heat of grain = 0.4 Kcal/Kg0C. (from grain parameter table 6.5)
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- Height of the dryer H = height of bin + height of plenum chamber + 3 H = 1.5 + 0.75 + 3 = 5.25 ft - Volume of plenum chamber V = 8 x 7 x 0.75 = 42 ft3 - Volume of drying chamber V= 2500 = 3.320449409m 3 752.9 = 3.32 10 9 mm 3
Air requirement :Weight Bone dry paddy = Wd = 2000 2000 x15 100
Wd = 1700 Kg Initial moisture content = 30% W.b. M (d.b.) = m x100 100 m 30 x100 100 30
= 42.857 % d.b. (X1) Final moisture content = 15% w.b. = 17.647 % (d.b.) (X2) Weight of moisture evaporated = Weight of bone dry paddy x ( x1 - x2 ) = 1700 ( 0.42857 - 0.17647 ) = 428.57 Kg
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From psychrometric chart (Appendix) Absolute humidity of ambient air = 0.019 Kg/Kg Humid heat of ambient air S = 0.24 + 0.45 H S = 0.24 + 0.45 x 0.019 S = 0.24855 Kcal/Kg0C Let G be the rate of air supply in Kg/min. Heat supplied by the air in 180 minutes = G. S. (t2 - t1) = G ( 0.24855 ) (85 - 40) x 3 x 60 = 2013.255 G Heat utilised i) As sensible heat of grain = B.D. grain weight x specific heat of grain x temperature rise = 1700 x 0.4 x ( 70 - 30 ) = 27200 Kcal ii) As sensible heat of Water = total weight of water x specific heat of water x temperature rise = Wd x (x1) x CDW (+G2 - +G1) = 1700 x 0.42857 x 1.0 x ( 70 - 30 ) = 29142.46 29143 K cal iii) As latent heat of water Vapour
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81

= Water evaporated x latent heat of water = 428.57 x 600 = 2,57,142 K cal Total heat utilised = Sutn of above heats = 27200 + 29143 + 257142 = 3,13,485 KCal Suppose heat loss = 10% 313485 0.9
Net heat required =
= 3,48317 Kcal from heat balance 2013.2554 = 348317 G = 173 Kg/min from psychrometric chart (Appendix - 1) humid volume of the ambient air = 0.88m3/Kg So air required = 173 x 0.884 = 152.94 m3/min 153 m3/min Air required = 5404 CFM Static pressure drop Surface area of planum chamber = 7 x 8 = 56 ft2 50% of the area is perforated, area through which air passes = 28 ft2
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Air requirement per m2 = 5404 28
= 193 cfm/ft2 from shedd's curve (Appendix 2 ) Static pressure drop for 30 cfm/ft2 = 0.6 inch of water per 1 ft. grain depth. for 193 cfm/ft2 = 3.86 inch per 1 ft grain depth. But grain depth is 1.5 ft. = 3.86 x18 12
= 5.79 inch Packing of grain in bin may cause 50 % higher resistance to air flow than the values shown Total pressure drop = 8.685 inch of water Add the static pressure drop from the duct and floor, usually about 1/4 inch of water if the air velocity is kept at 1000 fpm Total pressure drop = 8.685 + 0.25 = 8.935 inch = 22.6949 cm Density of air = 1.13 Kg/m3 Pressure drop in terms of air column = 22.6949 1000 x 100 1.13
= 200.84 m
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H.P. required = Height of air column (m) x air flow rate 4500 200.84 173.0116983 4500
= 7.72 hp 7.5 hp
Heating System :fuel consumption Diesel F= q 'a b ex C n 348317 1 1 41263 / 4.1865
F=
= 35.33 36 Kg = 12 Kg/hr. Same above Petrol = 11 Kg/hr Bagase dry = 25 kg/hr. Cotton batting = 27 Kg/hr Wheat strain = 30 Kg/hr
Kerosene = 11 Kg/hr Wood = 21 Kg/hr
Design of a Centrifugal blower 1) Specific speed (Ns) Ns = N Q rpm Ps 0.75
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84

= 1440 5404 8.935 0.75
= 20483.268 20484 rpm 2) Fig 6.1 indicates that two types of air units are quite efficient at Ns = 28451.19 a
forward curved centrifugal blower. While the forward curved centrifugal blower seems to have a substantially higher static efficiency Table 6.1 shows that both the pressure and flow coefficient of forward curved centrifugal blower are high. Therefore, a forward curved unit is selected. 3) from table 6.1 = 1.5 2.35 10 B Ps N 2d 2 2.35 10 B 8.935 2 d = (1440) 21.5 = 4) Since d = 25.98 2611 = 660 mm 5) from table (6.1) W = 175 = 0.62
Q Nd 2 175 5404 W= 0.62 1440 (25.98) 2 W = 1.57" = 40 mm Blower housing M = 1.25 W + 0.1 d M = 1.25 x 40 + 0.1 x 660 M = 116 mm Diffuse angle
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85

116 1 W = 12 660 W = 9.8 100
TABLE : Air, Fan, Heat, Fuel, blower and H.P. Requirement for drying Paddy with heated air from different percentage of M.C. and different grains depths. Paddy Capacity - 0.67 tonnes/hr
Grain moisture cont-ent % w.b Ini 30 Final 15 Practical grain depth, ft Static pressure drop water inch/mm of water 8.935/227 Recommended minimum air flow rate, cfm or m3/min 5404/153 Heat required Kcal/hr Fuel consumption, Kg/hr Blower requirement H.P. Required
1.5
116106
25
15
4.15/106
3616/103
77716
Diesel -12 Wood - 21 Cotton Batting - 27 Diesel -9 Wood - 16 Bagas - 18 Diesel -6 Wood-9 Cotton Batting -12
Ns-20484 rpm d-660 mm W-40 mm Ns -29781 rpm d-450 mm W-58 mm Ns -43516 rpm d-289 mm W-73 mm
7.5
2-3
20
15
0.667
1.71/44
2042/59
44149
0.5-1
Note :
1) From above table we can say that farmers may use wood, cotton batting, wheat straw as a fuel for drying grains in drying system as it is easily available at free of cost for them.
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86

2) Also industrial user of dryers can use diesel, kerosene, LPG as a fuel for drying system which is economical and efficient for them.
Suggested Drawing
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87
DRYER IN COMPLETE ASSEMBLED CONDITION
Technical Specification Heat output Drying capacity Moisture removing capacity (from initial moisture content of 20) Fuel consumption 1) Kerosene 2) Wood 3) Cotton batting Power Supply Electric loading Blower motor Kcal/hr kg/hr %/hr Model Paddy (3) 44,149 667 5
Kg/hr Kg/hr Kg./hr 240 V 50 Hz single phase HP
5 9 12 0.5 - 1
Cost Estimation
Particulars Burner ( Diesel fired) Blower (centrifugal) Cost Rs. 10,000 3,000
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Blower motor Dryer structure fabrication considering 25% labour cost Unforeseen cost Prod. cost Profit 20% 1,000 5,000 2000 21,000 4,000
Selling price 25,000
CHAPTER IX
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS DAL MILL DRYER

We visited to various dryer users, from their information we compare our suggested models with their running models as follows.
Industry Factors
Manufacturer
R.R. Udyog Thermax ltd
Niranjan Dal mill local made
Bhala Dal mill local made
Geeta Udyog local made
Gajanan Udyog Super thermal engg. works Nagpur. 2.5 10.3 8.1 2.2
Our suggested model
Capacity (tonnes/hr)
2.5 9.1 8.5 0.6
4 9.5 8.6 0.9
3 13.9 8.6 5.3
3 9.4 8.8 0.6
2.5 12 10 2
Sample initial m.c.(%) Sample final m.c.(%) Reduction in moisture (%) Power consumption (Watt) Heat requirement (Kcal) C.O.E.&T.,Akola
7460
7460
7460
7460
7460
2238
1,20,000
1,20,000
1,20,000
1,20,000
1,20,000
50,000
89

Fuel used Fuel consumption (kg/hr) Cost in Lacks 10-12 3.5 12-15 2.5 12-15 2 13-15 2 125 2 5-6 1.25 Diesel Kerosene Kerosene Diesel Coal/wood Diesel,kerosene, LPG, wood.
* Note : By comparing various dryers with our suggested models for reducing 2% m.c. As we seen a comparison of various dryers in Dal mills in the above table 9.1. It is very clear that the available dryers are not efficient. We have tested different samples of pulses before drying and after drying at Dr. P.D.K.V. Akola. We found that moisture removed after drying on an average 1.8% and fuel consumption is of cost 264-336 (Rs./hr) which is very costly as compared our suggested model to Dal Millers. It is very efficient as we can remove 1.8% moisture with fuel
consumption is of cost 192 Rs/hr which is always economical. This is not enough data as we are also saving large power consumption. As available dryer consumes 9698 watts power and we are using 2238 watts of power. Which means that we are saving 80% of powers and it is helpful in reducing operating cost of dryer user. Different Visited Dryers
THERMAX INDIA LTD. AVAILABLE AT R.R. UDYOG, MIDC AKOLA
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THERMAX INDIA LTD. AVAILABLE AT R.R. UDYOG, MIDC AKOLA
KOREAN DRYER AVAILABLE AT PDKV, AKOLA 5
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WOOD FIRED DRYER, AVAILABLE AT GAJANAN UDYOG, MIDC AKOLA .

CHAPTER X
DIFFERENT DRYER MODELS
SUNCUE GRAIN DRYER
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Specification Chart
Item Minimum Capacity Capacity (Maize) Dimensions Overall Ht.(mm) Overall Length (mm) Overall width (mm) Power Consumption Fuel Burner Type Ignition Combustion Fuel Gas Burner Type Ignition Combustion Gas Function Loading Unloading Drying Rate Safety Devices Model NPC 130 13100 KGS 7792 3609 1941 3 phase, 220V/380V/440,50Hz/60Hz 6.5 Kw Gun Type, High pressure spray burning High pressure automatic ignition Max. Combustion 17.5 liter/hour Kerosene or Premium diesel G High Pressure automatic ignition 150000 Kcal/Hr Natural Gas 55 min (Approx) 50 min (Approx) 1.0 ~ 1.5 %/ hour Thermo Over relay, air pressure switch full load buzzer, timer, control fuse, burner alarm, abnormal combustion sensor.
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( Model A ) TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION

Model Cap. Tons/Batch Drying Tray (LxBxH) cm Heat Exchanger (LxDia) max Burner Output Keal/hr Max. single stage burner 1,00,000 Fuel consumption LPH with single stage burner
( Model B )
Blower Cap. CMH
Electric motor HP 440 V 3 Ph. A.C.
Fuel
Model A Model B
305x183x12 2 51x51x18 each tray
2440x760
10-12
244x76x12 2
96,300
8-12
12,000 at 50 mm WGSP 5,000 cfm at 5cms WGSP
7.5
Light oil, diesel oil HSD
CHAPTER - XI
OPTIMUM ACHIEVEMENTS
Ultimate Achievements of this project work Highlighted specific problems of farmers and grain processors. 94
C.O.E.&T.,Akola

At a glance information of effects of temperature on various parameters of grain such as chemical composition proteins, fats, carbohydrates and quality of grain. Provided information about various types of drying methods which can be used in various circumstances. Guidelines for selection of grain dryers, depending on various characteristics and parameter of grain. Provided a simple approach towards designing of grain dryers. Simple approach towards checking of dryer performance. Suggested high performance, low cost model for Dal Mill farmers as a option to costlier imported companies dryers. Our proposed model cost is around is Rs.1.25 lacks while other dryers available in market is 3 to 5 lacks and above. Thirteen solved problems to find out heat and air requirements for particular type of grain. Tables are provided gives information of calorific values of various fuels so that any body can easily fix up the amount of fuel required for particular application. At glance information of air requirement static pressure drop, fuel consumption, blower, HP required in the table is provided to design the drier for various crops in various grain depths. Project work gives information about various models available in market.
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95

CHAPTER - XII
CONCLUSION
There is heavy loss of grain on field which can be avoided by providing simple and low cost (Rs.25000 dryer design to the farmers. This cost Rs.25,000/- in within reach of small farmers. The loss of 10,800 million rupees per year during harvesting of grains can be saved. It is observed that number of dal millers are using local made dryers of low
performance which are not suitable for their purpose. But they are helpless at the cost of reputed company driers. Hence the model and design which we have suggested is high performance, best suited, comparatively low cost and within reach of average dal miler. The design will definitely improve. Cost of fuel and electricity saved by dal miller per season ( if 500 tonnes output ) is approximately Rs 10 lacks considering 200 dal mill in Akola total saving of approximately Rs 20 crores. If high performance dryers with proper design is suggest one can save crores of rupees lost due to excessive power and fuel consumption and definitely our project work gives scientific approach towards designing of high performance dryers matching to the requirements of particular user.
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96
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Elements of Agricultural Engineering. - Dr. Jagdishwar Sahay Design and Storage of Agricultural Crops - C.W. Hall Post Harvest Tech. of Cereal Pulses and Oilseeds - A. Chakraverty Unit Operations of Agricultural Processing - K.M. Sahay - K.K. Singh Unit Operations - McAbey and Smith Seed Processing and Handling. - Handerson and Perry Agricultural Engineers Handbook - C.B. Richey - Paul Jacobson - Carl W. Hall www.osawagro.com
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APPENDIX 1
C.O.E.&T.,Akola
APPENDIX 2
C.O.E.&T.,Akola
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is challenging task to complete the project work. it is difficult to complete the project work without any guide line of respective field persons But we have completed the project,"DESIGN & STUDY OF GRAIN DRYER" under the guidance of our respective guide
Prof. S. K. Patil.
He is not only master person in hydraulic &
pneumatic but also key person in technical field, as he designs & fabricates number of agricultural equipments successfully. We are thankful to our H.O.D.
Prof. C. V. Deshmukh
for his valuable
guidance and encouragement. We are also thankful to all staff members of production department and our friends who help us directly or indirectly in our work. We are kindly thankful to Prof. R.T. Kausal (M.Tech.) Asst. Prof. Seed Tech. Dept. Dr. P.D.K.V., Akola. Also B.Sc. B.Tech. Agriculture Engg. Students giving their valuable knowledge about drying technology. We are also thankful to the firm owners in MIDC Akola; Mr. R.R. Rathi of R.R.Udyog and Mr. Bhala of Gajanan Udyog. Last but not the least Mr. Sachin Shirbhate for co-operating with us for the completion of Project.
PROJECTEES
C.O.E.&T.,Akola
INDEX
Sr. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Particulars Introduction Theory of Grain Drying Methods of Grain Drying Grain Dryers Selection of Grain Dryers Design Procedure of Grain Dryers Dryer Performance and Testing Suggested Models Comparison of Various Dal Mill dryers Different Dryer Models Optimum Achievements Conclusion Bibliography Appendix Page No. 01 09 20 23 28 31 50 55 90 93 96 97 98
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