Book

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements
Foreword
In recent years, the need to make allowance for the impairment of equipment and installations by seismic actions has increased in importance worldwide. As a result of the density of populations in town and city agglomerations as well as the high concentration of assets in industrialized states, the risk arising from earthquakes has greatly increased. This does not apply solely to "classical" earthquake regions, but also to Central Europe where, for example, the threat from earthquakes has been underestimated so far. Greater efforts are necessary to reduce this risk. This guideline provides the information needed by those carrying out design work for seismic restraint installations and fastenings for fixtures (non-structural building members) in field practice. If, for example, chemical plants or infrastructure utilities, equipment, etc. are called to mind whose continued operation after an earthquake is of vital importance, e.g. hospitals, water supplies and telecommunication facilities, it becomes clear that material damage and consequential damage as well as that due to the breakdown or interruption of operations resulting from earthquake damage to non-structural fixtures and equipment, etc. can be extreme. Despite the possibly serious damage that can be caused, the practical information available to engineers about this subject matter is limited. This guideline fills, so to speak, the gap in the respective technical literature. The guideline contains the "Fundamentals" of seismic engineering and provides readily comprehensible information about seismic restraint design and construction work. In addition, this guideline is divided into the sections "Installations" and "Interior finishing and furnishing". Understandable design examples and actual solutions to seismic restraint fixtures, installations, etc., have been given. These make it possible for consulting engineers, planners, etc. to specify effective seismic restrainting measures without them first having to carry out an unreasonable amount of design and calculation work. This guideline was drawn up by a team within the Hilti Corporation, Schaan, Liechtenstein, and an external specialist. The core of this team was m ade up of the following specialists: Gerald Marxer, dipl. Ing. ETH Hilti Corporation, Business Area Fastening and Protection, Schaan, Liechtenstein Dr. Jakob Kunz, Dr. Ing. ETH Hilti Corporation, Business Area New Business and Technology, Schaan, Liechtenstein Matthias Schoch, Product Manager Hilti Corporation, Business Unit Installation Systems, Schaan, Liechtenstein Daniel Schuler, dipl. Ing. Brkel Baumann Schuler, Ingenieure+Planer AG, Winterthur, Switzerland Schaan, December 2003 1
Contents
Foreword Contents Abbreviations, designations
1 2 6
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.1 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.2.1 1.1.2.2 1.1.3 1.2 1.2.1 1.2.1.1 1.2.1.2 1.2.1.3 1.2.2 1.2.2.1 1.2.2.2 1.2.3 Introduction Terms Earthquake strength Magnitude Intensity Goals of earthquake engineering Effects of earthquakes Ground tremors Characteristics Directions of acceleration Value of acceleration Effects on structures, non structural elements and installations Horizontal forces Floor oscillation, floor acceleration Direct and indirect effects of earthquakes
8 9 9 9 9 10 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 16
Part 2
Design and use

2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.2 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.2.1 2.2.2.2 2.2.2.3 2.2.2.4 2.2.2.5 2.2.3 2.2.3.1 2.2.3.2 Principles of design and use Types of damage Seismic qualification measures Base materials for fastenings Suitability and use of anchors Anchoring mechanisms Overview of anchors Metal expansion anchors Undercut anchors Adhesive anchors Adhesive expansion anchors Concrete screw Loading behavior of anchors Influence of direction of loading Special aspects of anchoring behavior under shear loading
17 18 18 19 21 23 23 24 24 25 26 26 27 27 27 28 2
Contents
30 31 31 32 33 34 36 36 36 37 37 39 39 40 40 42 44 46 47 48 48 49 49 50 50 51 52
2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.5.1 2.2.5.2 2.2.5.3 2.2.5.4 2.3 2.3.1 2.3.1.1 2.3.1.2 2.3.1.3 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.3.1 2.3.3.2 2.3.3.3 2.3.3.4 2.3.4 2.3.4.1 2.3.4.2 2.3.4.3 2.4 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.4.3.1 2.4.3.2 Part 3
Overview of dynamic actions Behavior of anchors under dynamic actions Pre-tensioning of anchor fastenings Behavior under a pulsating load Behavior under a changing load Suitability of anchors Design of fastenings subjected to seismic actions Design concepts Design with global safety factor Design with partial factors Comparison of design concepts Anchor resistance Loading of anchor fastenings Overview of analysis procedures Equivalent static analysis Response spectra dynamic analysis Analysis with plastic moment Simplified design process Amplification due to building height Increase due to fixture Example of a simplified analysis Using and securing of beam clamps Overview of beam clamps Earthquake risk Suitability and securing measures Suitability of beam clamps Securing measures
Installations
3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.2.1 3.1.2.2 3.1.2.3 3.1.3 3.1.3.1 3.1.3.2 3.1.3.3 3.1.3.4 3.1.3.5 3.1.3.6 Pipes Basic principle Design of pipes Pipe materials Pipe joints Pipe mass Fastening pipes Method of choosing and arranging bracing Necessity for bracing Designing bracing Fastening to concrete surface Choosing size of bracing Bracing arrangement and spacing
54 55 55 56 56 56 56 57 58 59 60 61 63 65 3
Contents
68 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 73 75 75 75 76 77 77 78 79
3.2 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.2.1 3.2.2.2 3.2.2.3 3.2.3 3.2.3.1 3.2.3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.3.1 3.3.3.2 3.3.3.3 3.3.3.4 Part 4
Air ducts Basic principle Design of air ducts Duct materials Duct joints Duct mass Fastening ducts Fastening spiral tubes Fastening air ducts Channel installation Basic principle Installation methods Seismic installation Powder-actuated fastening Suspended (U-support) installation Wall (bracket) installation Summary of measures
Interior finishing, fittings and furnishing

4.1 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.4.1 4.1.4.2 4.1.4.3 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.3.1 4.2.3.2 4.3 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.2.1 4.3.2.2 4.3.2.3 4.3.2.4 Ceiling paneling and suspended ceilings Overview of systems Seismic effects Ceiling paneling Suspended ceilings Bracing of ceiling structure Securing ceiling hangers Securing ceiling panels Raised floors Overview of use and design Seismic risk Seismic qualification measures Bracing support framing Floor frames Furniture, equipment and other movable items Seismic effects Seismic qualification measures Seismic qualification strategies Securing against tipping Securing against falling Securing against impact
80 81 81 82 83 84 84 85 86 87 87 88 88 88 89 91 91 92 92 93 94 94 4
Contents
Bibliography Attachment
A1 A 1.1 A 1.2 A 1.3 A 1.4 A 1.5 A 1.6 A 1.7 A2 A 2.1 A 2.2 A 2.3 A 2.4 Mass of pipes Threaded pipes according to DIN 2440 (medium-duty) Steel (boiler) pipes according to DIN 2448 Stainless steel pipes according to DIN 17455, Series 1 Copper pipes according to EN 1057 Rigid PVC- drain pipes according to DIN 19532 and DIN 8063, Series 3 Polyethylene (PE50) pipes for nominal pressure of PN10 Geberit polyethylene drain pipes Necessity for pipe bracing Pipe fastenings with M8 anchor rod Pipe fastenings with M10 anchor rod Pipe fastenings with M12 anchor rod Pipe fastenings with M16 anchor rod Choosing bracing size Pipe bracing spacing M8 "light-duty" bracing M10 "standard" bracing M12 "heavy-duty" bracing M16 "industrial" bracing Spiral tubes Determining number of braces necessary for spiral tubes Spiral tubes made of Sendzimir-galvanized steel Aluminum spiral tubes Stainless steel spiral tubes Mass of air ducts Air ducts with 0.62 mm thick sheet steel Air ducts with 0.75 mm thick sheet steel Air ducts with 0.87 mm thick sheet steel Air ducts with 1.0 mm thick sheet steel Air ducts with 1.13 mm thick sheet steel Examples of typical applications Single fastening Channel installation Bracket installation Installation of steel beams Installation of rectangular or round air ducts
95 97 97 97 98 99 100 100 101
102 102 102 103 103 104 106 107 107 108 108 109 111 112 113 114 114 114 115 116 117 118 118 119 120 121 122
A3 A 3.1 A 3.2 A 3.3 A 3.4 A4 A 4.1 A 4.2 A 4.3 A5 A 5.1 A 5.2 A 5.3 A 5.4 A 5.5 A6
Abbreviations; designations
Abbreviations
AC Acceptance Criteria ANSI American National Standards Institute ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials BC Building Code CSA Canadian Standards Association DIBt Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm (German Industrial Standard) EN EOTA ER ETA ETAG FM ICBO ICBO ES NEBS UBC European Standard European Organization for Technical Approvals Evaluation Report European Technical Approval Guideline for European Technical Approval Factory Mutual Research Corporation International Conference of Building Officials ICBO Evaluation Service, Inc. Network Equipment Building System Uniform Building Code
Designations
Latin capital letters A amplification factor F force in general I intensity M magnitude; moment N normal force R resistance; load-bearing resistance S stress; action T natural period; period V shear force Latin small letters a acceleration b support / brace spacing; width d displacement; deflection; distance from ceiling f frequency; factor in general; reduction factor h height k correction factor m mass m' specific mass; mass per meter run
Abbreviations; designations
n s t u w
number of floors spacing (distance apart); support or fastening spacing; play time distance away, stand- off, protrusion crack width
Greek symbols (letters) angle of support, bracing partial safety factor global safety factor Indices a adm b CG crack d exist eq equip floor G g ground h horiz k MM MSK max min n o plast Q R S stat v vert y x, y, z
acceleration admissible bracing angle bracing, support center of gravity, C of G cracked displacement; design existing earthquake equipment, fixture floor continual or permanent load; load caused by weight ground ground height horizontal characteristic modified Mercalli Intensity Scale Medvedev-Sponheur-Karnik Intensity scale maximum minimum number of floors, building height fundamental frequency plastic variable load resistance stress; action static, predominantly static load velocity vertical yield spatial direction
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.1
Introduction
1.1.1 Terms
Tectonic earthquakes
Earthquakes are ground vibrations and shocks, i.e. tremors, that are triggered by rapid processes taking place in the Earth's crust or in the Earth's upper mantle. Predominantly, these are so-called dislocation or tectonic earthquakes. The direct causes of earthquakes of this type are sudden mutual movements of tectonic plates forming the Earth's crust. These movements take place with a shear fracture which leads to a build-up or accumulation of stresses in the Earth's mantle. When this occurs, part of the kinetic energy is released in the form of seismic waves. The point in the Earth from where the seismic waves originate is called the seismic focus or hypocenter. Generally, this earthquake focus lies at a depth of less than 65 kilometers below the Earth's surface. The earthquake's epicenter on the Earth's surface is above the hypocenter. The area around the epicenter in which the earthquake can be felt is termed the epicentral area. The strongest earthquake activity, also called seismicity, occurs in the tectonically active zones with the formation of "young" mountains. These zones extend to the edges of the Pacific Ocean as well as to the Mediterranean-Indonesian Belt which runs through Southern Europe and Asia.
Regions of seismic activity
1.1.2 Earthquake strength

100 damaging earthquakes per year
Every year, there are approximately 5,000 noticeable earthquakes. Roughly 100 of them affect populated areas and are so strong that they cause damage or even destruction. 1.1.2.1 Magnitude
Physical measure of the energy released
The magnitude of an earthquakes provides a measure of the energy released during an earthquake (tremor). It is shown on the magnitude scale named after its inventor C.F. Richter. The magnitude is given on a logarithmic scale and so an increase by one unit represents a 30 fold greater amount of energy. In the central region of the Alps, the strongest earthquake that need be expected would have a magnitude, M, of 7. The most powerful earthquake ever recorded had a magnitude, M, of 8.7.
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.1.2.2 Intensity
A subjective measure of the perceptibility and the local destruction
The intensity at a certain location on the Earth's surface is, on the other hand, a subjective measure of the effects of an earthquake on people, buildings, non-structural installations and nature. To describe the strength or intensity, I, the so-called MSK scale is used in Europe and the MM scale in North America. Both scales are similar and cover a range of 12 strengths or intensity levels. The following Table 1.1 shows a very short extract from the range of 5 to 10 strengths or intensities on the MSK scale, which is relevant for construction engineering. A seismic wave causing damage is in the order of a strength or intensity, I, of 5. Generally, appreciable damage results at a strength or intensity I = 7 to 8. In addition to the strength or intensity, Table 1.1 also shows maximum values of acceleration a as a proportion of the acceleration due to gravity [g = 9.81 m/ s 2]. These are the empirically determined values of the horizontal ground vibration components.
Damage from ground acceleration exceeding 0.1 g
Table 1.1 Very abridged extract from the MSK intensity scale with the pertaining empirically determined maximum ground acceleration
Intensity IMSK 5 6 7 8 9 10
Effects on buildings (nature)
Ground acceleration ag,max [ g ]
Hung / suspended items swing / oscillate; many people are woken Slight damage to buildings, hairline cracks appear in plaster Cracks in plaster, fissures in walls and chimneys Wide fissures in masonry, gable parts and roof cornices / ledges collapse In some building, walls and roofs collapse; landslides Collapse of many buildings, fissures in the ground up to 1 meter wide
0.012 0.025 0.025 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.8
10
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.1.3 Goals of earthquake engineering

Avoidance of personal injury and material damage
As a result of recurring earthquakes, buildings and load-bearing structures collapse, often leaving many people dead or injured. National economies frequently suffer tremendous material damage due to catastrophes of this kind. Apart from this damage to buildings and the equipment, fittings, etc., in them, infrastructure facilities are also damaged. Follow-up costs, furthermore, can be incurred by loss of production and the environment might be harmed. It is not compelling that earthquakes have such a serious impact. Today, using the technology for earthquake resistant construction that has been developed over many years, it is possible for the number of earthquake victims and the amount of damage caused by earthquakes to be drastically reduced. In this respect, however, it is of decisive importance that the experience and realizations gained from earthquake engineering are resolutely passed on and used.
Implementation of earthquake engineering knowledge
Fig. 1.1 The avoidance of personal injury and property damage are the goals of earthquake engineering (Loma Prieta earthquake, 1989)
11
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.2
Effects of earthquakes
1.2.1 Ground tremors
Effects of seismic waves
Primarily, seismic waves emanating from the earthquake focus set up ground tremors at the Earth's surface. Additionally, they can cause permanent faults, cracks, landslides or, if special conditions exist, so-called ground liquefaction. 1.2.1.1 Characteristics
Different characteristics
Earthquakes can be put into the following categories according to the ground tremors they set up: Ground tremors which occur when the ground is solid, where the epicentral distance is short and the focus depth is small, are essentially characterized by a single shock. A well-known example of such an earthquake is the Skopje earthquake (1963). Most earthquakes in the world, especially the greatest number of strong earthquakes, which occur along the circum -pacific belt, are characterized as stochastic tremors, lasting for about 20 to 30 seconds. The frequencies of these tremors vary widely. A well-known example of such an earthquake in the past is the El Centro earthquake (1940), whose seismographs are shown in the following Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2 Plots of acceleration, velocity and displacement of ground movements in a North to south direction during the El Centroearthquake (1940)
12
Part 1
Fundamentals
If the ground is soft, earthquakes can have a very long duration (> 1 minute) and be characterized by comparatively regular ground tremors (vibrations / oscillations). The best known examples of such earthquakes are the ones in Mexico City (1964 and 1985).
1.2.1.2 Directions of acceleration

Horizontal acceleration predominates.
Vertical and horizontal movement as well as acceleration determines the effects of seismic ground tremors on buildings and structures as well as the fixtures and installations within them. The horizontal acceleration is particularly important in this respect. On the other hand, the proportion of ground acceleration in a vertical direction is far smaller and often less than half the horizontal component. According to a general rule, that is also applied in design standards, the vertical acceleration is given by: ag,max,vert = 2/3 . ag,max,horiz 1.2.1.3 Value of acceleration
Acceleration, earthquake duration and dominant frequency
The size of the maximum ground acceleration reached can vary widely during different earthquakes. For an engineer, the ground acceleration is a key physical parameter. Where damage to buildings, structures, fixtures, equipment and installations, etc., is concerned, the dominant frequency and the duration of an earthquake are decisive. Examples of peak horizontal ground acceleration values are given in the following Table 1.2. The example of the Mexico City earthquake, which had catastrophic consequences, indicates the significance of the frequency content and the earthquake duration.
Table 1.2 Peak value of horizontal ground acceleration
Earthquake / Location / Year
Ground acceleration, ag,max [ g ] 0.37
Friaul (I = VIII), 1976 Mexico-City, 1985 on rock in the area of damage (build-up / amplification in very soft ground layers, duration approx. 1 minute) Loma Prieta, North California, 1989 Northridge, South California, 1994
0.04 0.17
0.67 1.82 (!)
13
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.2.2 Effects on structures, non-structural elements and installations 1.2.2.1 Horizontal forces
Extraordinary forces in a horizontal direction
As a rule, the dead loads of items together with the working or traffic loads predominate in the case of load-bearing structures. This applies also to non-structural fixtures, equipment, installations, etc. Often, when building components of this type as well as their fastenings are designed and installed, only the vertically acting forces due to weight are thus taken into account. In many situations, as no continuous or variable forces are acting in a horizontal direction, the resistance to horizontal forces is often considerably smaller than to that in a vertical direction. In view of this, the typical damage to buildings, structures, non-structural fixtures, equipment, installations, etc., caused by earthquakes must be attributed to the extraordinary effect of horizontal forces.
Fig. 1.3 Furniture tipped over and shuffled about due to horizontal acceleration (Hanshin earthquake, Kobe, 1995)
1.2.2.2 Floor oscillation, floor acceleration

Structure acts like a frequency filter
If fixtures, equipment, installations, etc., inside buildings have to be made and fastened to resist earthquakes, not the ground movement, but the movement of the building or floor on which they are installed is relevant for their design and construction. The magnitude and frequency of so-called floor oscillation is dependant on the building structure through which the ground tremors are transferred. In this respect, a building acts as a frequency filter which amplifies the ground tremors in the range of its natural frequencies. As the building height increases, the wide-band ground tremor (oscillation) embracing all frequencies become an ever closer narrow-band floor oscillation with a virtually sinusoidal characteristic. 14
Part 1
Fundamentals
Fig. 1.4 Floor oscillation due to filtering and amplification of ground oscillation (qualitative)
Magnification of ground acceleration
As a result of the amplification of tremors (oscillations) to within the range of a building's natural frequencies, the peak acceleration of the floor oscillation, i.e. the floor acceleration, a f, can become more than double the maximum ground acceleration, ag. In American reference sources, a factor of 2.5 is given, for example, for the amplification of the horizontal acceleration for buildings with more than four floors. Fig. 1.5 shows the example of a so-called floor response spectrum. In it, pronounced amplification at the frequencies of 3.5 Hz (T = 0.28 s) and 10 Hz (T = 0.1 s) can be identified.
Fig. 1.5 Example of a floor response spectra
15
Part 1
Fundamentals
1.2.3 Direct and indirect effects of earthquakes Earthquakes can have direct or indirect effects: Direct effects are defined as the damage to buildings, structures, fixtures, installations, equipment, etc., caused by ground tremors. Indirect or consequential effects are defined as fires, explosions, flooding, environmental harm, etc., resulting from released hazardous substances as well as general economic or also social repercussions. Often, the emphasis is placed on and most attention given to the direct effects of earthquakes. If agglomerations with high populations or heavily industrialized areas are hit by an earthquake, however, the consequential effects can be serious.
Fig. 1.6 (left) Collapsed faade panels are a direct effect of an earthquake (Hanshin earthquake, 1995) Fig. 1.7 (right) Damage to pipe installations can lead to consequential damage (Loma Prieta earthquake, 1989)
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Part 2
Design and use
2.1
Principles of design and use

2.1.1 Types of damage
Major damage and consequential damage
Earthquake damage to building components (fixtures) which are not part of the load-bearing structure / framing, can affect installations and technical equipment in general as well as components of interior finishing and interior fittings. In many cases, damage of this kind can lead to consequential damage, such as the release of dangerous substances, fires and the disruption to electricity or water supply. No matter what purpose the affected building components or systems serve (hospital, chemical plant, public utilities), their damage can lead to serious personal injury, damage to property and the environment. The following are examples of the damage caused by earthquakes to installations and items of technical equipment: Shifting and tipping over of machines, containers, transformers, switch boxes and distribution cabinets due to, for example, poor fastening Failure of suspended cables and lines, apparatus, lighting fixtures and fittings, etc., due to amplification by seismic excitation (resonance effects) Breaking of pipes, conduits and ducts due to differential displacement Examples of earthquake damage to items of interior finishing, interior fittings and furnishings are as follows: Damage to partition walls / drywalls (cracking, tipping over) Collapse of suspended ceilings or parts of them Failure of double / false floors or computer floors with consequential damage to equipment Shifting and tipping over of furniture (racks, frames, cupboards) and equipment (computers, etc.) Displacement and falling down of stored goods, merchandise and commodities (bottles, drums, files, medicines, etc.)
Damage to installations
Damage to interior finishing items or fittings
18
Part 2
Design and use
2.1.2 Seismic qualification measures

Earthquake-proof positioning and fastening
In general, the measures dealt with in the following for making non-structural fixtures (building components) and installations earthquake restraint concern the fastening, the positioning and the installation or securing of fixtures and systems. They do not apply to special or modified versions of systems or equipment, such as the use of especially resistant equipment. Seismic qualification measures include, on the one hand, design work which takes into account the extraordinary dynamic actions. Design work concerns first and foremost fastenings, material cross sections, supports, etc. In many cases in this respect, the comparatively simple equivalent static analysis (see 2.3.3.2) or the simplified design process given in section 2.3.4 can be used. Design calculations for dynamic fastenings are necessary only in a few very special cases. Very often, in order to make fixtures and installations earthquake restraint, special design measures also have to be taken. Measures of this type are, for example, safety or securing devices or displacement limiting devices, which prevent the fixtures, etc., from shifting, jumping out or slipping out of place, etc., during an earthquake. Design measures can also be fastenings and supports to take up the horizontal loads acting during an earthquake. Differential displacement occurring during an earthquake, however, can also be permitted. Then, it is also possible for damage to be avoided through the design measures taken, such as flexible connections, joints, etc.
Design suitable for earthquake-proof fastenings
Limiting or permitting displacement
Additional fastenings
The inclusion of additional fastenings, suspensions / hangers or supports results from the design work using earthquake loads. At the same time, this is design safety measure.
19
Part 2
Design and use
Table 2.1 Earthquake-proofing measures
Seismic qualification measures Design Design measure
Examples of measures Design of anchor fastenings screws / bolts, clips, pins, angle stops, etc. as safety or displacement limiting devices supports, bracing, etc. to take up horizontal loads Play, flexible connections / joints, etc. to permit differential displacement Inclusion of additional fastenings, suspensions / hangers, supports, etc.
Design of material cross sections, etc.
20
Part 2
Design and use
2.1.3 Base materials for fastenings The relevant base materials or construction methods for earthquake resistant fastenings are as follows: concrete (reinforced concrete), profiled sheet metal steel beams. The fastenings used with these base materials are anchor systems or special fastening systems "tailor-made" for the geometry or construction method. In the following Table 2.2, the possible modes of making single and multiple fastenings with the aid of installation channels have been depicted, independent of the base material.
Table 2.2 Fastenings for various base materials Single fastening made directly to base material Multiple fastening with installation channel
Concrete
Profiled sheet metal (concrete decking)
Steel beams
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Part 2
Design and use
Selection of suitable systems and design methods for anchor fastenings
In the case of concrete base material and normally also concrete poured on steel decking, the fastenings are subsequently made with anchors. Here, the measures to take in order to ensure earthquake resistant anchor fastenings are the selection of a suitable anchor system , as described in the following section 2.2, and an anchor fastening design carried out in accordance with the earthquake loading, as explained in 2.3. There are specially profiled metal sheets with which a fastening system designed to suit the sheet metal is used to secure fixtures. Mostly, these systems are special nuts whose geometry suits that of the profiled sheet metal and keys with it. Owing to this keying action as the load-bearing mechanism, fastenings of this type are generally more secure in earthquakes. The prerequisite for this, however, is that fastener used is suitable for the profiled sheet metal. If buildings have steel beam framing, special beam clamps can be used for fastening fixtures and installations. In this respect, however, a very large number of such systems exist. Apart from simply selecting suitable systems made for the beam sections (profiles), seismic qualification measures for these fastenings generally have to be designed. Normally, they consist of safety devices which prevent the beam clamps from working loose or shifting. The use and suitability, as well as the safety measures for beam clamps used for earthquake resistant fastenings are discussed in section 2.4. Further, but generally unproblematic as regards seismic qualification, are welding and screws / bolts as modes of fastening to steel beams. In most cases with fastenings of this type, no special seismic qualification measures are required. A prerequisite, however, is that the fastenings are not designed on the borderline and can take up only the static loads, but not additional dynamic loads.
Fastening system "tailormade" for geometry of profiled sheet metal
Earthquake-proofing of beam clamps by taking design measures
Fastenings welded and screwed / bolted to steel beams
22
Part 2
Design and use
2.2
Suitability and use of anchors

2.2.1 Anchoring mechanisms
Various anchoring mechanisms
The transfer of loads into a building member, i.e. base material, by fasteners in general or by anchors in particular is based on the following three anchoring mechanisms: In the case of a friction hold, a tensile load, N, is transferred into the base material by friction, R. To achieve this, an expansion force, Fexp , is required which is produced, for example, by pretensioning the anchor (Fig. 2.1 a). In the case of a keying hold, a tensile load, N, is transferred into the base material by a bearing force (keying action), R. To achieve this, the anchor hole is widened conically (undercut) when it is drilled or when the anchor is set (Fig. 2.1 b). In the case of a bond, a tensile load, N, is transferred into the base material by means of shear stress, b. To achieve this, there must be an adhesive bond between the anchor and the wall of the anchor hole, made, for example, with a synthetic resin mortar (Fig. 2.1 c). Many anchors transfer loads by means of a combination of the defined anchoring mechanisms. Keying also plays a role with anchors which anchor on the basis of friction and this results, for example, from the anchor expansion forces causing local deformation of the hole wall. Adhesive undercut anchors effectively combine the mechanisms of keying and bonding. Adhesive expansion anchors (see 2.2.2.4) transfer loads by means of a bond and a friction hold.
Combination of anchoring mechanisms
Fig. 2.1 Anchor anchoring mechanisms
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Part 2
Design and use
2.2.2 Overview of anchors The various anchoring mechanisms differentiate the following anchors: Expansion anchors (metal) friction hold Undercut anchors Adhesive (resin) anchors Adhesive-expansion anchors Concrete screw keying hold bond bond / friction hold keying hold
2.2.2.1 Metal expansion anchors The following distinction is made between metal expansion anchors: Torque-controlled expansion anchors Displacement-controlled expansion anchors A torque-controlled expansion anchor is expanded by applying a torque moment which fixes the anchor in its hole. A distinction is made between a sleeve-type anchor, which mainly consists of a threaded bolt, tapered plug, spacing sleeve as well as expansion sleeve (Fig. 2.2 a), and a stud-type anchor, which has a taper and expansion wedges on its bolt (Fig. 2.2 b). The possibility of applying a torque is a check that the anchor has been set properly. If externally applied tensile loads increase or if cracks appear in the base material, torque-controlled expansion anchors are capable of re-expanding, i.e. so-called follow-up expansion, and thus of transferring higher loads or compensating anchor hole tolerances.
Expansion by applying a torque
Fig. 2.2 Torque-controlled expansion anchor: a) HILTI HSL heavy-duty anchor b) HILTI HST stud anchor
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Part 2
Design and use
Impact expansion
Displacement-controlled expansion anchors have an expansion sleeve and a plug which is hammered into the expansion sleeve (Fig. 2.3 a) or onto which the expansion sleeve is hammered (Fig. 2.3 b). The magnitude of the expansion force and thus the tensile resistance (loading capacity) depend on the amount of expansion and, in this respect, a very high impact energy is generally required for proper expansion. Displacement-controlled expansion anchors cannot re-expand.
Fig. 2.3 Displacement-controlled expansion anchors: a) HILTI HKD flush anchor b) HILTI HHS self-drilling anchor
2.2.2.2 Undercut anchors

Anchorage from undercut in anchor hole
The cylindrical hole produced for an undercut anchor is widened (undercut) at a certain point using a special drilling process. As a result of the final hole geometry, it is possible for the anchor to obtain a keying hold in the base material. Various anchor systems exist which produce the undercut in the anchor hole during a special drilling process or which depend on the anchor itself creating the undercut during the setting operation. The loading behavior of undercut anchors depends to a great extent on the undercut. All these anchor systems, however, exert only very little expansion force, or none at all, during the setting operation.
Fig. 2.4 Undercut anchors: HILTI HSC safety anchor
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Part 2
Design and use
2.2.2.3 Adhesive anchors

Bonding with synthetic resin / adhesive mortar
Many versions of adhesive / resin anchors are available. A distinction is made between anchors which have synthetic resin (adhesive mortar contained in glass or plastic capsules) and those which are injection systems. When using the systems with glass or plastic capsules, these are inserted into the anchor hole and, afterwards, the anchor itself (threaded rod or rebar) is driven in with a rotary action. This thoroughly mixes and compacts the synthetic resin / adhesive mortar while filling the annular space between anchor and hole wall. When using injection systems, the synthetic resin / adhesive mortar is injected into the anchor hole and, afterwards, the anchor (rebar or threaded rod) pressed into it. Both systems have the same working principle. This is based on the rebar or threaded rod bonding with / adhering to the hole wall. Loads are then transferred through the bond into the base material.
Fig. 2.5 Adhesive anchors: HILTI HVU adhesive anchor
2.2.2.4 Adhesive-expansion anchor

Anchor generates expansion forces under tensile loading.
Adhesive anchors in accordance with 2.2.2.3 are not particularly suitable for transferring loads, especially tensile loads, into cracked concrete. Adhesive-expansion anchors though, generate expansion forces when they are subjected to tensile loading and this makes them suitable for use in cracked concrete. Adhesive-expansion anchors consist of an anchor rod with one or several tapers which are coated to avoid a bond being formed between anchor rod and synthetic resin / adhesive mortar. When a tensile force is applied to the anchor rod, its tapers are pulled into the cured synthetic resin / adhesive mortar which then functions as an expansion wedge. This generates expansion and thus friction forces which are high enough to transfer the tensile load without an adhesive / mortar bond being required.
Synthetic resin / adhesive mortar acts as an expansion wedge.
Fig. 2.6 Adhesive-expansion anchor: HILTI HVZ adhesive anchor
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2.2.2.5 Concrete screw

The screw is driven into a pre-drilled hole.
To be installed, concrete screws are driven into a cylindrical hole with a hammer drill-driver. These screws have a hardened special thread. The first three turns of this thread can be serrated to enable it cut into the concrete more easily. As a result of the screw thread being cut into the concrete, a keying hold is produced. The resistance (loading capacity) of concrete screws is very dependent on the hole tolerances. These screws are suitable for use in cracked and non-cracked concrete
Observe the hole tolerances.
Fig. 2.7 Concrete screw: HILTI HUS universal screw
2.2.3 Loading behavior of anchors A large number of factors influence the loading behavior of anchor fastenings. The most important are as follows: Anchor working principle (friction, keying and bonding) Base material (type, strength, cracked state) Direction of loading (tension, shear) Mode of loading (primarily static, dynamic) The general influence of the direction of loading (2.2.3.1) and special aspects of the behavior under shear loading (2.2.3.2) are described in the following. Chapter 2.2.5 deals with special aspects of the behavior of anchors under dynamic loading. 2.2.3.1 Influence of direction of loading The following Fig. 2.8 shows, qualitatively, a typical loaddisplacement plot of an anchor fastening under tensile loading and another under shear loading.
The bending strain of an anchor under shear loading reduces the resistance (loading capacity).
When an anchor is subjected to a shear load, this load is initially transferred by the friction between the concrete and the anchoring plate. If the frictional force is exceeded, the plate slips until, after it has slipped by the amount of the hole play, the anchor rests against the side of the clearance hole in the plate. As the shear force increases, so does the bearing force at the top of the anchor hole and concrete spalling takes place in front of the anchor bolt. 27
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This increases the bending / lever arm of the load and the anchor is subjected more and more to bending. Owing to slipping of the anchoring plate, spalling of the concrete and the bending stress, displacement in the direction of shear loading is considerably larger than when an anchor fastening is subjected to pure tension.
Fig. 2.8 Typical load-displacement plots of anchors under tensile and shear loading
2.2.3.2 Special aspects of anchoring behavior under shear loading

Loading and failure due to hole play
The following special aspects apply to the behavior of anchor fastenings under shear loading and these are also important in the case of seismic loading. If the shear load exceeds the friction between the concrete and the anchoring plate, the consequence will be slip of the fixture by an amount equal to the hole play. If dynamic loading is involved, this stopping against the side of the hole increases the load on the anchor bolt and this can then cause shear failure (Fig. 2.9 a). Play, where you have a combination of the hole in the anchoring plate and an anchor bolt that is not well set in the hole, the result will be an anchor stressed in bending and this considerably reduces the loading capacity (ultimate state) (Fig. 2.9 b). Where multiple-anchor fastenings are concerned, it must be assumed that due to play of the hole on the plate a shear load is not distributed among all anchors. In an unfavorable situation, when anchor fastenings are made near to the edge of a building member, only the anchors closest to the edge are loaded and this can result in failure of the concrete edge before the anchors furthest from the edge can also participate in the load transfer (Fig. 2.8 c). 28
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Fig. 2.9 Modes of failure of anchor fastenings under shear loading
It is possible to considerably improve the behavior of anchor fastenings subjected to shear loading by eliminating the hole play between anchor stud and plate. This also applies to dynamic loads in general and seismic loads in particular. The hole play can be eliminated, for example, by filling the clearance hole with a synthetic resin / adhesive mortar. The individual effects of this filling are as follows: Sudden impact-like loading of the anchor bolt is avoided if the plate slips (Fig. 2.10 a). Filling the clearance hole and the anchor hole, virtually excludes any bending of the anchor under shear loading. The fastening resistance (loading capacity) is considerably increased by taking this measure (Fig. 2.10 b). Filling the plate clearance holes of multiple-anchor fastenings, results in a uniform load distribution to all anchors. In the case of a fastening near to a building member edge, this filling prevents the concrete edge from breaking away prematurely which would happen if the anchors closest to the edge were loaded (Fig. 2.10 c).
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Fig. 2.10 Effects of filling the clearance holes and the anchor hole
2.2.4 Overview of dynamic actions In field practice, dynamic actions are put into the following three categories depending on how they take place with respect to time: Fatigue Seismic Shock, impact, pulse-like loading The following table 2.2 shows typical numbers of load cycles and examples of sources of these types of actions.
Table 2.3 Categories of dynamic actions according to Fatigue No. of load cycles N Example of source 104< N <108 Traffic, machines Seismic 101< N <104 Earthquake Shock 1< N <20 Impact, crash, explosion
Fatigue-relevant actions can be harmonic or periodic (Fig. 2.11 a). Seismic actions are transient, stochastic loads (Fig. 2.11 b). Shock takes the form of a pulse-like load (Fig. 2.11 c). During earthquakes, fastenings and the base material are subjected to only few load cycles with high load intensity.
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Fig. 2.11 Time-history plots of dynamic loading
a) Harmonic load, periodic load
b) Transient load
c) Pulse-like load
2.2.5 Behavior of anchors under dynamic actions

Different factors influencing the anchoring behavior
The anchoring behavior of anchors subjected to dynamic actions basically depends on the type of action, the anchor working principle and thus also the behavior of the anchor and the base material. In the following, information has been provided about the influence of pre-tensioning, anchoring behavior when loading with respect to time differs (pulsating, alternating) and the suitability of using various types of anchors in badly cracked concrete. 2.2.5.1 Pre-tensioning of anchor fastenings
Pre-tensioning improves the performance under cyclic loading.
In general, the behavior of anchors under dynamic loading can be decisively improved if they are pre-tensioned. This, however, primarily concerns the performance under fatigue relevant loading as the pre-tensioning considerably reduces the range of stress, provided that the upper load limit (max. stress) does not exceed the pre-tensioning force. During seismic actions, the loading can exceed the pre-tensioning force which results in torque-controlled expansion anchors postexpanding. Under a pulsating or an alternating load, this change from post-expansion and to subsequent release causes a reduction in pre-tensioning force. The drop in pre-tensioning force of a torque-controlled, sleeve-type expansion anchor, subjected to a pulsating tensile load, can be seen in Fig. 2.12 from the characteristic bend in the load-displacement plot. In the plot shown, the pre-tensioning force dropped from approx. 60 kN to less than 20 kN.
Drop in pre-tensioning force during seismic action
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Fig. 2.12 Decrease in pre-tensioning force of a HILTI HSL M16 heavy-duty anchor under a pulsating tensile load
Loss of pre-tensioning force due to cracking
If seismic loading could exceed the anchor pre-tensioning force, it is recommended that no allowance be made for this. Furthermore, it is probable that during seismic actions the concrete base material will crack. It must then be expected that cracks in the anchoring zone will cause an immediate and complete loss of pretensioning force and a reduction in the failure load. 2.2.5.2 Behavior under a pulsating load
Anchors are often exposed to pulsating loads.
Anchor fastenings loaded in tension are generally subjected to pulsating loads when exposed to seismic actions because they anchor (hold) in the base material. Alternating loads are possible at the most for stand-off fastenings (see Fig. 2.16).
Fig. 2.13 Tensile-stressed anchor fastenings under a pulsating load
Displacement stabilizes after several load cycles.
Tests carried out with tensile-stressed, torque-controlled, sleevetype, metal expansion anchors and with undercut anchors which were subjected to pulsating loads at the frequencies typical for seismic actions, i.e. 1 to 10 Hz, gave the load-displacement plots shown in Fig. 2.14. The described tests were run using cracked concrete (crack width, w = 0.7 mm). At an upper limit load of 80% of the static loading capacity, the displacement stabilized after less than fifty load cycles, independent of the frequency.
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Fig. 2.14 Load-displacement plot of torque-controlled expansion anchors and undercut anchors under a pulsating tensile load (qualitative)
Stiff load-displacement behavior after exposure to a pulsating load
Fig. 2.15 shows, qualitatively, the residual loading capacity of torque-controlled metal expansion anchors and undercut anchors after being subjected to pulsating loads for the duration of an earthquake (approx. 10 seconds). A comparison with an anchor of the same type which had not been previously exposed to dynamic actions shows that the tensile loading capacity (ultimate state) is virtually unchanged. However, the anchors that underwent prior "stressing" under a pulsating load displayed a much greater stiffness. Dynamic loading leads, so to speak, to "embrittlement" of the fastening.
Fig. 2.15 Comparison of the static tensile loading capacity of anchors subjected and not subjected previously to a pulsating load (qualitative).
2.2.5.3 Behavior under a changing load

Alternating load on stand-off installations or shear loading
Changing loads which act on anchor fastenings under tensile loading as a result of earthquakes occur seldom for design reasons. They are possible only with stand-off installations (Fig. 2.16) with synthetic resin / adhesive mortar anchors or when displacement-controlled expansion anchors are used. By reason of their working principle, expansion anchors have to be pretensioned, which is why they anchor in the base material. Changing loads are often also imposed on anchors loaded in shear, especially during an earthquake.
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Fig. 2.16 Alternating loads acting on anchor fastenings under tension and shear
A large amount of displacement under an alternating load
Tests carried out with torque-controlled expansion anchors and undercut anchors set in cracked concrete (crack width, w = 0.7 mm) showed a very large amount of displacement after only few load cycles. Fig. 2.17 shows, as a comparison, load-displacement plots of one and the same anchor after 10 alternating load cycles and 10 pulsating load cycles.
Fig. 2.17 Load-displacement plot of 10 cycles of an alternating load and a pulsating load
2.2.5.4 Suitability of anchors

Re-expanding anchors and anchors with a keying bond are favorable.
Anchors generally suitable for taking up dynamic actions are those which can be given a controlled and sustained pre-tensioning force and are capable of re-expanding. Also favorable are anchors which have a working principle (anchoring mechanism) based on a keying hold.
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Torque-controlled, metal expansion anchors, undercut anchors, adhesive-expansion anchors and concrete screws are fundamentally suitable for earthquake-proof fastenings. Generally, displacement-controlled expansion anchors are less suitable because the expansion forces might be too low and the pretensioning force is completely lost, for example, when cracking occurs and cannot be re-gained owing to the incapability of these anchors to post-expand.
The suitability depends on the anchor and cracks in the concrete.
The following table 2.3 provides a rough overview of the suitability of various types of anchors to resist seismic actions. This suitability depends to a great extent on whether and, if so, how badly the concrete has cracked and / or how large the cracks are in the event of an earthquake. Small cracks are those with a width, w, of less than a few tenths of a millimeter (w < 0.5 mm). Large cracks in concrete have a crack width greater than a millimeter (w > 1.0 mm).
Displacement-controlled expansion anchors
Adhesive- expansion anchors
Torque-controlled expansion anchors
Adhesive anchors
Non-cracked Cracked concrete with crack width, w small (w < 0.5) medium (0,5 = w =1.0) large (w > 1.0)
++ +

++ ++
+
++ ++
+
++ ++ +
++ ++ ++ +
Sleeve type
Stud type
++ ++ ++ ++
++ very suitable
+ limited suitability
unsuitable
Undercut anchors
Table 2.4 Suitability of various anchors for earthquake-proof fastenings
Type of anchor
Concrete screws
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2.3
Design of fastenings subjected to seismic loading

2.3.1 Design concepts
Two design concepts
It is possible for two different safety concepts to be used for the design of load-bearing structures in construction generally and for the design of anchor fastenings in particular. They are the previously used concept with a global safety factor, which is still in use in the USA, and the modern design concept with partial factors, which is being used increasingly in Europe. Both concepts can be adopted for the design of fastenings subjected to seismic loading. These two design concepts are explained and compared in the following (Fig. 2.17). 2.3.1.1 Design with global safety factor
Comparison of admissible and actual load
The design approach using a safety factor is based on a deterministic safety concept. The general method of verification is to compare the admissible load, Fadm , with the existing (actual) load, Fexist. Fadm = Fexist
Admissible load
The admissible or recommended load, Fadm , is ascertained from the characteristic value, Fk, of the fastener load and the global safety factor, , as follows: Fadm = Fk /
Global safety factor
The characteristic load, Fk, is normally the 5% fractile of the failure loads determined during tests. In the case of primarily static loads, the global safety factor, , is generally 2.5 to 3.5, depending on the anchor system. The design concept with a global safety factor is depicted in Fig. 2.14 a. According to ICBO (International Conference of Building Officials) acceptance criteria, which are decisive in the USA, the admissible seismic loads, Fadm,eq, may be increased by a maximum of one third compared to the admissible load of the dominant permanent action, Fadm,stat: Fadm,eq = 1.33 . Fadm,stat
Admissible load increase for seismic actions
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2.3.1.2 Design with partial factors

Segregation of action and resistance
The modern design concept with partial factors currently used in Europe is a semi-probabilistic approach for safety evaluation. The design work is based on resolute segregation of the stress, designated S, and the resistance, designated R. Verification of structural safety is provided if the design value of stress, Sd, does not exceed the design value of resistance, Rd: Rd = Sd
Design concept with partial factors
Design values are determined from the characteristic values of resistance, Rk, the stress, Sk, and the pertaining partial factors, R and S. The partial safety factor for resistance or coefficient of resistance, R, takes into account the variation of material strength, the differing reliability of installing other anchor systems and the variation of the failure loads. Depending on the scatter of concrete base material and the characteristics of anchor systems, the partial factor for resistance, R, can be1.8 to 2.5. According to the currently valid European design standards (Eurocodes), the load factor for permanent loads, for example for loading caused by weight, G, is 1.35. In the case of variable loads it must be set at Q = 1.5. Where design situations with permanent and variable actions are concerned, a partial factor, S = 1.4 can be used. Seismic actions are regarded as so-called accidental actions. Contrary to the method used for permanent and variable actions, the approach taken with these loads is based directly on the design stress, Sd or Sd,eq , and not on the characteristic stress, Sk (Fig. 2.17 b). 2.3.1.3 Comparison of design concepts
Coefficient of resistance, R = 1.8 to 2.5
Load factor, S = 1.4 for constant and variable loads
Design value equal to characteristic value
Identical safety levels
On comparing the design concept with a global safety factor (Fig. 2.17 a) with that with partial factors (Fig. 2.17 b), it is found that the safety levels of both concepts are virtually identical. In the cases of a permanent and a temporary design situation and with a global safety factor = 2.5, the same safety level results as when using the partial safety factors R = 1.8 and S = 1.4: R . S
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Increased admissible load = desi gn value
In the event of an accidental design situation, as defined for seismic actions, the admissible load, Fadm,stat, decisive for primarily static loading according to ICBO, may be increased by a third. Taking the characteristic value, Fk, as the outset, this load is smaller by a factor of 2.5/1.33 = 1.88 and thus virtually at the same level as the design value of resistance, Rd, when the resistance factor R = 1.8 (Fig. 2.17). If the design concept with partial safety factors is adopted when designing for earthquakes, the design resistance, Rd, is decisive. Hence, an identical safety level is achieved as when using the increased admissible load, Fadm,eq, according to ICBO: Fadm,eq R d
Fig. 2.18 Different design and safety concepts
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2.3.2 Anchor resistance

Resolute differentiation of design concepts
The relevant values of resistance for designing anchor fastenings should be taken on principle from standards or approvals or manufacturers' documentation. When doing so, however, clear differentiation must always be made between use of the old concept with a global safety factor and use of the modern design concept with partial factors for fastening design. If the old design concept with a global safety factor is decisive, the anchor resistance may be increased by 30% to 40% over the load admissible or recommended for primarily static loading. In US approvals according to ICBO, an increase by a third is permitted for seismic loading. If the design is based on the new concept with partial factors, no allowance has to be made for seismic loading due to the segregation of actions and resistances. The design resistance given in the approval is then directly relevant. As plastic deformation of buildings and structures has to be expected during an earthquake, the design value for cracked concrete Rd,crack, becomes relevant.
Increased resistance when designing with global safety factor
Design value for concept with partial safety factors
Fig. 2.19 Anchor resistance depending on design concept
2.3.3 Loading of anchor fastenings

No load factors for seismic loading
Design work for anchor fastenings subjected to seismic loading is usually based on the ground acceleration and the building floor acceleration, as given in standards (see 1.2.2.2). These figures are already the design values. No additional load factors have to be introduced to increase these values.
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2.3.3.1 Overview of analysis procedures

Different designs processes
Anchor fastenings subjected to seismic loading can be designed in various ways. Selection of the design process to use is then dependent on the stiffness of the fastenings and fixture (component to be fastened). Generally, however, the ductility of fastenings is very restricted. Fastenings, furthermore, are normally stiff for serviceability state reasons, i.e. their suitability for the intended purpose. For these reasons, design work is influenced first and foremost by the behavior under dynamic loading and the stiffness as well as ductility of the fixture. A distinction is made between the following three design processes: If the fixture is stiff, the equivalent static analysis can be adopted. It is based on the building floor acceleration and the mass of the element. If the fixture is elastic and has a low natural frequency, the load on the fastening is governed by the element's response to dynamic incitation. Acceleration of the fixture is relevant when using the response spectra dynamic analysis. If the fixture is ductile, fastening design can be based on the max. load that can be applied to the anchor when plastic deformation takes place.
2.3.3.2 Equivalent static analysis

Design when fastening a stiff fixture
The equivalent static analysis is the method suitable for designing fastenings for fixtures whose natural frequencies are considerably higher than the frequency of the ground oscillation (excitation frequency). Usually, this applies to fixtures (building components) with a fundamental frequency fo > 15 Hz. Examples of such fixtures are comparatively compact pieces of equipment which have stiff structures, like air conditioners. During an earthquake and if the fixture is stiff, it is subjected to an acceleration identical to that of the building or floor on which it is fastened. The equivalent force, acting at the fixture center of gravity (CG) and relevant for designing the fixture fastening, is equal to the mass inertia force, F, used when calculating the building floor acceleration, afloor.
Principle: Element (building component) acceleration = building floor acceleration
Fig. 2.20 Fastening design using the equivalent force process
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Example: Fastening of a switch cabinet
A stiff floor fastening of a switch cabinet is made with four heavyduty anchors of the M10 size. The admissible seismic loading of the anchors according to the ICBO ES Evaluation Report (ER) or the design resistance (loading capacity) according to the European Technical Approval (ETA) is: Fadm,eq = Rd,crack = 4.9 kN. The switch cabinet has a width b = 60 cm and a mass m = 500 kg. Its center of gravity (CG) lies at a height hCG = 100 cm above the floor.
Fig. 2.21 Design example: Stiff fastening of switch cabinet to a floor
A horizontal floor acceleration afloor = 0.75 g 7.5 m/s 2 is assumed as the design basic earthquake. The mass inertia force, F, with this stiff fastening is then: F F = m . afloor = 500 . 7.5 = 3,750 N = 3.75 kN
If the loading is uniformly distributed to all four anchors, the following relevant combined load results as the design load in the event of an earthquake: Vd = F / 4 Vd = 3.75 / 4 = 0.94 kN Nd = F . hCG / (2 . b) Nd = 3.75 . 100 / (2 . 60) = 3.13 kN
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Sd =
Vd + N d
Sd = 0.942 + 3.132 = 3.27kN

Verification of load-bearing safety
The admissible seismic loading, Fadm,eq, according to ICBO or the design resistance, Rd,crack, according to the ETA is higher than the design stress, Sd. This, therefore, verifies the structural safety: Fadm,eq = Rd,crack > Sd 2.3.3.3 Response spectra dynamic analysis
Design of fastenings for elastic elements with low frequency
Elastic fixtures, such as pipe installations, are incited by seismic actions and they then vibrate / oscillate. If fixtures have a comparatively low fundamental frequency fo < 15 Hz, the fixture acceleration can be considerably higher in comparison to the floor acceleration. Allowance must be made for this amplification. The fixture acceleration is decisive when designing fastenings. In the case of elastic fixtures, not the building floor acceleration but the fixture acceleration, aequip, governs the magnitude of the mass inertia force, F, acting on the fastenings. In order to accurately ascertain the fixture acceleration, the so-called floor response spectra for the respective installation location would have to be calculated first. Calculating these floor response spectra for each individual fastening and the vibration / oscillation behavior of the fixture (fastened component, equipment, etc.), however, is very complicated and often not possible in field practice. When designing fastenings, however, an estimated amplification of the acceleration is sufficiently accurate in most cases (see simplified design process 2.3.4.2).
Principle: Fixture acceleration > floor acceleration
Fig. 2.22 Fastening design using the response spectra process
Example: Air conditioner installed on anti-vibration mounts
A ventilation and air-conditioning unit is installed on spring damping mounts and secured to the floor with four heavy-duty anchors of the M10 size. In order to obtain a good insulating effect, the mounts are elastic, i.e. adjusted for low frequency. the natural frequency, fo, of the entire system is below 15 Hz.
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The admissible seismic loading of the anchors according to the ICBO ES Evaluation Report (ER) or the design resistance according to the European Technical Approval (ETA) is: Fadm,eq = R d,crack = 4.9 kN The ventilation and air-conditioning unit has a mass m = 600 kg and is mounted on a floor frame with a width b = 175 cm. The center of gravity (CG) of the unit is at a height h CG = 80 cm above the floor.
Fig. 2.23 Design example: A fan on anti-vibration mounts fastened to the floor
Doubled floor acceleration
A horizontal floor acceleration afloor = 0.75 g 7.5 m/s 2 is assumed as the design basic earthquake. The low natural frequency of the fan installed on the anti-vibration mounts results in an increase in acceleration by a factor Aequip = 2.0. Consequently, the value aequip = 1.5 g 15 m/s 2 is relevant for the fixture (equipment) acceleration. F F = m . aequip = 600 . 15 = 9,000 N = 9.0 kN
If the load is uniformly distributed to all four anchors, the following relevant combined loading results as the design stress in the event of an earthquake: Vd = F / 4 Vd = 9 / 4 = 2.25 kN Nd = F . hCG / (2 . b) Nd = 9 . 80 / (2 . 175) = 2.06 kN
Sd = Vd + N d
2 2
Sd = 2.25 2 +2.06 2 =3.05 kN
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The admissible seismic loading, Fadm,eq , according to ICBO or the design resistance, Rd,crack, according to the ETA is higher than the design stress, Sd. This thus verifies the structural safety: Fadm,eq = R d,crack > Sd 2.3.3.4 Analysis with plastic moment
Fastening design for ductile fixtures
Where ductile fixtures are concerned, i.e. those which can be deformed in the plastic range, such as base plates, columns or brackets, the fastening may be designed in such a way that it is capable of taking up those forces which are transferred when plastic deformation of the building component takes place. It is assumed in this case that the transferred force and the moment during plastic deformation remain constant The moment, M, acting on a fastening is equated to the plastic moment, Mplast, where the plastic moment results from the moment of resistance and the yield stress of the fixture. Then, the forces existing with this moment, Fplast, are determined from the plastic moment, Mplast,. The plastic deformation limits, so to speak, the max. possible force.
Principle: Plastic moment limits loading of fastening
Fig. 2.24 Fastening design using plastic moment
Example: Air conditioner installed on ductile frame
An air conditioner is fastened to the floor on a frame made of installation channels. The channels used as columns have a moment of resistance W = 3 cm3. These columns have a height hp = 50 cm. A two-hole base plate and heavy-duty anchors of the M10 size secure the air conditioner to the floor. The admissible seismic loading of the anchors according to the ICBO ES Evaluation Report (ER) or the design resistance according to the European Technical Approval (ETA) is: Fadm,eq = R d,crack = 4.9 kN
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Fig. 2.25 Design example: Air conditioner installed on a ductile frame
The installation channels are made of St 37-2 steel. The yield stress of the steel fy = 23,500 N/cm2. The moment at which the channels undergo plastic deformation, Mplast, is: Mplast = fy . W Mplast = 23,500 . 3.0 = 70,500 Ncm The plastic moment, Mplast, is generated by a force, Fplast, which acts on the column at a height, hp: Fplast = Mplast / hp Fplast = 70,500 / 50 = 1,410 N = 1.41 kN
Plastic forces and moments = max. stress
The max. forces and moments which can be transferred by the channel and thus act on the two-hole base plate are Fplast and Mplast. If there is uniform distribution of the load to the two anchors, the following relevant combined load results as the design stress: Vd = Fplast / 2 Vd = 1.41 / 2 = 0.71 kN Nd = Mplast / b Nd = 70,500 / 20 = 3,525 = 3.53 kN
Sd = Vd + N d
2 2
Sd = 0.712 +3.532 =3.6 kN

The admissible seismic loading, Fadm,eq , according to ICBO or the design resistance, Rd,crack, according to the ETA is higher than the design stress, Sd. This thus verifies the structural safety: Fadm,eq = R d,crack > Sd
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2.3.4 Simplified design process

Fastening design with the aid of amplification factors
Generally, calculating the floor acceleration, afloor, required for design work using the equivalent force process (2.3.3.2) or calculating the fixture acceleration, aequip, needed for design work using the response spectra process (2.3.3.3) is complicated because this calls for dynamic analysis of the building load-bearing structure and the fixture (equipment). A simplified design process carried out with the aid of amplification factors is given in the following. This process is based on a design method that is commonly used and described in pertaining literature. Calculation of the force, F, acting on the fixture and relevant for designing the fastenings, is carried out as follows using the fixture mass, m, the ground acceleration, a ground, and the amplification factors, An and Aequip: F = m . aground . An . Aequip
Factors A allow for the increase in ground acceleration caused by the building structure (1.2.2.2) and the increase in floor acceleration in the case of less stiff, elastic fixtures (2.3.3.3):
An = afloor aground Aequip = aequip afloor
The ground acceleration, aground, used in the design calculation is ascertained from the respective national standards and for the earthquake areas defined in them.
Fig. 2.26 Simplified design process using amplification factors
Conservative process
When using the simplified design process, the results are conservative, i.e. on the safe side. If the obtained equivalent forces are too high, the amplification then has to be determined accurately by dynamic analyses.
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2.3.4.1 Amplification due to building height

Amplification of max. 1.5 or 2.5
The relevant ground acceleration, aground, on the first floor of a building is amplified in the range of the natural frequencies of the load-bearing structure. This amplification automatically becomes larger the higher the building is. A process described in pertaining literature gives an amplification factor An = 1.5 on a building roof. In this respect, the amplification factor from first floor An,ground = 1.0 to building roof An,max = 1.5 can be interpolated linearly. Other design criteria provide a max. amplification factor An,max = 2.5 for buildings with more than four floors. On the basis of this information, an assumption on the safe side is that the amplification factor on the 4th floor of a building An = 1.5. Linear extrapolation thus gives a max. amplification factor An,max = 2.5 on the 12th floor. Independent of the floor, n, for which a design has to be carried out, the amplification, An, can be determined as follows or read from plots, Fig. 2.26.
An = n +1 8
Linear rise in amplification factor
Fig. 2.27 Amplification factor for building height
Scope
This simplified procedure cannot be applied to buildings with more than twelve floors. A dynamic analysis of the load-bearing structure then becomes necessary.
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2.3.4.2 Increase due to fixture

Increase due to resonance effect
Where fixtures are concerned which are not stiff, such as equipment installed on spring damping units or building components which have a comparatively low level of stiffness, the incitation by seismic actions can amplify the fixture acceleration, aequip, to the extent that it lies significantly above the floor acceleration, afloor. Several sources in literature give an amplification factor Aequip = 2.0 when the ratio of the natural period of the fixture (incl. the fastening), Tequip, to the period of the building or floor, T floor, satisfies the following condition. 0.6 < Tequip/Tfloor < 1.4
Increase by a factor of 2.0 for low-frequency fixtures
Taking this rule as the basis and the floor natural frequency in a standard case fo,floor = 10 Hz, it is assumed as a simplification that amplification is relevant for less stiff fixtures and for fastenings with a natural frequency fo,equip < 15 Hz. Stiff fixtures fo,equip = 15 Hz): Aequip = 1.0 Elastic fixtures fo,equip < 15 Hz): Aequip = 2.0
2.3.4.3 Example of a simplified analysis

Air conditioner fastened to a building roof
An air conditioner is installed on the roof of six-story building (n = 6). This equipment has a mass m = 550 kg, and is mounted on spring damping units to avoid the transfer of vibration / oscillations. For the building location, the national earthquake standard specifies a horizontal ground acceleration ag,horiz = 0.3 g for the relevant earthquake area. ag,horiz = m = 0.3 g 3 m/s 2 550 kg
Amplification factors: An = Aequip = 1.75 2.0 for n = 6 according to 2.3.4.1 for fo,equip < 15 Hz according to 2.3.4.2
The horizontal force acting at the C of G of the equipment and relevant for designing the fastening is as follows: Fhoriz = m . ag,horiz . An . Aequip F = 550 . 3.0 . 1.75 . 2.0 = 5,775 N 5.8 kN
horiz
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2.4
Using and securing beam clamps

2.4.1 Overview of beam clamps
Fastening with beam clamps
Generally, fastenings are made to steel beams with so-called beam clamps. Other methods are welding or drilling and screw / bolt fastening. These methods of fastening, however, are usually complicated, time consuming and expensive. Furthermore, they are not very flexible and tend to impair the corrosion protection of a beam. In view of this, they are not used very often. Earthquakeproofing measures for beam clamp fastenings are dealt with in the following. Fastenings made to steel beams with beam clamps are carried out as single suspensions (single-clamp fastenings) or as multipleclamp fastenings in conjunction with installation channels. Cshaped clamps are used for single suspensions and these are clipped or screwed onto beam flanges. Installation channels can also be fastened with C-type clamps. Other fastening versions for channel installations are the clamps shown in Fig. 2.27, which are also referred to as support plates.
Fastening versions
Fig. 2.28 Various beam clamps for fastening to steel beams
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2.4.2 Earthquake risk

Loosening and shifting of beam clamps
The acceleration generated and acting during earthquakes with pulsating or alternating loads can cause the screws / bolts holding beam clamps to work loose and the fastenings to shift due to the horizontal loading. There is then a risk of channels which are secured, for example, with support plates, slipping out of suspension hoops (Fig. 2.28 a) or the entire beam clamp slipping off the beam flange (Fig. 2.28 b).
Fig. 2.29 Possible modes of failure of fastenings made with beam clamps and support plates
Earthquake-proofing measures
The seismic qualification for fastenings made to steel beams consists of using clamp systems that are suitable for the respective beam section as well as their correct installation and measures to prevent the clamps from loosening and shifting. These are described in the following section 2.4.3.
2.4.3 Suitability and securing measures

Load-bearing safety in general
To guarantee the structural safety of fastenings made to steel beams in general, the following points must be observed: Beam clamps must be used which are suitable for the beam section (flange thickness, flange taper) and the fixture (threaded rod, installation channel). The fastening must be made properly (tightening torque).
Strategies for earthquake proofing
To particularly guarantee the safety during earthquakes of fastenings made to steel beams, the following additional measures can be taken: The clamping screws / bolts can be prevented from working loose, e.g. by using lock nuts. Clamps must be prevented from slipping, e.g. by providing teeth / serrated edges, retaining straps, etc. Installation channels must be prevented from shifting (slipping), e.g. by securing them with powder-actuated fasteners.
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2.4.3.1 Suitability of beam clamps

Securing clamping screws / bolts and teeth / serrations
Fastenings made to steel beams, which are suitable for earthquake restraint installations, are those that cannot or are hardly likely to shift on beam flanges under a pulsating or alternating load. Not very suitable in this respect are those fastenings that are only clipped on or whose clamping screw / bolt can work loose and those which can slip on flanges comparatively easily. With this in mind, it is better for the clamping bolt to be secured with a lock nut and for teeth or serrations, etc. to be provided to make it more difficult for beam clamps to slip.
Fig. 2.30 General suitability of beam clamps for earthquake-proof fastenings
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2.4.3.2 Securing measures

Limited or prevented shifting
The seismic qualification of fastenings made to steel beams essentially aims at limiting the slip of even loose beam clamps and thus of preventing the fastening from subsequently failing. Basically, this can be achieved with the following securing components: retaining straps end stops powder-actuated fasteners As shown in Fig. 2.30, beam clamps for single suspensions can, for example, be secured with retaining straps. After installation of the beam clamps, the straps are simply bent around the far beam flange. This prevents the beam clamps from slipping.
Retaining straps for single suspensions
Fig. 2.31 Securing a beam clamps for a single suspension with a HILTI MF-CS retaining strap
Retaining straps for installation channels
Installation channels fastened with support plates (Fig. 2.31 a) or beam clamps (Fig. 2.31 b) can also be secured with retaining straps. If the fastening is of the type shown in Fig. 2.31 b, it must be remembered without fail that the channels must also be screwed / bolted together with the beam clamps.
Fig. 2.32 Securing installation channels with HILTI MF-CS retaining straps
End stops for installation channels
It is often possible for end stops to be fitted in such a way with the installation channels that the channels cannot drop out of the beam clamps or suspension hoops. This must be absolutely certain, even if the fastening has worked loose and the channel has slipped owing to horizontal earthquake forces. The end stops are screwed / bolted to the adjacent side of the beam with play, s. This has to be smaller than the shift, u, which would cause failure of the fastening.
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Fig. 2.33 Securing installation channels with end stops
Post-securing of channels which are too short.
Often, when post-securing channels against earthquakes and these channels are too short, it is not possible for the end stops to be installed on the opposite beam flange. In these cases, retaining straps (Fig. 2.33 a) can be used or the channels have to be extended to permit the end stops to be fitted (Fig. 2.33 b).
Fig. 2.34 Post-securing of short installation channels
Securing installation channels with powderactuated fasteners
Installation channels installed on steel beams can be secured against shifting with powder-actuated fasteners. A single nail is usually sufficient. It must be remembered though, that this fastener has no load-bearing or fastening function (Fig. 2.34). As a powderactuated fastener can be placed without any preparatory or removal work, i.e. direct fastening, the use of a powder-actuated fastener is a very efficient method of post-securing against earthquakes.
Fig. 2.35 Securing installation channels with a powder-actuated fastener: HILTI DX fastening
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Installations
3.1
Pipes
3.1.1 Basic principle
Horizontal forces
The fastenings for earthquake restraint installation of pipes basically have to be designed so that the horizontal seismic loads can be taken in addition to the gravity forces. To take horizontal forces, the pipe fastenings must either be designed to be sufficiently flexurally stiff, or have bracing that can transfer the horizontal forces (Fh) in compression. It must be ensured that horizontal loads can be taken transversely and longitudinally in relation to the pipe axis.
Fig. 3.1 Horizontal seismic forces Fh,x transverse in relation to pipe axis
Fig. 3.2 Horizontal seismic forces Fh,y in direction of pipe axis
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3.1.2 Design of pipes The following design specifications apply to exposed pipes. Other seismic criteria govern buried pipes and pipes laid in concrete. 3.1.2.1 Pipe materials
Conventional pipe materials
No brittle materials
Seismic design of pipes can basically be carried out with the conventional materials (steel, non-ferrous metals and plastics) used for installing pipes. Such pipes include: Threaded gas and water pipes Seamless or welded steel pipes Stainless steel pipes Semi-hard or soft annealed copper pipes PVC or polyethylene (PE) pipes Pipes made of particularly brittle materials, such as, for example, cast iron, or special glass or ceramic pipes, are not to be regarded as earthquake-resistant. If such materials have to be used, the pipe fastenings must be designed to provide vibration damping. 3.1.2.2 Pipe joints
State of the art
The pipe connections can be designed using state-of-the-art methods and techniques: Screw and threaded connections Flanged connections Socket joints Welded and brazed joints
3.1.2.3 Pipe mass

Mass per meter run according to Appendix A1
The design of earthquake restraint pipe fastenings is governed by the mass of the pipe as well as the seismic action. The pipe masses (m') in kilograms per meter run [kg/m] are given for the common steel and plastic pipes in the tables in Attachment A1. The contents of the pipe and any lagging are to be taken into account in determining the mass of the pipe.
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3.1.3 Fastening pipes

Pipe installation
Individual pipes are normally installed with pipe rings or strip hangers. However, for earthquake restraint installation it must be ensured that horizontal seismic loads are taken by the pipe fastening (compare 3.1.1). Threaded rods used in pipe fastenings will only take the full moments produced by the horizontal forces if the rods are sufficiently stiff in flexure. However, if the loads are substantial and/or the distances below ceiling large, the moments acting on the fastenings can be too large. In such cases additional bracing is necessary to take the horizontal forces. Both transverse and longitudinal braces must be provided. They may be combined with the pipe fastening.
Braces for anchor rods with low flexural stiffness
Fig. 3.3 Bracing for individual pipe fastenings with pipe rings and anchor rods
Bracing for strip hangers
Strip hangers basically cannot take horizontal forces. Additional bracing is always necessary for earthquake-resistant fastening of pipes suspended with such systems. Since the strip of the hanger is incapable of taking any compression forces, transverse and longitudinal braces are necessary on both sides.
Fig. 3.4 Bracing for individual pipe fastenings with strip hangers
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3.1.3.1 Method of choosing and arranging bracing The method described below and shown in the flowchart, Fig. 3.5, is recommended for earthquake restraint installation of pipes. It involves three steps:
1: Necessity for braces
Starting from the pipe mass m', the distance of the pipe below the ceiling d and the necessary fastening or support spacing s, the first step involves determining whether any braces at all are necessary for seismic design. For M8, M10, M12 and M16 fastenings, this assessment can be carried out with the aid of Charts A2.1, A2.2, A2.3 and A2.4, which are to be found in the attachment. If bracing has to be used for earthquake restraint installation, suitable fastening sizes must be worked out in the second step. Depending on the governing seismic acceleration, the ideal size can be determined with the aid of the charts, Figs. 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15. In the last step, the minimum bracing spacing b necessary is determined with the aid of Charts A3.1, A3.2, A3.3 and A3.4. The spacing b depends on the governing horizontal acceleration, the mass of the pipe and the bracing height.
2: Choosing size of fastening
3: Brace spacing
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Fig. 3.5 Method of choosing and arranging braces
3.1.3.2 Necessity for bracing

Bracing for large horizontal load
Whether bracing is necessary basically depends on the magnitude of the seismic forces acting on the pipe fastenings. The moment arising in the anchor rod of the pipe fastening as a result of the horizontal forces depends on the pipe mass (m'), and on the distance below ceiling (d) at which the pipe is installed. With the aid of the charts to be found in Attachments A2.1, A2.2, A2.3 and A2.4, it is possible to determine for the different sizes of threaded rod (M8, M10, M12 and M16) whether bracing is necessary for earthquake restraint installation of a pipe. With the governing horizontal acceleration (ah), the distance below ceiling (d), and the support spacing (s) , the maximum pipe mass (m'max) at which earthquake restraint installation is still possible without bracing (Fig. 3.6) can be read off the charts. If the mass per meter
Necessity for bracing determined from Charts A2.1, A2.2, A2.3 and A2.4 in the Attachment
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run (m') of the pipe to be installed is greater than the maximum mass (m'max) read off the charts, bracing is necessary (Fig. 3.7).
Fig. 3.6 Pipe installation without bracing
Fig. 3.7 Pipe installation with brace
3.1.3.3 Designing bracing

Bracing taking the form of anchor rods or steel flats
Bracing can be made of anchor rods as shown in Fig. 3.8 or steel flats as shown in Fig. 3.9. For anchor rod braces, the same sizes (M8, M10, M12 and M16) as for the pipe fastenings are used. For steel flat braces, structurally equivalent sections as shown in Table 3.1 are used. Anchor rods or steel flats can be used for both transverse and longitudinal bracing. A practical example of the design of a pipe is to be found in Attachment A6.
Typical applications in Attachment A6
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Fig. 3.8 Anchor rod brace
Fig. 3.9 Steel flat brace
Table 3.1 Design of bracing
Pipe fastening size M8 M10 (3/8") M12 (1/2") M16 (5/8") Type "light-duty" "standard" "heavy -duty" "industrial"
Brace Anchor rod M8 M10 (3/8") M12 (1/2") M16 (5/8") Steel flat 4/20 mm 5/20 mm 6/30 mm 8/30 mm
Bracing angle
If possible, bracing is to be arranged at an angle of 45. If necessary for reasons of space, it may be arranged at a flatter or steeper angle within the range from 30 to 60. The spacings at which the braces are to be positioned must then be corrected according to Fig. 3.20.
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3.1.3.4 Fastening to concrete surface

Types of fastening
Pipe hangers with bracing can be fastened to the concrete surface in different ways. As shown in the following Figs. 3.10, 3.11 and 3.12, internally threaded anchors, baseplates, stud anchors or installation channels can be used. These types of fastening can be employed for both transverse and longitudinal bracing.
Fig. 3.10 Fastening with internally threaded anchor
Fig. 3.11 Fastening with baseplate and stud anchor
Fig. 3.12 Fastening with installation channel
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3.1.3.5 Choosing size of bracing

Bracing for every 3rd or 4th pipe fastening
It is advantageous to choose the size of any seismic bracing used for pipes so that a bracing spacing b > 10 m. Assuming a normal pipe fastening spacing of s = 2.5 to 4.0 m, every third or fourth fastening must then be braced. The ideal bracing size can be read off the following diagrams, Figs. 3.13, 3.14 and 3.15, for the particular pipe mass (mass per meter run of pipe m') and bracing height h.
Fig. 3.13 Ideal bracing sizes for an acceleration ah = 0.5 g Example read off chart 21/2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 9.16 kg/m Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing size: M8 "light-duty"
Angle 30 = = 45
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Fig. 3.14 Ideal bracing sizes for an acceleration of ah = 1.0 g Example read off diagram 21/2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 9.16 kg/m Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing size: M10 "standard"
Angle 30 = = 45
Fig. 3.15 Ideal bracing sizes for an acceleration of ah = 1.5 g Example read off diagram 114.3 mm dia. boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 18.9 kg/m Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing size: M12 "heavy-duty"
Angle 30 = = 45
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3.1.3.6 Bracing arrangement and spacing

Spacing as shown on Charts A3.1, A3.2, A3.3 and A3.4 in the Attachment
Pipe bracing to take horizontal seismic loads is to be arranged at a spacing of (b). This spacing can be read off Charts A3.1, A3.2, A3.3 and A3.4, which are assembled in Attachment A3, for the particular governing horizontal acceleration (ah), pipe mass (m') and bracing height (h). This spacing is the maximum permissible value, so the bracing may be closer together than this but not further apart. A separate chart applies to each type (M8 "lightduty", M10 "standard", M12 "heavy-duty" or M16 "industrial"). The pipe masses (m') can be determined with the aid of the tables in Attachment A1. It is advantageous for the bracing to be at a spacing that is a multiple of the normal pipe fastening spacing of (s), so that, for example, every third or fourth pipe fastening is braced.
Transverse and longitudinal
Transverse and longitudinal bracing must be at a spacing of (b), but may be installed separately (Fig. 3.16) or combined (Fig. 3.17) on the same pipe fastening.
Fig. 3.16 Bracing arranged transversely and longitudinally in relation to pipe axis and at spacing of b in each case
Fig. 3.17 Transverse and longitudinal bracing on the same pipe fastening
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Bracing for both horizontal directions
Where the pipe changes direction, particular care is necessary to ensure that bracing is not provided in one direction only (Fig. 3.18). In such cases it can sometimes be necessary to arrange identical sets of bracing one after another along the pipe axis (Fig. 3.19).
Fig. 3.18 Inappropriate arrangement of bracing (none in y direction)
Fig. 3.19 Horizontal forces in y direction taken by longitudinal bracing
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Reduction in spacing b for flat bracing
The maximum permissible spacing b at which transverse and longitudinal bracing must be used, which is read off Charts A3.1, A3.2, A3.3 and A3.4, applies to bracing at an angle of 30 = = 45. At larger angles , i.e. with flatter bracing, the length of the bracing increases and hence, because of the longer buckling length, its loading capacity decreases. If, for reasons of space, flatter bracing has to be installed, the spacing (b) is to be corrected as follows with the factor (k): b = k . b where: b spacing of bracing at angle of k correction factor from Fig. 3.20 b bracing spacing from Charts A3.1, A3.2, A3.3 and A3.4
Fig. 3.20 Factor k for correcting the maximum permissible spacing b for flatter bracing
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Installations
3.2
Air ducts
Horizontal forces
As for pipes (Chapter 3.1), the fastenings for seismic installation of air ducts must be designed and installed so that horizontal seismic loads can be taken in addition to the gravity forces. It must be ensured that horizontal seismic loads can be taken both transversely and longitudinally in relation to the ducts. 3.2.2 Design of air ducts
Normal design
Air ducts are basically to be designed in accordance with accepted practice. With the exception of the following designs for fastening the ducts, no special seismic design specifications have to be followed. Normal installation practice governs the duct materials, thicknesses of the sheet metal and connectors in particular. 3.2.2.1 Duct materials
Common materials
Seismic design of air ducts can basically be carried out with the conventional materials used for installing ducts (steel, aluminum and plastics). 3.2.2.2 Duct joints
State of the art
The duct connections can be designed on the basis of state-of-theart methods and techniques: Connections with sheet metal screws or pop rivets Flanged connections Socket joints Welded and brazed connections
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Installations
3.2.2.3 Duct mass

Mass per meter run in Appendices A4 and A5
The design of seismic duct fas tenings is governed by the mass of the air duct as well as the seismic action. The duct masses (m') in kilograms per meter run [kg/m] are given for the common spiral tubes in the tables in Attachment A4. The masses of rectangular ducts with different sheet metal thicknesses and cross sections are to be found in Attachment A5. Any lagging is to be taken into account in determining the mass of the duct. 3.2.3 Fastening ducts
Common duct fastenings
Spiral tubes or rectangular ducts are normally used as air ducts. The ducts can basically be installed with the usual fastenings, such as pipe rings or installation angles. However, for seismic fastening it must be ensured that horizontal seismic loads can be taken. 3.2.3.1 Fastening spiral tubes
Fastening with rings or installation straps
Spiral tubes can be installed with air duct rings (Figs. 3.21 and 3.22b) or with installation straps (Fig. 3.22a). M8 or M10 anchor rods are normally used for the fastening. Because of the large bending arm produced by the comparatively large diameter of the duct, and the small section modulus of M8 and M10 anchor rods, the bending stress in the anchor rod hangers under shear loading is generally large. To take horizontal seismic loads, air duct fastenings therefore have to be provided with bracing in many cases.
Low bending resistance of anchor rods
Fig. 3.21 Fastening of spiral tube with air duct ring and brace in transverse and/or axial direction
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Fig. 3.22 Fastening of spiral tube with installation strap, and with air duct ring and braces
Load transfer at wall penetrations and duct bends
Anchor rods are the best way of providing bracing. It must be ensured that the ducts are basically braced both transversely and longitudinally (Fig. 3.21). To avoid expensive designs, if possible wall penetrations (Fig. 3.23) and changes in the direction of the duct (Fig. 3.24) are to be used to enable horizontal forces to be transferred at these points, so that additional anchor rod braces are not necessary.
Fig. 3.23 Seismic loads in direction of duct axis taken by wall penetration
Fig. 3.24 Seismic loads in direction of duct axis taken by fastening on bend
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Bracing for every fastening for large diameter ducts
Every fastening of spiral tubes with pipe rings and M8 anchor rods generally must have bracing if the tube diameter = 200 mm. From a tube diameter of = 300 mm, every fastening with M10 anchor rods has to have one brace. However, in the case of smaller ducts at smaller distances below ceiling d, bracing may only be necessary for every 2nd or 3rd fastening. The number of anchors that have to be provided for seismic fastening of spiral tubes can be read off the charts, Figs. 3.25 and 3.26, for the particular duct diameter and distance below ceiling.
Fig. 3.25 Necessity for bracing for spiral tube fastenings with M8 anchor rods Example read off chart Spiral tube: = 125 mm Distance below ceiling: d = 250 mm Fastening with M8 anchor rods Bracing necessary for every 2nd duct fastening
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3.2.3.2 Fastening air ducts

Fastening with installation angles
Rectangular air ducts are usually fastened with air duct installation angles. For powder-actuated ceiling fastening, wall or channel installation (compare with 3.3), L-shaped installation angles can be used (Fig. 3.27 a). L-shaped (Fig. 3.27 b) or Z-shaped installation angles (Fig. 3.27 c) are also used for suspension with anchor rods. The other usual alternatives, with which the duct is installed on a suspended installation channel, are to be designed according to Chapter 3.3.
Channel installation
Fig. 3.27 Fastening air ducts with installation angles
Anchor fastening design using the equivalent force process
Measures taken to ensure the earthquake resistance of powderactuated and suspended air duct fastenings include the correct choice of anchor fastening. The loads governing this choice can be calculated with the aid of the equivalent static analysis (2.3.3.2). The air duct mass (m`) required for the calculation can be determined for different duct cross sections and sheet metal thicknesses with the aid of the tables in Attachment A5. With powder-actuated fastening as shown in Fig. 3.27a, with the exception of anchor design no other seismic measures are necessary. If rectangular ducts are suspended from anchor rods as shown in Fig. 3.27b or 3.27c, measures must always be adopted to transfer horizontal seismic loads, since the anchor rods are comparatively flexible in bending.
Shear force transfer with suspended installation of ducts
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Bracing and exploiting duct routing
Depending on the distance below the ceiling and the size (mass) of the duct, the hangers are to be reinforced with one (Fig. 3.28a) or two (Fig. 3.28b) braces. Duct bends, tees and wall penetrations are to be exploited where possible to take shear forces, so that the necessity for bracing is eliminated (Fig. 3.28c).
Fig. 3.28 Seismic reinforcement of suspended rectangular ducts
Typical applications in Attachment A6
An example of the practical design of the bracing of a rectangular duct is to be found in Attachment A6.
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3.3
Horizontal forces
Fastenings employing installation channels are generally used for installation runs with several parallel pipes and/or air ducts. As for individual pipes (Chapter 3.1) or air ducts (Chapter 3.2), the fastenings for seismic channel installation must be designed and installed so that the horizontal seismic loads can be taken in addition to the gravity forces. It must be ensured that seismic loads can be taken both transversely and longitudinally. 3.3.2 Installation methods
Powder-actuated fastening, suspended installation and wall installation
Channels can basically be installed using powder-actuated ceiling fastening (Fig. 3.29), suspended from the ceiling (Fig. 3.30) or installed as brackets on the wall (Fig. 3.31). Single or double rows are also possible with suspended installation channels or brackets.
Fig. 3.29 Powder-actuated ceiling fastening
Fig. 3.30 Suspended ceiling installation (single or double row)
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Fig. 3.31 Wall (bracket) installation
The fastened mass (m`) governs seismic installation
All types of building services, such as heating and plumbing pipes, air ducts or cable runs, can basically be installed with channels (Fig. 3.32). Fundamentally, however, this is not what governs the loading of the installation channels, connectors and fastenings in the concrete surface, and hence the earthquake resistance of the channels. What is more critical is the mass fastened to the channel structure.
Fig. 3.32 Channel installation of different building services (e.g. air ducts, pipes and cable runs)
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3.3.3 Seismic installation

Bracing to take horizontal forces
To ensure earthquake-resistant channel installation, the fastenings must be able to take the horizontal seismic forces . In a similar way to the individual pipe (Chapter 3.1) and air duct (Chapter 3.2) fastenings, bracing is also necessary for this purpose. 3.3.3.1 Powder-actuated fastening
Suitable anchor fastenings
With channels installed on the ceiling with powder-actuated fastenings, earthquake resistance is ensured if suitable and correctly designed anchor fastenings are used for fixing to the concrete surface, and if the individual fastenings installed on the channel meet the loading requirements. The stipulations of Chapter 3.1 for pipe fastenings and Chapter 3.2 for air duct fastenings basically govern seismic design of the individual fastenings. As a result, depending on the distance below the ceiling d (Fig. 3.33) measured from the installation channel, the mass of the pipe or air duct and the horizontal acceleration, individual braces can sometimes be necessary (Fig. 3.34).
Design of individual fastenings in accordance with 3.1 and 3.2
Fig. 3.33 Channel installation of pipes with distance below ceiling d
Fig. 3.34 Channel installation with seismic bracing of one pipe
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3.3.3.2 Suspended (U-support) installation

Stiff U-support structures or bracing
To ensure earthquake resistance, suspended ceiling fastenings must basically be designed so that horizontal forces can be taken. This can be achieved by designing them as sufficiently stiff Usupport structures (Fig. 3.35). Channels suspended with anchor rods always require transverse and longitudinal bracing (Figs. 3.36 and 3.37).
Fig. 3.35 U-support assembled from installation channels
Fig. 3.36 Installation channel suspended with anchor rods and transversely braced
Fig. 3.37 Installation channel suspended with anchor rods and longitudinally braced
3.3.3.3 Wall (bracket) installation

Longitudinal bracing
Wall or bracket fastenings basically allow forces transverse to the axis of the pipe to be transferred effectively. However, to ensure earthquake resistance of brackets, in many cases bracing in the direction of the pipe axis is necessary (Fig. 3.38).
Fig. 3.38 Longitudinally braced wall bracket
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3.3.3.4 Summary of measures The following Table 3.2 summarizes the types of installation that may necessitate special seismic qualification measures. Attachment A6 gives concrete examples of practical versions of seismic channel designs.
Table 3.2 Measures for seismic channel installation
Typical application examples in Attachment A6
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Interior finishing, equipment
4.1
Ceiling paneling and suspended ceilings

4.1.1 Overview of systems
Fastened directly to loadbearing ceiling
Ceiling systems are described as ceiling paneling if they and their support framing are fastened directly to the load-bearing structure (Fig. 4.1 a). Ceilings of this type consist, for example, of gypsum or plaster boards that are secured to support framing made of timber laths or battens. Ceiling systems are described as suspended ceilings if they are hung, i.e. suspended, from the load-bearing ceiling with hangers (Fig. 4.1 b). They consist, for example, of mineral-fiber panels that fit in a suspended, light metal structure. In the following, both ceiling systems are shown schematically.
Suspended from loadbearing ceiling
Fig. 4.1 Ceiling paneling a) and suspended ceilings b)
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4.1.2 Seismic effects

Major hazard for people
Fig. 4.2 Damage to a suspended ceiling caused by an earthquake: San Francisco Airport, 1989
Ceiling paneling and suspended ceilings are damaged extremely often by earthquakes. Although ceiling components often have only a comparatively low weight, the risk to people from falling parts of a ceiling should not be underestimated. Especially in busy public buildings and very tall rooms, ceiling components falling because of an earthquake can be a major hazard for people.
The reasons why, comparatively speaking, ceiling paneling and suspended ceilings react very sensitively to the effects of earthquakes are varied. As, in standard cases, ceiling paneling and suspended ceilings are subjected only to their own weight, the load-bearing safety reserves of fastenings and hangers are often too small, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, these fastenings and hangers are not designed for earthquake forces acting dynamically in a horizontal direction in many cases. The following Table 4.1 shows the main types of earthquake damage to ceiling paneling and suspended ceilings as well as the general measures to be taken to avoid it. The following sections 4.1.3 Ceiling paneling and 4.1.4 Suspended ceilings describe the earthquake qualification measures in detail.
Table 4.1 Overview of earthquake damage and damage avoidance measures for ceilings Earthquake damage
Ceiling paneling
Suspended ceilings
Collapse / falling of ceiling panels Vertical
Swinging ceiling
Failure of hangers
Collapse / falling of ceiling panels Vertical
Relevant direction of loading
Horizontal
Horizontal / vertical Securing
Earthquake qualification measure
Fastening
Collapse / falling
Securing
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4.1.3 Ceiling paneling

Ensure load-bearing safety of fastenings.
If ceiling paneling is to be earthquake restraint after installation, the fastenings and connections must be made in such a way that sufficient load-bearing safety reserves exist and that the dynamic loads imposed during an earthquake are taken up. This applies not only to fastenings made to the load-bearing structure, but also to ceiling panel connections to the support framing. Anchors suitable for taking up seismic actions must be used in principle for fastenings made to the load-bearing structure (see section 2.2). In this respect, plastic anchors are hardly suitable for this type of application (Fig. 4.3). Screws / bolts are fundamentally better than nails or clips for the earthquake-proof fastening of ceiling panels to their support framing (Fig. 4.3). Especially with smooth-shank or very short nails, there is a risk of the nails pulling out and the ceiling panels collapsing / falling to the floor.
Suitable anchors and screws / bolts instead of nails
Fig. 4.3 Earthquake proofing of fastenings holding ceiling paneling
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4.1.4 Suspended ceilings

Earthquake hazard
The main earthquake hazard with suspended ceilings comes from the swinging action or oscillation of the entire ceiling structure initiated by the horizontal acceleration. This can result in hangers failing and ceiling panels collapsing / falling down (see table 4.1). A ceiling that swings can also cause damage to other fixtures, equipment, non-structural components, etc., such as the lighting. The following outlines the measures that can be taken to avoid earthquake damage to suspended ceilings. 4.1.4.1 Bracing of ceiling structure
Earthquake hazard
As hangers are designed mostly as components to carry only tensile loads and are thus not very stiff, horizontal acceleration can easily incite suspended ceilings to oscillate / swing. The resulting relative displacement and knocking against other fixtures, equipment, non-structural components, etc., can cause ceiling parts to collapse / fall to the floor and damage to fixtures, equipment, non-structural components, etc. To avoid any swinging during an earthquake, bracing can be installed with some hangers to take up horizontal forces (Fig. 4.4 a). It must then be borne in mind that bracing is required in a longitudinal and transverse direction of a room. Horizontal forces can also be taken up by fastening a ceiling to walls (Fig. 4.4 b).
Fig. 4.4 Earthquake-proofing measures to avoid swinging / oscillation
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4.1.4.2 Securing ceilings hangers

Earthquake hazard
Fig. 4.5 shows types of hangers widely used for suspended ceilings. Below, in Fig. 4.6, are examples of methods of earthquake qualification hangers. In the case of spring-tensioned hangers, care must be taken to use rods of adequate length and the right diameter. Nonius hangers have to be secured with pins which cannot drop out. Wire hangers should be secured in such a way that the support framing cannot become detached during an earthquake.
Fig. 4.5 Types of hangers for suspended ceilings
Fig. 4.6 Earthquake-proofing of hangers
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4.1.4.3 Securing ceiling panels In the case of so-called insert ceilings, mineral fiber or metal ceiling panels are laid in a metal structure. Ceiling panels of this type often ride up and out of the metal structure during an earthquake and then fall to the floor (Fig. 4.2). Methods of securing ceiling panels are shown in Fig. 4.7. Possible securing measures are the use of compression springs (Fig. 4.7 a) or clips (Fig. 4.7 b) or screw fastenings (Figs 4.7 c and d).
Fig. 4.7 Earthquake qualification of ceiling panels
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Interior finishing & equipment
4.2
Raised floors
4.2.1 Overview of use and design
Flexible cable routing possible in cavity
Raised floors are used in offices, computer rooms, distribution centers, etc. They allow electrical and communication cables to be laid in the cavity and flexibly routed to where needed. The cavity can also be used for installing air ducts or pipes for sanitary installations. Raised floors are made up of floor panels laid on pedestals (Fig. 4.8 a). The panels are usually square and therefore interchangeable. The pedestals are bonded or anchored to the concrete floor. Where the raised floor has to be temporarily covered over large areas or uses high pedestals, and generally to improve horizontal stability and increase load capacity, the floor panels are laid on support framing consisting of longitudinal and transverse stringers (Fig. 4.8.b).
Square grid
Support framing for extra stability
Fig. 4.8 Construction of raised floors without a) and with b) support framing
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4.2.2 Seismic risk

Hazards due to horizontal loads
Raised floors are basically designed to take vertical loads (caused by weight). When subjected to horizontal earthquake loads (inertia forces caused by mass), the pedestals can tip over or buckle, causing the entire floor structure to collapse. Particularly endangered are floors that use high pedestals, lack enclosing walls, transfer horizontal loads or carry heavy equipment or fixtures. 4.2.3 Seismic qualification measures
Bracing support framing or separate floor frames
The prime objective of earthquake qualification measures for raised floors is to take the horizontal forces that arise during seismic activity. Such measures are necessary if, with high superimposed loads, freestanding floor areas and/or high pedestals, the horizontal forces could lead to failure of the floor structure. There are basically two types of measures that can be taken: Bracing the support framing Separate floor frames for heavy equipment or fixtures Examples of design measures for earthquake qualification of raised floors without support framing (compare Fig. 4.8 a) include flexurally rigid design, fastening of the pedestals and consistent use of screws to fasten the floor panels to the pedestals. However, such measures are usually difficult to implement. 4.2.3.1 Bracing support framing
Earthquake-proofing of floors without support framing
Bracing for floors without adjoining walls or with heavy loads
If the support framing of the raised floor cannot be fastened laterally to a wall and braced (Fig. 4.9 a), and at points at which the floor is loaded with heavy equipment or fixtures (Fig. 4.9 b), 45 bracing with installation channels must be installed to take the horizontal forces. The bracing is to be bolted to the support framing and anchored to the concrete floor. If the horizontal seismic loads cannot be taken by wall fastenings, the transverse and longitudinal beams have to be braced (horizontal forces in x and y directions).
Bracing for x direction and y direction
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Design using the equivalent force process Fig. 4.9 Bracing for a) floors without adjoining walls and b) with high loads
The bracing and its bolts and fastenings can be designed using the equivalent static analysis (compare Chapter 2.3.4).
4.2.3.2 Floor frames

Advantageous with heavy equipment or fixtures with numerous cables
It is advantageous to install on separate floor frames comparatively large and heavy equipment or fixtures, such as switch cabinets or racks, for which numerous electrical cables are laid in the floor cavity, and which may also require a supply of cooling air from the cavity. Such frames are completely separate from the floor, and have to be fastened separately. Raised floor frames are made up of installation channels and connectors, and anchored to the concrete floor. Earthquake restraint floor frames must be designed with sufficient stiffness to resist shear forces. This can be achieved by fitting diagonal channels in the framework. Earthquake restraint floor frames and their fastenings can be designed using the equivalent static analysis (compare Chapter 2.3.4).
Stiffened design with installation channels
Design using the equivalent force proce ss
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Fig. 4.10 Equipment or fixtures fastened to earthquake-proof floor frame assembled from installation channels
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4.3
Furniture, equipment and other movable items

4.3.1 Seismic effects
Tipping, moving or swinging of non-fixed objects
Furniture, equipment and stored items can basically be expected to move and/or tip over or fall under seismic loading. Suspended items start swinging and can be damaged by hitting something if there is insufficient clearance for the motion to take place freely.
Fig. 4.11 Earthquake hazards for furniture and equipment
Narrow racks and shelves tipping or falling, and suspended items swinging
Cabinets and shelves with a narrow footprint and high center of gravity are most in danger of tipping over. Horizontal seismic motion causes non-fixed items of equipment and stored goods to move. Equipment installed on a base and goods stored on racks can eventually fall off. Suspended items of equipment, such as light fittings, start swinging when an earthquake occurs. This can cause them to hit fixed objects, or even slip off a hook and fall down. Heavily loaded shelves and cabinets, for example carrying books or files, can themselves collapse under horizontal loading. The reinforcement necessary to prevent this is not covered below. The following chapter specifies earthquake qualification measures that can be used to prevent tipping, movement, falling, swinging and impact.
Reinforcement of heavily loaded shelves
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4.3.2 Seismic qualification measures

Measures for lifeline facilities
Earthquake qualification of furniture and equipment in buildings can prevent severe property damage in the event of an earthquake. In the case of buildings that have to remain fully functional after an earthquake, earthquake qualification of equipment may even be mandatory. This mainly applies to "lifeline facilities", such as hospitals, command centers or communication facilities. In industrial plants and service operations, damage to equipment can lead to production or service failures, and correspondingly high losses. Sesimic qualification of furniture and equipment is therefore often advisable. 4.3.2.1 Seismic qualification strategies
Reducing major damage to property
Bracing, securing and staying
The basic strategies are shown in the following figure. Tall, slender items can be prevented from tipping over by fastening to the wall or bracing to the ceiling (Fig. 4.12 a). Barriers are to be provided for shelves and racks, and at the edges of bases, to prevent freely movable equipment or objects falling off (Fig. 4.12 b). Suspended items are to be supported or stayed with cables (Fig. 4.12 c).
Fig. 4.12 Earthquake-proofing strategies
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4.3.2.2 Securing against tipping

Wall angles or wall braces
Cabinets or shelves positioned against walls can simply be secured with fastening angles as shown in Fig. 4.13 a. When positioned near the wall, they can be braced, for example with installation channels as shown in Fig. 4.13 b.
Fig. 4.13 Securing cabinets and shelves positioned against or near a wall
U-supports or inclined bracing
Freestanding cabinets or shelves must be supported or braced from the ceiling. For example, U-supports (Fig. 4.14 a) or bracing with inclined channels as shown in Fig. 4.14 b can be used.
Fig. 4.14 Securing freestanding cabinets and shelves
In addition to securing the units themselves, the fact that goods can fall out of the cabinets or off the shelves in the event of an earthquake must be taken into account. It may therefore be necessary to secure cabinet doors and individual shelves (see Chapter 4.2.3.2).
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4.3.2.3 Securing against falling

Barriers and lips to prevent falling
To secure freely movable equipment or other items from falling, barriers can be installed at the edges of concrete bases or individual shelves. A tensioned wire rope is also sometimes sufficient to prevent comparatively light goods falling off.
Fig. 4.15 Examples of methods of preventing items falling off concrete bases and individual shelves
4.3.2.4 Securing against impact

Preventing swinging or providing clearance for motion
Light fittings and ceiling panels, which an earthquake can cause to swing and hit other fittings or fixtures, so that some or all of the items are damaged, can be braced with anchor rods or channels, or stayed with cables (Fig. 4.16 a). If it is decided not to prevent this motion, sufficient clearance for it to take place freely must be provided. Ensure, however, that the hook does not allow the items to slip off and fall down (Fig. 4.16 b).
Fig. 4.16 Securing against impact
94
Bibliography
Ammann, W. J.: Fastening systems under seismic loading conditions, Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1992 Ammann, W. J. et al.: Verstrkungsmassnahmen fr erdbebengefhrdete Bauwerke, Dokumentation D 097, Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und Architekten-Verein, Zrich, 1993 Bachmann, H.: "Erdbebensicherung von Bauwerken", Birkhuser Verlag, Basel, 1995 CEB: Fastenings for Seismic Retrofitting, State-of-the-art Report on Design and Application, Bulletin d'Information Nr. 226, Comit Euro-International du Beton, Paris, August 1995 Eder S. J., Yanev p. I.: "Evaluation of cable tray and conduit systems using the seismic experience data base", in: Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 107 (1988) 155-160, North-Holland, Amsterdam EERI: (1984): "Nonstructural Issues of Seismic Design and Construction", Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Berkeley, California, Publication No. 84-04, June 1984 FEMA-172; (1990): "Techniques for seismically rehabilitation existing buildings", Federal Emergency Management Agency, Los Angeles, 1990 Goldberg A., Rukos E. A.: "Nonstructural elements" in Rosenblueth E. (Ed.): "Design of earthquake resistant structures", Pentech Press, London, 1980 Hardy G. S. et al.: "Piping seismic adequacy criteria recommendations based on performance during earthquakes", in: Nuclear Engineering and Design, Vol. 107 (1988) 155-160, North-Holland, Amsterdam Hilti Corp.: "Seismic Restraint System Manual for Bracing of Pipes and Conduit", Hilti Corp.,Tulsa, First Edition 2001 John, M.: "Anwendungsinformationen Erdbeben", Hilti AG, 1998 Kunz, J. et al.: Dynamisch belastete Befestigungen in Betonuntergrnden, Schweizer Ingenieur und Architekt, Nr. 9, Zrich 5. Mrz 1999 NEHRP, National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program; (1989): "Techniques for Seismically Rehabilitating Existing Buildings (Preliminary), Federal Emergency Management Agency, URS/John A. Blume & Associates, San Francisco Rosman, R.: "Erdbebenwiderstandsfhiges Bauen", Verlag Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn, Berlin-Mnchen, 1983 Satzger, H.: Schden an Deckenbekleidungen und abgehngten Decken, Frauenhofer IRB Verlag, Stuttgart, 1998 95
Bibliography
Schuler, D.: "Befestigungen gebudetechnischer und industrieller Installationen", Studientagung "Sicherheit und Dauerhaftigkeit von Befestigungssystemen, SIA-Dokumentation D 055, SIA, Zrich, 1990 Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association Inc., SMACNA, "Seismic Restraint Manual Guidelines for Mechanical Systems" Second Edition, February, 1998 SIA Dokumentation D 097, "Verstrkungsmassnahmen fr erdbebengefhrdete Bauwerke, Zrich, September, 1993 Tauby, R. T. et al.: A Practical Guide to Seismic Restraint, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta, 1999 Technische Weisung Schock-Schutz, Gruppe Rstung, Bundesamt fr Armeematerial und Bauten, Bern, 2001
96
Appendix
A1
Mass of pipes
A 1.1 Threaded pipes according to DIN 2440 (medium-duty)
Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] 8 10 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 Size [inches] 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 2 2 1/2 3 4 5 6 OD [mm] 13.5 17.2 21.3 26.9 33.7 42.4 48.3 60.3 76.1 88.9 114.3 139.7 165.1 empty [kg/m] 0.65 0.85 1.22 1.58 2.44 3.14 3.81 5.10 6.51 8.47 12.10 16.20 19.20 1.01 1.47 2.02 3.13 4.30 5.15 7.55 10.52 13.98 21.30 30.17 39.06 1.30 1.80 2.40 3.90 5.70 6.60 9.90 15.00 19.90 30.90 40.60 50.40 2.25 2.75 3.00 3.50 3.75 4.25 4.75 5.50 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] with lagging [kg/m] Sup.spacing max. rec. [m]
97
Appendix
A 1.2 Steel (boiler) pipes according to DIN 2448

Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] 10 15 20 25 32 40 Size [inches] 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1 1/4 1 1/2 OD [mm] 17.2 21.3 26.9 33.7 44.5 48.3 51.0 50 2 57.0 60.3 63.5 65 2 1/2 76.1 82.5 80 94 3 88.9 101.6 108.0 100 4 114.3 127.0 133.0 125 5 139.7 152.4 159.0 150 6 168.3 177.8 193.7 200 219.1 244.5 250 300 350 400 500 273.0 323.9 355.6 406.4 508.0 empty [kg/m] 0.69 0.96 1.41 2.01 2.70 2.95 3.12 3.90 4.14 4.36 5.28 6.31 6.81 8.76 9.33 9.90 12.20 12.80 13.50 16.40 17.10 18.10 21.30 26.00 33.10 37.00 41.40 55.50 68.60 86.30 135.00 Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] 0.83 1.20 1.80 2.65 3.91 4.41 4.77 5.96 6.47 6.97 9.16 10.86 12.15 15.76 17.31 18.90 23.32 25.07 27.12 32.54 34.76 39.93 43.40 51.26 64.73 91.40 95.40 130.85 159.20 204.40 320.50 with lagging [kg/m] 1.50 2.50 3.20 4.30 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.60 9.00 9.50 13.90 15.20 18.40 24.80 27.50 28.80 35.10 36.50 38.20 46.50 48.90 50.60 58.90 66.50 79.50 108.50 111.70 150.00 198.20 227.70 345.50 Sup.spacing max. rec. [m] 2.25 2.75 3.00 3.50 3.75 4.25 4.40 4.60 4.75 5.50 5.75 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00
98
Appendix
A 1.3 Stainless steel pipes according to DIN 17455, Series 1

Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] OD [mm] 17.2 21.3 26.9 33.7 42.4 48.3 60.3 76.1 88.9 114.3 139.7 168.3 219.1 273.0 323.9 406.4 508.0 wall thickness [mm] 1.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.60 2.60 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 empty [kg/m] 0.63 0.97 1.25 1.58 2.02 2.31 2.92 3.70 4.35 7.27 8.92 13.20 17.30 21.60 25.70 32.30 40.40 Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] 0.78 1.21 1.66 2.27 3.18 3.85 5.41 7.78 10.01 16.62 23.13 34.09 52.83 80.14 108.10 162.02 243.08 with lagging [kg/m] 1.45 2.50 3.10 4.00 4.80 5.45 7.95 12.50 16.25 26.50 34.00 47.75 67.50 96.50 127.25 185.50 268.00 Sup.spacing max. rec. [m] 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.25 2.75 3.00 4.00 4.25 4.75 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
99
Appendix
A 1.4 Copper pipes according to EN 1057

Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] OD [mm] 6 8 10 12 15 18 22 28 35 42 54 64 76 88.9 108.0 133.0 159.0 wall thickness [mm] 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 0.25 0.30 0.39 0.47 0.58 1.11 1.42 1.70 2.91 3.47 4.10 4.90 7.40 10.90 13.10 0.30 0.38 0.52 0.67 0.90 1.60 2.21 2.89 4.87 6.29 8.20 10.50 15.70 31.50 ????? 0.40 0.50 0.80 1.00 1.30 2.40 3.10 4.40 7.30 9.80 14.00 16.40 27.50 35.80 43.50 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.50 2.00 2.25 2.75 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.25 4.75 5.00 5.00 5.00 empty [kg/m] Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] with lagging [kg/m] Sup.spacing max. rec. [m]
A 1.5 Rigid PVC- drain pipes according to DIN 19532 and DIN 8063, Series 3
Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] 40 50 65 80 100 125 150 OD [mm] 50.0 63.0 75.0 90.0 110.0 140.0 160.0 wall thickness [mm] 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.7 empty [kg/m] 0.42 0.56 0.78 1.13 1.64 2.13 3.44 Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] 1.94 3.04 4.30 6.19 10.70 11.90 19.47 with lagging [kg/m] Sup.spacing max. rec. 20C [m] 40C 1.40 1.50 1.65 1.80 2.00 2.25 2.40 1.10 1.20 1.35 1.50 1.70 1.95 2.10
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Appendix
A 1.6 Polyethylene (PE50) pipes for nominal pressure of PN10

Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] 20 25 26 34 40 60 70 80 100 125 150 200 OD [mm] 20 25 32 40 50 63 75 90 110 125 160 200 wall thickness [mm] 2.0 2.3 2.9 3.7 4.6 5.8 6.8 8.2 10.0 11.4 14.6 18.2 empty [kg/m] 0.11 0.16 0.26 0.41 0.63 1.00 1.40 2.02 3.00 3.89 6.37 9.93 Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] 0.31 0.49 0.80 1.24 1.94 3.07 4.36 6.27 9.36 12.09 19.81 30.95 with lagging [kg/m] Sup.spacing Max. rec. [m]
A 1.7 Geberit polyethylene drain pipes *10 x diameter in accordance with manufacturer's specification
Pipe dimensions DN [nom.dia.] 26 34 40 50 60 70 80 100 125 150 200 250 300 OD [mm] 32 40 50 56 63 75 90 110 125 160 200 250 315 wall thickness [mm] 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.5 4.3 4.9 6.2 6.2 7.8 9.8 empty [kg/m] 0.24 0.33 0.46 0.48 0.61 0.73 0.96 1.49 1.90 3.00 3.62 5.48 8.97 Pipe masses m' full of water [kg/m] 0.77 1.23 1.98 2.44 3.15 4.46 6.37 9.56 12.35 20.11 31.26 48.63 77.50 with lagging [kg/m] Sup.spacing max. rec. [m] 0.32* 0.40* 0.50* 0.56* 0.63* 0.75* 0.90* 1.10* 1.25* 1.60* 2.00* 2.50* 3.15*
101
Appendix
A2
Necessity for pipe bracing

A 2.1 Pipe fastenings with M8 anchor rod
Example read off chart 1" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 2.65 kg/m Seismic acceleration: a = 0.9 g Distance below ceiling: d = 200 mm Support spacing: s = 2.0 m Max. mass: mmax ' = 3.0 kg/m m'max > m' No bracing necessary
Example read off chart 2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 6.47 kg/m Seismic acceleration: a = 0.9 g Distance below ceiling: d = 200 mm Support spacing: s = 3.0 m Max. mass: mmax ' = 4.0 kg/m m'max < m' Bracing necessary
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Appendix
Example read off chart 2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 6.47 kg/m Seismic acceleration: a = 0.9 g Distance below ceiling: d = 200 mm Support spacing: s = 3.0 m Max. mass: mmax ' = 7.0 kg/m m'max > m' No bracing necessary
Example read off chart 4" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 18.9 kg/m Seismic acceleration: a = 0.9 g Distance below ceiling: d = 250 mm Support spacing: s = 3.0 m Max. mass: mmax ' = 14.7 kg/m m'max < m' Bracing necessary
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Appendix
Choosing bracing size

Bracing for every 3rd or 4th pipe fastening
It is advantageous to choose the size of any seismic bracing used for pipes so that a bracing spacing of b > 10 m results. Assuming a normal pipe fastening spacing of s = 2.5 - 4.0 m, every third or fourth fastening must then be braced. The ideal bracing size can be read off the following charts, Figs. 3.13. 3.14 and 3.15, for the particular pipe mass (mass per meter of pipe length m') and bracing height h.
Fig. 3.13 Ideal bracing sizes for an acceleration of ah = 0.5 g Example read off chart 21/2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 9.16 kg/m Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing size: M8 "light-duty"
Angle 30-45
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Fig. 3.14 Ideal bracing sizes for an acceleration of ah = 1.0 g Example read off chart 21/2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 9.16 kg/m Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing size: M10 "standard"
Angle 30-45
Fig. 3.15 Ideal bracing sizes for an acceleration of ah = 1.5 g Example read off chart 114.3 mm dia. boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 18.9 kg/m Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing size: M12 "heavy-duty"
Angle 30 = = 45
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A3
Pipe bracing spacing

The pipe masses (m') can be determined using the tables assembled in Attachment A1. The bracing is advantageously combined with the normal pipe fastenings at a spacing of (s), so that, for example, every third or fourth pipe fastening is braced.
Transverse and longitudinal directions
Transverse and longitudinal bracing must be at a spacing of (b), but may be installed separately (Fig. 3.16) or combined (Fig. 3.17) on the same pipe fastening.
Fig. 3.16 Bracing arranged transversely and longitudinally in relation to the pipe axis, and at a spacing of b
Fig. 3.17 Bracing for the longitudinal and the transverse direction on the same pipe fastening
Bracing for both horizontal directions
Where the pipe changes direction, particular care is necessary to ensure that bracing is not provided in one direction only (Fig. 3.18). In such cases it can sometimes be necessary to arrange identical sets of bracing one after another along the pipe axis (Fig. 3.19).
Fig. 3.18 Unfavorable arrangement of bracing (none in y direction)
Fig. 3.19 Horizontal forces in y direction taken by longitudinal bracing
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Appendix
A 3.1 M8 "light-duty" bracing
Example read off chart 2" boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 6.47 kg/m Seismic acceleration: a = 0.9 g Bracing height: h = 300 mm Bracing spacing: b = 12.8 m
A 3.2 M10 "standard" bracing
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Appendix
A 3.3 M12 "heavy-duty" bracing
A 3.4 M16 "industrial" bracing
Example read off chart 219 mm dia. boiler pipe, full of water. Mass (Attachment A1.2): m' = 64.7 kg/m Seismic acceleration: a = 0.9 g Bracing height: h = 350 mm Bracing spacing: b = 14.7 m
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Appendix
A4
Spiral tubes
Determining number of braces necessary for spiral tubes
Bracing for every fastening for large diameter ducts
Every spiral tube fastening with pipe rings and M8 anchor rods usually must have bracing if the tube diameter = 200 mm. From a tube diameter = 300 mm, each fastening with M10 anchor rods has to have one brace. However, in the case of smaller ducts suspended at smaller distances below the ceiling d, bracings only necessary every 2nd or 3rd fastening. The number of braces that has to be provided for earthquake-resistant hanging of spiral tubes can be read off the charts, Figs. 3.25 and 3.26, for the particular duct diameter and distance below ceiling.
Fig. 3.25 Necessity for spiral tube fastenings with M8 anchor rods Example read off chart Spiral tube: = 125 mm Distance below ceiling: d = 250 mm Fastening with M8 anchor rods Bracing necessary for every 2nd duct fastening
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Appendix
110
Appendix
Mass of spiral tubes

A 4.1 Spiral tubes made of Sendzimir-galvanized steel
Mass per meter length of tube m' [kg/m] Tube diameter D [mm] 80 100 125 140 150 160 180 200 224 250 280 300 315 355 400 450 500 550 560 600 630 650 700 710 750 800 900 1000 Thickness of sheet steel t [mm] 0.45 1.04 1.30 1.63 1.75 1.95 2.08 2.34 2.60 0.50 1.16 1.44 1.81 1.94 2.17 2.31 2.60 2.89 0.62 1.43 1.79 2.24 2.61 2.69 2.87 3.23 3.58 4.01 4.48 5.02 5.38 5.64 6.36 7.17 8.06 8.96 0.75 1.73 2.17 2.71 3.16 3.25 3.47 3.91 4.33 4.85 5.42 6.07 6.51 6.82 7.69 8.67 9.75 10.84 12.72 12.95 13.87 14.57 15.03 16.19 16.24 17.35 18.50 5.18 5.78 6.47 6.94 7.28 8.21 9.25 10.40 11.56 15.90 16.19 17.34 18.21 18.79 20.23 20.52 21.68 23.12 22.50 25.32 28.13 19.97 15.75 16.82 17.70 5.63 6.48 7.23 8.09 8.68 9.10 10.26 11.56 13.00 14.45 0.80 1.0
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Appendix
A 4.2 Aluminum spiral tubes

Mass per meter length of tube m' [kg/m] Pipe diameter D [mm] 80 100 125 140 150 160 180 200 224 250 280 300 315 355 400 450 500 Thickness of sheet aluminum t [mm] 0.60 0.49 0.61 0.76 0.85 0.91 0.97 1.09 1.21 0.80 0.62 0.81 1.01 1.13 1.21 1.29 1.45 1.61 1.81 2.02 2.27 2.43 2.55 2.87 3.24 3.64 4.05 1.52 1.61 1.81 2.02 2.26 2.53 2.83 3.04 3.19 3.59 4.05 4.55 5.06 3.03 3.39 3.64 3.83 4.31 4.86 5.46 6.07 1.00 1.20
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Appendix
A 4.3 Stainless steel spiral tubes

Mass per meter length of tube m' [kg/m] Pipe diameter D [mm] 80 100 125 140 150 160 180 200 224 250 280 300 315 355 400 450 500 Thickness of sheet steel t [mm] 0.40 0.92 1.16 1.45 1.61 1.73 1.85 2.08 2.31 0.60 1.38 1.74 2.17 2.41 2.59 2.77 3.12 3.47 3.88 4.34 4.86 5.20 5.46 6.16 6.94 7.80 8.67 5.17 5.79 6.48 6.93 7.28 8.21 9.25 10.40 11.56 6.47 7.24 8.10 8.66 9.10 10.26 11.56 13.00 14.45 0.80 1.00
113
Appendix
A5
Mass of air ducts

A 5.1 Air ducts with 0.62 mm thick sheet steel
Mass per meter length of duct m' [kg/m] Cross-sectional area of duct A [m2] 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 Width/height of duct W/H [ - ] 1.0 3.52 4.97 6.09 7.03 7.87 8.62 2.0 3.73 5.28 6.46 7.46 8.34 3.0 4.06 5.74 7.03 8.12 4.0 4.40 6.22 7.62

Mass per meter length of duct m' [kg/m] Cross-sectional area of duct A [m2] 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250 0.275 0.300 0.325 0.350 0.375 0.400 0.425 0.450 0.475 0.500 9.51 10.42 11.26 12.03 12.76 13.46 14.11 14.74 15.34 15.92 16.48 17.02 17.54 18.05 18.55 19.03 9.03 10.09 11.05 11.94 12.76 13.54 14.27 14.97 15.63 16.27 8.51 9.83 10.99 12.03 13.00 13.90 Width/height of duct W/H [ - ] 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 7.52 9.21 10.46 11.89 13.03
114
Appendix

Mass per meter length of duct m' [kg/m] Cross-sectional area of duct A [m2] 0.175 0.200 0.225 0.250 0.275 0.300 0.325 0.350 0.375 0.400 0.425 0.450 0.475 0.500 0.525 0.550 0.575 0.600 0.625 0.650 0.675 0.700 0.725 0.750 0.775 0.800 0.825 0.850 0.875 0.900 0.925 0.950 0.975 1.000 17.10 17.80 18.47 19.12 19.74 20.35 20.94 21.51 22.07 22.62 23.15 23.67 24.18 24.68 25.17 25.65 26.12 26.58 27.03 27.48 27.92 28.35 28.78 29.20 29.61 30.02 30.43 30.82 31.22 15.71 16.55 17.36 18.13 18.88 19.59 20.28 20.94 21.58 22.21 22.82 23.41 23.99 24.55 25.11 25.65 26.18 26.69 27.20 27.70 28.19 28.67 29.15 29.61 30.07 30.53 30.97 31.41 Width/height of duct W/H [ - ] 1.0 2.0 3.0 15.08 16.12 17.10 18.02 18.90 19.74 20.55 21.32 22.07 22.80 23.50 24.18 24.84 25.49 26.12 26.73 27.33 27.92 4.0 16.32 17.45 18.51 19.51 20.46 21.37 22.24 23.08 23.89 24.68 25.44
115
Appendix

Mass per meter length of duct m' [kg/m] Cross-sectional area of duct A [m2] 0.250 0.275 0.300 0.325 0.350 0.375 0.400 0.425 0.450 0.475 0.500 0.525 0.550 0.575 0.600 0.625 0.650 0.675 0.700 0.725 0.750 0.775 0.800 0.825 0.850 0.875 0.900 0.925 0.950 0.975 1.000 26.00 26.61 27.21 27.79 28.37 28.93 29.48 30.02 30.55 31.07 31.59 32.09 32.59 33.08 33.56 34.04 34.51 34.97 35.43 35.88 24.07 24.81 25.53 26.23 26.91 27.57 28.22 28.86 29.48 30.09 30.68 31.27 31.84 32.40 32.96 33.50 34.04 34.57 35.09 35.60 36.10 36.60 37.09 37.58 38.06 22.69 23.62 24.51 25.37 26.20 27.01 27.79 28.55 29.30 30.02 30.73 31.42 32.09 32.75 33.40 34.04 34.66 35.28 35.88 36.47 37.06 37.63 38.20 38.75 39.30 Width/height of duct W/H [ - ] 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 22.43 23.52 24.57 25.57 26.53 27.46 28.37 29.24 30.09 30.91 31.71 32.50 33.26 34.01 34.74 35.46 36.16 36.85 37.52 38.19 38.84
116
Appendix

Mass per meter length of duct m' [kg/m] Cross-sectional area of duct A [m2] 0.600 0.625 0.650 0.675 0.700 0.725 0.750 0.775 0.800 0.825 0.850 0.875 0.900 0.925 0.950 0.975 1.000 38.46 38.99 39.52 40.03 40.54 38.46 39.65 40.23 40.80 41.36 41.91 42.46 43.00 43.00 39.17 39.86 40.54 41.21 41.87 42.52 43.16 43.79 44.41 45.03 45.63 46.23 46.82 Width/height of duct W/H [ - ] 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 39.26 40.07 40.86 41.64 42.40 43.15 43.89 44.62 45.33 46.03 46.73 47.41 48.08 48.74 49.40 50.04 50.68
117
Appendix
A6 Single fastening
Figs. A6.1 A6.3 Standard fastening
Examples of typical applications
Solution for seismic restraint of installations
Figs. A6.4a and A6.4b Fastening with HKD flush anchor Method of securing: 45 axial brace and transverse brace with AM anchor rod and MQ3D-A or MFP-AP.
Figs. A6.5a and A6.5b Fastening with MGL/S/GP baseplate and HAST stud anchor Method of securing: 45 axial brace and transverse brace with AM anchor rod and MQ3D-A or MFP-AP.
Figs. A6.6a and A6.6b Fastening with MQ installation channel and HAST stud anchor Method of securing: 45 axial brace and transverse brace with AM anchor rod and MQ3D-A/-B or MFP-AP.
118
Appendix
Fig. A6.7 Standard fastening
Fig. A6.8 Fastening with HST stud anchor Stable U-support assembled from MQ installation channel system. No additional bracing necessary (depending on load and distance below ceiling).
Fig. A6.9 Installation channel suspended with anchor rods and secured with transverse braces. Method of securing: 45 transverse braces with MQ channel and MQP-45 brace shoe.
Fig. A6.10 Installation channel suspended with anchor rods and secured with longitudinal braces. Method of securing: 45 axial braces with MQ channel and MQP-45 brace shoe.
119
Appendix
Bracket installation
Post-installed means of reinforcing brackets Fig. A6.12 Bracket with additional axial brace and transverse brace: MQK-21D bracket fastened with HST or HSA stud anchor. Reinforcement: 45 transverse brace with MQK-SK or SL angle support.
Fig. A6.13 MQK-21D bracket fastened with HST or HSA stud anchor. Reinforcement: 45 axial brace with MQK-SK or SL angle support. [plan view]
120
Appendix
Installation on steel beams

Securing MQ installation channel with end stops. Figs. A6.15a and A6.15b Fastening MQ channel with MQ-T beam clamps. Method of securing: End stop with MQP-1/1 brace shoe or 90 MQW-3 angle. Fig. A6.16 Securing MQ channel with MFFC beam clamps. Method of securing: End stop with MQP-1/1 brace shoe. Fig. A6.17 Fastening MQ channel with MQ-T beam clamps. Method of securing: Direct securing of installation channel with DX fastener (X EDNI). Post-installation securing with short installation channels Figs. A6.18a and A6.19b 5a) with MF-G retaining strap 5b) MQZ channel tie SS & end stop 90 MQW-3 angle.
121
Appendix
Installation of rectangular and round air ducts
Figs. A6.20 A6.23
Standard fastening
Reinforcing suspended rectangular and round air ducts. Figs. A6.24 and A6.25 Type of fastening (installation angle above or below) depending on weight and distance below ceiling. Example: Fastening of rectangular air duct with MAC-WZ or MAC- W installation angle. Reinforcement: 45 axial / transverse brace with AM anchor rod and MQ3DA brace or MPF-AP bracing set. Round air ducts fastened with MAC-WR air duct hanger or MAC-PI air duct ring. Figs. A6.26 and A6.27 Reinforcement: 45 axial / transverse brace with AM anchor rod and MQ3DA brace or MPF-AP bracing set.
122
Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and non structural elements
Appendix
A6
Abstract of Seismic Restraint Systems Manual Hilti US
123
Appendix
Abstract of Seismic Restraint Systems Manual from Hilti US
124
Appendix
Abstract of Seismic Restraint Systems Manual from Hilti US
125

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Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Foreword Contents Abbreviations, designations

Design and use

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Interior finishing, fittings and furnishing

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

95 97 97 97 98 99 100 100 101

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Regions of seismic activity

1.1.2 Earthquake strength

Physical measure of the energy released

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Damage from ground acceleration exceeding 0.1 g

Effects on buildings (nature)

Ground acceleration ag,max [ g ]

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

1.1.3 Goals of earthquake engineering

Implementation of earthquake engineering knowledge

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

1.2.1.2 Directions of acceleration

Acceleration, earthquake duration and dominant frequency

Table 1.2 Peak value of horizontal ground acceleration

Earthquake / Location / Year

Ground acceleration, ag,max [ g ] 0.37

0.67 1.82 (!)

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

1.2.2.2 Floor oscillation, floor acceleration

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Magnification of ground acceleration

Fig. 1.5 Example of a floor response spectra

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Design and use

Principles of design and use

Damage to interior finishing items or fittings

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Design and use

2.1.2 Seismic qualification measures

Design suitable for earthquake-proof fastenings

Limiting or permitting displacement

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Design and use

Table 2.1 Earthquake-proofing measures

Seismic qualification measures Design Design measure

Design of material cross sections, etc.

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Design and use

Profiled sheet metal (concrete decking)

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Design and use

Selection of suitable systems and design methods for anchor fastenings

Fastening system "tailormade" for geometry of profiled sheet metal

Earthquake-proofing of beam clamps by taking design measures

Fastenings welded and screwed / bolted to steel beams

Guideline for earthquake resistant design of installations and nonstructural elements

Design and use

Suitability and use of anchors