Name of Operational Amplifier

Circuit Desciption/ Operation It is a differential voltage gain device that amplifies the difference between voltages existing between its two terminals. Its main purpose is to amplify the small signals that are riding on large common-mode voltages. It characterizes high input impedance, high common-mode rejection ratio, low output offset, and low output impedance.

Application Normally used to measure small differential signal voltages that are superimposed on a commonmode voltage often much larger than the signal voltage. Applications include situations where a quantity is sensed by a remote device such as a temperature-sensitive transducer, and the resulting small electrical signal is sent over a long line subject to electrical noise that produces commonmode voltages in the line. Data Acquisition Medical Instrumentation Control Electronics Software-programmable Applications Audio Applications Video Applications Power Control

Instrumentation Amplifier

The circuit is constructed from a buffered differential amplifier stage with the addition of three resistors linking the two buffer circuits together. Consider all resistors to be of equal value except for Rgain. The negative feedback of the upper-left opamp causes the voltage at point 1 (top of Rgain) to be equal to V1. Likewise, the voltage at point 2 (bottom of Rgain) is held to a value equal to V2. This establishes a voltage drop across Rgain equal to the voltage difference between V1 and V2. That voltage drop causes a current through Rgain, and since the feedback loops of the two input op-amps draw no current, that same amount of current through Rgain must be going through the two "R" resistors above and below it.

The regular differential amplifier on the right-hand side of the circuit then takes this voltage drop between points 3 and 4, and amplifies it by a gain of 1 (assuming again that all "R" resistors are of equal value). We can change the differential gain of the instrumentation amplifier simply by changing the value of Rgain but it also possible to change the overall gain by changing the other resistors but it will require balanced resistor value changes for the circuit to remain symmetrical. Device that exhibits a logarithmic characteristic that when placed in the feedback loop of an opamp, produces a logarithmic response. Logarithmic Amplifiers a. Transdiode The input Voltage is converted by R1 into a current, which then flows through the transistors collector radar IF applications ultrasonic imaging

b. Diode connected

Current Differential Amplifier (CDA) Also known as the Norton Amplifier, CDA is designed to operate from a single supply and can accommodate input common-mode voltages greater than the supply parameters are similar to the conventional op-amp but with the added terms of mirror current or mirror gain

inverting CDA non-inverting CDA

Operational Transconductance Amplifiers (OTA)

The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is an amplifier whose differential input voltage produces an output current. Thus, it is a voltage controlled current source (VCCS). There is usually an additional input for a current to control the amplifier's transconductance. The OTA is similar to a standard operational amplifier in that it has a high impedance differential input stage and that it may be used with negative feedback.

Amplitude modulator Current-feedback amplifier Control-loop amplifier Dc restore circuit Sample-hold circuit Instrumentation amplifier

Voltage - Frequency Conversion

A voltage-to-frequency converter (VFC) is an oscillator whose frequency is linearly proportional to the control voltage. The voltage to frequency (VFC)/counter ADC is monotonic and free of missing codes. It integrates noise and can consume very small amount of power. The voltage to frequency converter (VFC) is also very useful for telemetry applications, since the VFC, which is cheap, small, and low-powered can be mounted on the experimental subject (patient, artillery shell, wild animal, communication etc.) and communicate with the counter by the telemetry link.

Signal isolation Handling bipolar inputs Transducer interface Loop operation Frequency-shift modulators Phased lock loop Wave form generation Long-term analog integration Analog division Temperature-to-frequency conversion Microprocessor interfacing

Frequency - Voltage Conversion

A frequency to voltage converter is a piece of technical equipment that translates currents, frequencies, pulses, and other waveforms into proportional electrical output. The voltage output corresponds to the fluctuations of the input signal. They can modulate frequencies to limit output, usually expressed in volts (v), volts direct, or alternating current. This equipment is often employed in electromechanical contexts, as in evaluation of the responsiveness of vehicle engine or safety components

High-voltage analog signal isolation Analog-to-Digital Application that requires measurement of a repeating event, such as a wheel making a complete rotation. For the robot, this could be used in place of the current encoders to measure velocity.

A phase-locked loop (PLL) is a closed-loop frequency-control system based on the phase difference between the input clock signal and the feedback clock signal of a controlled oscillator. Phase Locked Loop

The operation of this circuit is typical of all phase locked loops. It is basically a feedback control system that controls the phase of a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). The input signal is applied to one input of a phase detector. The other input is connected to the output of a divide by N Counter. The output of the phase detector is a voltage proportional to the phase difference between the two inputs. This signal is applied to the loop filter. It is the loop filter that determines the dynamic characteristics of the PLL. The filtered signal controls the VCO. Note that the output of the VCO is at a frequency that is N times the input supplied to the frequency reference input This output signal is sent back to the phase detector via the divide by N counter. -

Synchronization Purposes Space communications for coherent demodulation and threshold extension Bit synchronization Symbol synchronization Demodulate frequency modulated signals In radio transmitters, a PLL is used to synthesize new frequencies which are a multiple of a reference frequency, with the same stability as the reference frequency. Demodulation of both FM and AM signals Recovery of small signals that otherwise would be lost in noise (lockin amplifier) Recovery of clock timing information from a data stream such as from a disk drive Clock multipliers in microprocessors that allow internal processor elements to run faster than external connections, while maintaining precise timing relationships DTMF decoders, modems, and other tone decoders, for remote control and telecommunications

Normally the loop filter is designed to match the characteristics required by the application of the PLL. If the PLL is to acquire and track a signal the bandwidth of the loop filter will be greater than if it expects a fixed input frequency. The frequency range which the PLL will accept and lock on is called the capture range. Once the PLL is locked and tracking a signal the range of frequencies that the PLL will follow is called the tracking range. Generally the tracking range is larger than the capture range. The loop filter also determines how fast the signal frequency can change and still maintain lock. This is the maximum slewing rate.

Sourcing and sinking

Sinking and sourcing in electronic circuits relate to driving capabilities at the output of an electric circuit. To drive a point in an electric circuit to a desired value of voltage means to supply the required electric current to do so, overcoming electric resistances or other sources affecting (connected to) that point (sources may include voltage or current sources). A sourcing output supplies current or voltage to the load. The output would be hooked to one side of the load, and the other side is grounded. A sinking output works by pulling the voltage or current to ground. In this case, the load is connected to the 'hot' power supply terminal, and the other end is connected to the sinking output. When the output goes active ("goes low"), current flows from the power supply, through the load, then

Digital Design

to ground via the output terminal. Sinking outputs are sometimes called 'open collector' outputs