MATH 120, Spring 2010

Sec 4.2, Ex 8 Given a subgroup H G of nite index n, we can consider the permutation representation of G on the cosets of H: H : G Sym(G/H) g H (g) where H (g) takes a coset aH to the coset gaH. Since |G : H| = n, the permutation group Sym(G/H) on the cosets of H is isomorphic to S n , the symmetric group on n letters. By one of the isomorphism theorems, we have G/ker (H ) im (H ), while there is an injective homomorphism im (H ) S n . Let K := ker (H ); K is normal in G since it is the kernel of a group homomorphism. Then we have an injective homomorphism G/K S n . Then |G : K| = |G/K| |S n | = n!, and K H (by Theorem 3 on p.119). Therefore, K has all the properties that we want. Sec 4.2, Ex 10 Let G be a non-abelian group of order 6. By Cauchys theorem, G has an element x of order 2. Let H := x be the subgroup of G of order 2 generated by x. If H were normal in G, then for any g G, we have gxg1 H. In particular, for any g G we must have gxg1 = x (or else x = 1, a contradiction). This means that gx = xg for all g G, i.e. x lies in the center Z(G) of G. But then G/Z(G) has order either 1 or 3, forcing G to be cyclic (by Exercise 36 in Section 3.1, which we worked out in homework 4), contradicting the non-abelian assumption on G. Therefore, H cannot be normal in G, and we have found a non-normal subgroup of order 2 in G. Now, consider the permutation representation of G on the cosets of H: H : G Sym(G/H), where H (g) sends a coset aH to the coset gaH. We know ker (H ) H by Theorem 3 on p.119. If ker (H ) = H, then H, being the kernel of a group homomorphism, is normal in G, a contradiction. Therefore, ker (H ) must be trivial (since H has order 2), meaning H is an injection. On the other hand, Sym(G/H) S 3 (since |G/H| = |G : H| = 3) has order 6, as is G. We conclude that the image of H is all of Sym(G/H), i.e. H is surjective. And so H is an isomorphism. We have shown that any non-abelian group of order 6 is isomorphic to S 3 . Suppose G is an abelian group of order 6. By Cauchys theorem, G has an element a of order 2 and an element b of order 3. Let a be an element of order 2, and let A be the subgroup of order 2 generated by a; similarly, let b be an element of order 3, and let B be the subgroup of order 3 generated by b. We claim that for the elements of G of the form ai b j where 0 i 1, 0 j 2 are all distinct: for, if not, then there would be two dierent ordered pairs (i1 , j1 ), (i2 , j2 ) (where 0 i1 , i2 1, 0 j1 , j2 2) such that ai1 b j1 = ai2 b j2 , i.e. ai1 i2 b j1 j2 = 1 where i1 i2 , j1 j2 are not both zero. But this means that, either i1 i2 0, in which case ai1 i2 is a non-identity element in B (a contradiction, since ai1 i2 has order 2, and |B| = 3), or j1 j2 0, in which case b j1 j2

is a non-identity element in A (a contradiction again). Therefore, we have a subset of six distinct elements of G, {ai b j : 0 i 1, 0 j 2} G. Since G has order 6, these are all the elements of G. It is easy to see that all elements of the form ai b j are powers of ab, and so G is cyclic. We have shown that a nite group of order 6 is either cyclic (if it is abelian) or isomorphic to S 3 (if it is non-abelian). Sec 4.3, Ex 5 Let g be any element in G, and let CG (g) denote the conjugacy class of g. The size of the conjugacy class CG (g) is given by the index |G : CG (g)| by Proposition 6 on p.123. On the other hand, Z(G) CG (g) for any g G. Hence n := |G : Z(G)| |G : CG (g)|, i.e. every conjugacy class in G has order at most n. Sec 4.3, Ex 13 Let G be a nite group with exactly two conjugacy classes. If Z(G) = G, then G is abelian, and each element forms its own conjugacy class. In tihs case, G has order 2, and is the cyclic group of 2 elements. If Z(G) G, then there exists an element x G \ Z(G), and the conjugacy class CG (x) of x contains more than one element. On the other hand, the identity element 1 is in the center Z(G), and forms its own conjugacy class. Since G has exactly two conjugacy classes, these are all the conjugacy classes of G. Therefore, there is exactly one element in Z(G). By the class equation (Theorem 7, p.124), we have |G| = |Z(G)| + |G : CG (x)| and hence |G : CG (x)| = |G| |Z(G)| = |G| 1. Therefore, |G| 1 is the index of the subgroup CG (x), and so must divide |G|. Since |G| is a positive integer, this can only happen when |G| = 2. We conclude that any nite group with exactly two conjugacy classes is isomorphic to the cyclic group of order 2. Sec 4.3, Ex 27 By assumption, any gi is in the centraliser of any other g j . Therefore, for any 1 i r, we have {g1 , , gr } CG (gi ), i.e. r |CG (gi )| for any i. As a set, the group G is partitioned into its conjugacy classes. For each 1 i r, the conjugacy class containing gi has |G : CG (gi )| elements, where |G : CG (gi )| |G|/r. Therefore, |G| = sum of sizes of distinct conjugacy classes
r

=
i=1 r

|G : CG (gi )| |G|/r
i=1

= |G|.

And so the inequality above must be an equality. This means that |G : CG (gi )| = |G|/r for each i, i.e. |CG (gi )| = r for each i. And so for any i, we have CG (gi ) = {g1 , , gr }. However, every element x of G is in the centraliser of itself. And so every element of G is one of the elements g1 , , gr . And so G is abelian.