Chapter 21: The Progressive Era According to these two historians, progressivism could be considered in the broadest sense

as the way in which a whole generation of Americans defined themselves politically and responded to the nations problems at the turn of the century . They then go on to explain that different interest groups made up progressives and that these groups were made up of all classes of people, not just the middle class as thought by others. They say that people only talk about the middle class as progressive is because thats where their leaders are drawn from and are doing it to hold onto their own property, by feeding the lower classes need for change. They argue that it was the only ever national reform and that it was bigger than any other movement in U. S. history. A question is then posed about why progressives sought a common cause with so many different motivations, methods, and results that they achieved. They go on to answer that question by distinguishing the goals of the reform from its rhetoric and results. They then talk about the character of progressive and that they believe it is a distinct set of attitudes toward industrialization, which include a hatred of it yet dependence on it and ironically integration into it. Then the new reform darwinism way of thinking is said to have been an important source of progressives point of view and faith in progress. They then describe the harmonious fusion of science and religion in the movement to create a moralistic view of human behavior that was the important mindset of reformers. They then talk about whether or not it was successful adding lots of complexity including the point that the aims of the progressives were not even close to being reached or that they did not include all the groups that needed specific help during the time period. They counter this by saying that just because progressives aim high does not mean they should be discredited for not reaching it because they achieved so much anyways and that they made improvements that helped all groups. In their final argument for success they tell you that most of the problems they failed to solve are still challenges even today and that no other generation has done better at addressing the problems they faced. Progressivism In accord with progressivism, historian Robert Crunden considered it hard to define saying that it really was just a blanket for several political movements. He defined progressivism in the end as political on the exterior, but religious at the core and an attempt by mainly the middle class to restore the proper protestant moral values to society to balance out capitalistic competition, and democratic processes. He then argues that the resulting environment of the gilded age created a new generation of middle class people who did not know where to apply their protestant moral values. Crunden then makes a connection to the new types of politicians, sciences, arts, and literature, especially muckraking, saying that this is where they channeled their new protestant morals and used them to improve society. He goes into detail on the influence of each new middle class occupation, emphasizing the actual impact of this change the middle class made. He implies that certain occupations created the leaders of certain movements in progressivism such as Woodrow Wilson who led political progressivism and Jane Adams who led social progressivism. Crunden also says that other reforms were highly influenced by the middle class as well because they were in positions of power, whether it was political, economic, through literature or any other reason. He finally lists the future impacts of progressivism and how they were connected such as the income tax or womens vote. Surprisingly he accuses women of electing bad politicians to office in the future and indirectly blaming them for the great depression, implying that he may not have a positive viewpoint on women m

The Progressive movement was a movement that helped to set up many things. Overall, the Progressive Movement was a success. At the time period, many reform movements were occurring at the three levels of the government. At the National level, the effects of the Progressive movement of the United States included support of anti-trust laws, establishment of the Federal Reserve System, lower tariffs, imposition of an income tax, right of women to vote, all citizens to elect senators directly, and prohibition of alcohol. At the states level, effects of the Progressive movement included the secret ballot (privacy in the casting of ballots), initiative (a bill is created by (originates with) the people rather than the legislature), referendum (a public vote on an initiative), and recall (empowers people to remove elected officials from office by popular vote). Minnesota created the first direct primary system in which voters, not political machines, selected the candidates who would run for office in the general election. Most states adopted a form of the direct primary system. At the local level, city government system changed to prevent boss or "machine" rule; city commissions replaced mayors and city councils in some areas and city managers (nonpolitical professional managers) were hired to run small cities. Effects on the local/ municipal level of the United States included structure of city governments, home rule to lowered transit fees, regulating natural monopolies, rid politics of the stench of saloon, and open control of politicians. All of the effects on the Progressive Movement of the United States included some level of wholeness or towards democracy. The people were included more in the elections and the people wanted to be apart of the elections. This is a true step towards Democracy. The Progressive Movement was lead by the Protestants and can be considered as the Third Great Awakening because of the reform movements that the Protestants brought forth. At all levels of the United States, people were on track for a reform. From the progressive presidents of the United States, to the mayors of towns. Different reform movements were going on during the time period, but at all levels, reform movements were in place. Progressivism was the beginning of something greater. Four Amendments came about

Theodore Roosevelt

William Howard Taft

Woodrow Wilson

during this time period and each one had made an immediate and futuristic impact on the United States. Progressivism was truly needed by the United States. Monopolies were starting, if not then had taken over the United States, Progressivism had put a stop to that and had caused the United States to end up on the right track again. In the near future of the United States today, a second progressive era could come about. Like the monopolies that caused 10% to have 90% or the money, today 1% of the citizens of the United States had 99% of the money. The Progressive Era was caused by many discontents caused by the United States around the turn of the century. Today, many discontents are occurring and the United States is starting to go downhill. In the future, a second Progressive Era may occur. Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt was the 26th President of the United States (19011909). He is noted for his exuberant personality, range of interests and achievements, and his leadership of the Progressive Movement, as well as his "cowboy" persona and robust masculinity. He was a leader of the Republican Party and founder of the short-lived Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party of 1912. Before becoming President, he held offices at the city, state, and federal levels. Roosevelt's achievements as a naturalist, explorer, hunter, author, and soldier are as much a part of his fame as any office he held as a politician. In 1901, President William McKinley was assassinated and Roosevelt became President at the age of 42, taking office at the youngest age of any U.S. President in history. Roosevelt attempted to move the Republican Party toward Progressivism, including trust busting and increased regulation of businesses. Roosevelt coined the phrase "Square Deal" to describe his domestic agenda, emphasizing that the average citizen would get a fair share under his policies. As an outdoorsman and naturalist, he promoted the conservation movement. On the world stage, Roosevelt's policies were characterized by his slogan, "Speak softly and carry a big stick". Roosevelt was the force behind the completion of the Panama Canal, sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to demonstrate American power, and negotiated an end to the Russo-Japanese War, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize. Roosevelt was the first American to win the Nobel Prize in any field. Roosevelt declined to run for re-election in 1908. After leaving office, he embarked on a safari to Africa and a tour of Europe. On his return to the U.S., a bitter rift developed between Roosevelt and his anointed successor as president, William Howard Taft. In 1912, Roosevelt attempted to wrest the Republican nomination from Taft, and when he failed, he launched the Bull Moose Party. In the ensuing election, Roosevelt became the only third-party candidate to come in second place, beating Taft but losing to Woodrow Wilson. After the election, Roosevelt embarked on a major expedition to South America; the river on which he traveled now bears his name. He contracted malaria on the trip, which damaged his health, and he died a few years later at the age of 60. Roosevelt has consistently been ranked by scholars as one of the greatest U.S. Presidents. William Howard Taft was the 27th President of the United States (19091913) and later the tenth Chief Justice of the United States. He is the only person to have served in both offices, and along with James Polk, the only president to have also headed another branch of the federal government with the exception of vice-presidents who went on to become president. In his only term, Taft's domestic agenda emphasized trust-busting, civil service reform, strengthening the Interstate Commerce Commission, improving the performance of the postal service, and passage of the Sixteenth Amendment. Abroad, Taft sought to further the economic development of nations in Latin America and Asia through "Dollar Diplomacy", and showed masterful decisiveness and restraint in response to revolt in Mexico. The task oriented Taft was oblivious to the political ramifications of his decisions, often alienated his own key constituencies, and was overwhelmingly defeated in his bid for a second term in the presidential election of 1912. In the Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States Taft receives an aggregate ranking of 22nd. Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913. Running against Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party candidate Theodore Roosevelt and Republican candidate William Howard Taft, Wilson was elected President as a Democrat in 1912. In his first term as President, Wilson persuaded a Democratic Congress to pass major progressive reforms. Historian John Cooper argues that in his first term, Wilson successfully pushed a legislative agenda that few presidents have equaled, and remained unmatched up until the New Deal. This agenda included the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Farm Loan Act and an income tax. Child labor was curtailed by the KeatingOwen Act of 1916, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1918. This act served as an example for the later successful effort in the 1930s. He also had Congress pass the Adamson Act, which imposed an 8-hour workday in various industries, which was eventually approved by the Supreme Court. He also became a major advocate for the women's suffrage amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Much of his agenda

Muckrakers

African Americans

would later serve as an example or a basis of support for the New Deal. Muckrakers were newspaper and magazine writers who wrote in-depth investigations about underhanded schemes in politics and scandalous conditions in factories and slums. The term muckraker is closely associated with reform-oriented journalists who wrote largely for popular magazines, continued a tradition of investigative journalism reporting, and emerged in the United States after 1900 and continued to be influential until World War I, when through a combination of advertising boycotts, dirty tricks and patriotism, the movement, associated with the Progressive Era in the United States, came to an end. Muckrakers are also known for racking up muck. One of the earliest muckrakers was Henry Demarest Lloyd. He wrote a series of articles for the Atlantic monthly attacking the practices of the Standard Oil company. In 1864 it was published in book form as Wealth against commonwealth which fully exposed the corruption and greed of the oil monopoly. Samuel Sidney McClure founded McClures Magazine in 1893, which became a success due to its running of a series of muckraking articles by Lincoln Steffens. According to Fred J. Cook, the muckrakers' journalism resulted in litigation or legislation that had a lasting impact, such as the end of Standard Oil's monopoly over the oil industry, the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906, the creation of the first child labor laws in the United States around 1916. Their reports exposed bribery and corruption at the city and state level, as well as in Congress, that led to reforms and changed election results. "The effect on the soul of the nation was profound. It can hardly be considered an accident that the heyday of the muckrakers coincided with one of America's most yeasty and vigorous periods of ferment. The people of the country were aroused by the corruptions and wrongs of the age -- and it was the muckrakers who informed and aroused them. The results showed in the great wave of progressivism and reform cresting in the remarkable spate of legislation that marked the first administration of Woodrow Wilson from 1913 to 1917. For this, the muckrakers had paved the way." The popularity of muckraking books and magazines began to decline after 1910. This decline was due to the fact that writers were finding more and more difficult to top the sensationalism of previous stories. It was also due to publishers expanding and facing economic pressures form banks and advertisers to tone down how they treated business and also because businesses began to develop the new specialty of public relations as an effect of previous muckraking. African Americans were often discluded from progressive reform, after their social status had declined steady following the Reconstruction and the Plessy vs. Ferguson case that made segregation legal. This time period was also filled with lynchings and progressives refused to help because of racism or focusing on other reforms. Ironically, the progressive era, which was filled with moralistic reforms, was accompanied by a multitude of African American lynchings. They were a large anomaly in the pattern that was progressivism. Their mistreatment during this time led to the formation of civil rights organizations and migration from the racist rural south to the urban north. During the Progressive Era African-Americans were not included in the large array of liberalizing reforms because ironically progressives were focused on helping other groups of society. Race relations were so bad at the time that lynching in the South was becoming more and more common. The reasons for their anomalous exclusion of progressive reforms were that many progressives such as Woodrow Wilson shared in the prejudice of the times and that other reforms were deemed more valuable because they helped the whole or a larger portion of society. Also, the two African-American leaders of the time Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Dubois had dissenting opinions, which split the African-American community and further weakened their reform efforts. Washington believed that economic progress and education would in time lead to political rights, while Dubois thought that political rights needed to be obtained through direct demands believing it was a prerequisite to economic progress and the growth of education. This community of people made a massive migration to the urban areas of the country in the north and away from the south because of deteriorating race relations, destruction of the cotton crop by boll weevil, and job opportunities in northern factories. W. E. B. Dubois also helped organize many civil rights organizations, which would make an impact later in the 20th century, such as the Niagara Movement, the NAACP, and the National Urban League. Definition The progressives goals were limiting the powers of big business, improving democracy, and strengthening social justice. The Progressive Era in the United States Analysis The progressives wanted to limit the power of big business after the growth of Industry had led to the creation of trusts and monopolies that had much control of the industries, prices, and wages, and were responsible for governmental corruption. They hoped to do this by gaining government support for regulatory laws and trust-busting.

Term Goals Of Progressivism

was a period of social activism and political reform that flourished from the 1890s to the 1920s.

Origins of Progressivism

Pragmatism

Many people led efforts to reform local government, education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed, professionalized and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science. In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way to the research professor who published in the new scholarly journals and presses. The national political leaders included Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Charles Evans Hughes and Herbert Hoover on the Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic side. A practical approach to morals, ideas, and knowledge. Pragmatism as a philosophical movement began in the United States in the 1870s. Its direction was determined by The Metaphysical Club members Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, and Chauncey Wright, as well as John Dewey and George Herbert Mead.

They attempted to improve democracy with new practices such as the direct primary, which allowed the voters to nominate candidates, and the direct election of U.S senators, which became the 17th amendment in 1913. One main goal of the Progressive movement was purification of government, as Progressives tried to eliminate corruption by exposing and undercutting political machines and bosses. Many (but not all) Progressives supported prohibition in order to destroy the political power of local bosses based in saloons. At the same time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a "purer" female vote into the arena. A second theme was achieving efficiency in every sector by identifying old ways that needed modernizing, and emphasizing scientific, medical and engineering solutions. The progressive movement has its origins in the state reforms of the 1890s. It acquired national momentum after Theodore Roosevelt became president in 1901. This era lasted through the presidencies of Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson. It ended with the United states entry into world war 1 in 1917, which diverted public attention away from domestic issues. Initially the movement operated chiefly at local levels; later it expanded to state and national levels. Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers and business people. The Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling, theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe and adopted numerous policies, such as the banking laws which became the Federal Reserve System in 1914. They felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the "one best system".

Philosophy of Progressives

The progressives had the philosophies of pragmatism and scientific management. The Progressive Party of 1912 was an American political party. It was formed after a split in the Republican

William James and John Dewey were two of the leading advocates for this new philosophy. They used this new philosophy to define truth in a way that was appealing to many progressives, that good and true could not be know in the abstract but as fixed and changeless ideals. Progressive thinkers adopted this idea because it allowed them to challenge fixed notions, such as laissez-faire theory, which they rejected as impractical. The first use in print of the name pragmatism was in 1898 by James, who credited Peirce with coining the term during the early 1870s. James regarded Peirce's 18778 "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" series (including "The Fixation of Belief", 1877 and especially "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", 1878) as the foundation of pragmatism . Peirce in turn wrote in 1906 that Nicholas St. John Green had been instrumental by emphasizing the importance of applying Alexander Bain's definition of belief, which was "that upon which a man is prepared to act." Peirce wrote that "from this definition, pragmatism is scarce more than a corollary; so that I am disposed to think of him as the grandfather of pragmatism." John Shook has said, "Chauncey Wright also deserves considerable credit, for as both Peirce and James recall, it was Wright who demanded phenomenalist and fallibilist empiricism as an alternative to rationalistic speculation." The philosophy of pragmatism was used by progressives to challenge notions that they felt were unnecessary or impractical such as laissez faire. Scientific management was a theory developed by Frederick W. Taylor. He used a stopwatch to time workers and he found ways of organizing people in the most efficient manner. Progressives then took this theory and applied it to government. They thought that government

Initiative

Party between President William Howard Taft and former President Theodore Roosevelt. The party also became known as the Bull Moose Party when former President Roosevelt boasted "I'm fit as a bull moose," after being shot in an assassination attempt prior to his 1912 campaign speech in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Inspiration for the party's beginnings may have come from Roosevelt's friend and supporter, U.S. Senator Thomas Kearns of Utah, who in October 1906 broke off from the Republican Party and started the American Party in that state. Kearns was a Roman Catholic, and this was a direct response to the influence of the leadership of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints on the Senatorial elections between 1902 to 1905. New political proposal by progressives for forcing legislatures to obey the will of the people. New political proposal by progressives for forcing legislatures to obey the will of the people.

could be made more efficient if it was placed in the hands of experts and scientific managers. Despite these obstacles, the August convention opened with great enthusiasm. Over 2,000 delegates attended, including many women. In 1912, neither the other Republican candidate, President W. H. Taft, or the Democrat Woodrow Wilson, endorsed women's suffrage on the national level. The famed suffragette and social worker Jane Addams gave a seconding speech for Roosevelt's nomination. Roosevelt insisted on excluding black Republicans from the South, whom he regarded a corrupt and ineffective element, but included black delegates from all other areas. Roosevelt went so far as to further alienate southern white supporters on the eve of the election, by publicly dining with blacks at a Rhode Island hotel. Roosevelt was nominated by acclamation, with Johnson as his running mate. The main work of the convention was the platform, which set forth the new party's appeal to the voters. It included a broad range of social and political reforms advocated by progressives.

Referendum

Recall

A recall election (also called a recall referendum or representative recall) is a procedure by which voters can remove an elected official from office through a direct vote, before his or her term has ended. Recalls, which are initiated when sufficient voters sign a petition, have a history dating back to the ancient Athenian democracy, and is a feature of several contemporary constitutions.

Golden Rule Jones

Samuel Milton Jones, a.k.a. "Golden Rule Jones", lived from August 3, 1846 to 1904 and served as a Progressive Era Mayor of Toledo, Ohio from 1897 to 1904 (he died while still in office). Born in Denbighshire, Wales, Jones immigrated to the United States in 1849. Jones had little education because he had to work in order to

The initiative was a method by which voters could compel the legislature to consider a bill. Between 1889 and 1918 20 states, most of them in the west offered the initiative. The initiative illustrates the pattern of Progressives trying to expand the democratic process The referendum was a method that allowed citizens to vote on proposed laws that were printed on the ballots/ This was also adopted by 20 state between 1889 and 1918. The referendum also illustrates how the progressives were trying to obtain their goals through government efforts. It also follows the pattern of progressive measures in government to expand democracy. Along with the initiative, the referendum, and the direct primary, the recall election was one of the major electoral reforms advocated by leaders of the Progressive movement in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, although it was initially proposed in William S. Urens Oregon newspaper. Recall elections do not take place at the federal level. The majority of states allow recall elections in local jurisdictions, but only eighteen states permit recall elections to remove state officials and a nineteenth state, Illinois, allows it for Governors only. The modern day father of the recall is considered to be Dr. John Randolph Haynes, who formed the Direct Legislation League of California in 1900. Los Angeles became the first major city to adopt the recall in 1903. The minimum number of signatures and the time limit to qualify a recall vary between states. In addition, the handling of recalls once they qualify differs. In some states, a recall triggers a simultaneous special election, where the vote on the recall, as well as the vote on the replacement if the recall succeeds, is on the same ballot In 1897 Jones received the Republican nomination for mayor of Toledo. Workers liked his golden rule policy and united behind him, and he won the mayoral election. He strove to improve conditions for the working class of his community. Jones opened free kindergartens, built parks, instituted an eight-hour day for city workers, and reformed the city government. While Jones was not well liked by other businessmen, the average citizen supported him. When his term was over Jones was not re-nominated by the Republicans. He ran anyway, and, with the support of the people, he won a second term in 1899. Jones died suddenly during his second term as mayor on July 12, 1904. His

help his family survive economically.

Secret Ballot

In the United States the practice became known as the "Australian ballot", defined as having four parts: an official ballot being printed at public expense, on which the names of the nominated candidates of all parties and all proposals appear, being distributed only at the polling place, and being marked in secret.

Election of 1912

Booker T Washington

The United States presidential election of 1912 was a rare four-way contest. Incumbent President William Howard Taft was re-nominated by the Republican Party with the support of its conservative wing. After former President Theodore Roosevelt failed to receive the Republican nomination, he called his own convention and created the Progressive Party (nicknamed the "Bull Moose Party"). It nominated Roosevelt and ran candidates for other offices in major states. An influential African American, who was the head of Tuskegee Institute in Alabama and spoke of blacks advance up the social ladder by means of economic progress and education. A northern African-American with a college education who became a distinguished scholar and writer. He demanded equal political rights for blacks, in opposition to the famous Booker T. Washington. Many civil rights organizations formed in the first decade of the 20th century including the Niagara movement, the NAACP, and the national urban league.

W.E.B. Dubois

Civil Rights Organization

16th Amendment

This amendment granted the authority to the federal government

successor, Brand Whitlock, continued Jones' reform efforts. Jones is famous in Toledo for his advocacy of the Golden Rule, hence his nickname. He was an important part of American Progressivism. While he was often mistaken for a socialist, he was not. Jones was a "Single Taxer", as the followers of Henry George were often known In the United States, most states had moved to secret ballots soon after the presidential election of 1884. However, Kentucky was the last state to do so in 1891, when it quit using an oral ballot. Therefore, the first President of the United States elected completely under the Australian ballot was president Grover Cleveland in 1892. The first city to start using Australian ballot in the United States was Louisville, Kentucky. However, the first state to adopt Australian ballot was Massachusetts. Elections in the United States are mostly held by secret ballot, although some states use mail ballots instead, which violate two of the four requirements of the "Australian ballot".[15] The Constitution for the State of West Virginia still allows voters to cast "open ballots". The Secret ballot allowed US citizens to be more direct in the electoral process and helped to move towards democracy. Democrat Woodrow Wilson was finally nominated on the 46th ballot of a contentious convention, thanks to the support of William Jennings Bryan, the three-time Democratic presidential candidate who still had a large and loyal following in 1912. Eugene V. Debs was the nominee of the Socialist Party of America. Wilson defeated Taft, Roosevelt, and Debs in the general election, winning a huge majority in the Electoral College and 42% of the popular vote, while his nearest rival, Roosevelt, won only 27%. Wilson became the only elected president from the Democratic Party between 1892 and 1932. He was the second of only two Democrats to be elected president between 1860 and 1932. This was the last election in which a candidate who was not a Republican or Democrat came second in either the popular vote or the Electoral College and the first election in which all 48 states of the continental United States participated. As a civils rights activist he believed that education and economic process were the best way to gain rights in American society for African-Americans. Him and Dubois had an ongoing debate about whether political or economic rights should be fought for and effectively split the opinion of the African American community, which was caused by their opposing views. He was the most influential African American at the turn of the century. He believed that the best course of social advancement for AfricanAmericans was to fight and protest for their equal rights, in contrast to the point of view of Booker T. These dissenting views led to a debate between these two men and an ineffective pro-black movement because of the split between their two most prominent leaders. He was the source of the formation of both the Niagara movement and NAACP, which became the nations largest civil rights organization. These organizations represent a pattern, within the theme of reform. They were formed by activists such as Dubois, but did little to actually affect reform during the era. W. E.B Dubois helped to lead the Niagara movement which was created in 1905. This group was created with the aim of gaining equal rights and led to the creation of the national Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In 1908 Dubois and members of the Niagara movement met with a group of White activists and created the NAACP. This group was creat6ed to eliminate all forms of segregation and increase educational opportunities for African Americans. This had its origins in the initial populist platform during the 19th century, but was during this era enacted during Tafts presidency

to collect an income tax or anywhere between 1% and 6%. 17th Amendment This amendment required that all United States senators would be elected by a popular vote in 1913.

because of a widening gap between the rich and poor. It was the first of the progressive amendments, and set a precedent for a pattern of Progressive acts and amendments that affected the social order of America. This amendment fits well into the theme of the growing power the people had over the government. Like the 16th amendment, this amendment also had its origins in the populists platform of the 1890s. It was caused by the progressive reformers who believed that the senate was a millionaires club and they needed to sweep away political corruption. With the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment, the Senate ceased being elected by state legislatures, replacing it with a system of popular election; the number of senators remained set at two per state. The Amendment also altered the process for filling vacancies; under the original constitutional provisions, state legislatures filled vacancies when a senator left office unexpectedly; the Seventeenth Amendment provides that state legislatures can grant governors the right to make temporary appointments, which last until a special election is provided to fill the seat. The power to call such an election can also be granted to the governor. Progressive reformers who pushed for temperance and prohibition believed that it would clean up the morals of the city and its politics, which made them the driving force behind this amendment. This followed a progressive pattern of amendments, but unlike the others was never supported by the populists from the previous century. It was the only amendment to ever later be repealed. Demand for liquor continued, and the law resulted in the criminalization of producers, suppliers, transporters and consumers. The police, courts and prisons were overwhelmed with new cases; organized crime increased in power, and corruption extended among law enforcement officials. The amendment was repealed in 1933 by ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment, the only instance in United States history of repeal of a constitutional amendment. It was caused by the womens dedicated efforts on the home front of World War One, which persuaded congress to adopt a womens suffrage amendment and also by the efforts of women progressives before the war. This amendment led the way to other equality rights such as liberalized divorce laws. This was the last of the prohibition amendments and effectively signaled the end to the era of prohibition. This amendment was also part of a theme of increasing democratic participation and people for the people. Following the Nineteenth Amendment's adoption, many legislators feared that a powerful women's bloc would emerge in American politics. This led to the passage of such laws as the SheppardTowner Act of 1921, which expanded maternity care during the 1920s. However, a women's bloc did not emerge in American politics until the 1950s. Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton drafted the amendment and first introduced it in 1878; it was forty-one years later, in 1919, when the Congress submitted the amendment to the states for ratification. A year later, it was ratified by the requisite number of states, with Tennessee's ratification being the final vote needed to add the amendment to the Constitution. The Nineteenth Amendment was unsuccessfully challenged in Leser v. Garnett (1922). In that case, the Supreme Court rejected claims that the amendment was unconstitutionally adopted.

18th Amendment

This amendment, known as prohibition, was granted in 1915 and made alcohol an illegal substance that could not be bought, sold, or drank.

19th Amendment

The 19th amendment was passed in 1920 following world war 1. This was because women took an active role in industry during the war and President Wilson had been convinced to support the movement for their suffrage. Granted Women the right to vote.