Cswip 3.1 Test

WELDING INSPECTION
(WISS)
Section
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
0)
11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
21)
22)
23)
Title
Terms & Definitions V
Duties & Responsibilities
Welding Imperfections 1/
Mechanical Testing
Welding ProcedureslWelder approval
Materials Inspection
Codes and Standards
Welding Symbols on Drawings
Introduction to Welding Processes
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
Metal InertlActive Gas Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Welding Consumables
Non Destructive Testing V'
Weld Repairs
Residual Stress & Distortion
Heat Treatment of Steels \.I
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding & Cutting
Arc Cutting Processes
Welding Safety
Weldability of steels
Visual Inspection Section
TWI
V!lfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Terms and Definitions:
/
A Weld:
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OF gy fi;Jfh_
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C-J'e--C- 0,/S
A Joint:
Welding Inspection - Terms & Definitions
Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd
1.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V/lDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Types of common welds:
Welds.
Welds.
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r- ! '.--:- t' liie" '1 ( (l fc(
:;;;, {,iu.:,C ,- -
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t/ I;ct ,\ c(( ,r-ell f)

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Welds.
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Welds.
Ttt-,(,,>k
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Welds.
Copyright 2002 TWl Ltd
1.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lfl#. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Types of common joints:
Joints.
--------
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1
_
J
__Joints.

Welding Inspection - Terms &Definitions
Joints.
1.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VflDI. _
Weld Preparations:
THE WELDING INSTITUTE
When welding, we need to fuse the entire width of the faces of both members. Most
times we need to prepare, or remove metal from the joint to allow access for the
process, for full fusion of the faces. We can use grinding, flame/arc cutting, or machining
for this operation, but grinding back 1 or 2 mm may be required after flame or arc
cutting.
The purpose of a weld preparation is to allow access for the welding process, penetration
and fusion through the complete area of the joint and its faces. The function of the root
gap is to allow penetration. The function of the root face is to remove excess heat and act
as a heat sink. The higher the arc energy of the process, then generally the wider is the
root face, as in SAW.
The simple rule is this: The more taken out then the more must be replaced.
This has a major effect on both economics, and distortion. The root face, root gap and
angle of bevel values, choice of single or double sided preparations, is solely dictated by
the choice of welding process, the welding process parameters, the position and
accessibility ofthe joint.
1.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
rofll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Single Butt Weld Preparations:
Single
Single
Single
Single
v
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u
'-----v I
\\1 I
,-----U I
I l) I
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or when access from
both sides is restricted.
The selection may be also influenced by the capability of the welding process and the
position of the joint, or the positional capability of available welding consumables, or the
skill level available.
1.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Double Butt Weld Preparations:
Double
Double
Double
Double
v
J
u
L---K I
I x_
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, and when access from
both sides is unrestricted.
They may also be used to control the effect of distortion, and in economics, when
welding thicker sections.
1.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
roOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Welded Butt Joints:
/ ~ , ;!
.:>- ,;/ -.( {2,
Welded Butt Joint.
A Welded Butt Joint.
{ : O f ~
Welded Butt Joint.
1.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
rvO#. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Welded T Joints:
A f t ( ~ f
A
Welded T Joint.
Welded T Joint.
A Welded T Joint.
1.8
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
fllfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Welded Lap Joints:
A Welded Lap Joint.
A Welded Lap Joint.
A Welded Lap Joint.
1.9
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Welded Closed Corner Joints:
A
A
Welded Closed Corner Joint.
1.10
Rev 09-09-02
Welded Open Corner Joints:
TWI
V/lfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
rtk PH T/&-/i< I

r- f-" U6L' "-
r ( /_r tiC_-/--
It<hr e r.r Welded Open Corner Joint.
An awt--sioLe- I/Mwelded Open Corner Joint.
A t/fJ3z;f- Welded Open Comer Joint.
v
1.11
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Terms of a Butt Welded Butt Joint:
,
T J ~
A & B ": f l . ~ Weld Metal.
1.12
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Terms of a Fillet Welded T Joint:
wd.d meke
])e&'

In visual inspection it is usually the leg length that is used to size fIllet welded joints. It
is possible to find the design throat thickness easily by multiplying the leg length by 0.7
The excess weld metal can be measured by taking the measurable throat reading, then by
deducting the design throat thickness calculated above.
Example:
Ifthe leg length of a convex fillet weld is measured at 10 mm, then the design throat
thickness = 10 x 0.7 which is 7mm.
If the actual throat thickness is 8.5 mm then the excess weld metal is calculated as:
8.5 - 7mm= 1.5mm excess weld metaL
1.13
Rev 09-09-02
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'Nominal' and 'Effective' Design Throat Thickness:
Same leg length
-.J -.- ---.I -.-
I I I I
I I I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
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I
"a" = 'Nominal' design throat
thickness
"s" = 'Effective' design throat thickness
(deep penetration fillets)
When using deep penetrating processes with high current density it is possible to create
deeper throat dimensions.
This may be used in design calculations to carry stresses and is a big advantage by
reducing overall weight ofwelds in a large welded structure.
Deep throat fillet welds are possible when using high penetration (High current density)
processes, such as FCAW & SAW.
This throat notation "a" or "s" is used in BSEn 22553 for weld symbols on drawings
throughout Europe.
1.14
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
fllfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
FiDet Weld Profdes:
In joints that are to be dynamically loaded with cyclic stresses, concave fillet weld are
preferred to minimise any stress concentrations or sites for fatigue crack initiation.
In critical applications it may be a requirement of the welding procedure that the toes are
lightly ground, or even flushed in with a TIG run, to remove any notches that are present.
1.15
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VDDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Duties of a Welding Inspector:
\
/
It is the duty of a welding inspector to ensure that all operations concerning welding are
carried out in strict accordance with written, or agreed practices, or specifications.
This will include monitoring or checking a number of operations including:
Before welding:
Safety:
Ensure that all operations are carried out in complete compliance with local, company, or
National safety legislation (Le. permits to work are in place).
Documentation:
Specification. (Year and revision)
Drawings. (Correct revisions)
Welding procedure specifications and welder approvals.
Calibration certification. (Welding equipment/ancillaries and all inspection instruments)
Material and consumable certification
Welding Process and ancillaries:
Welding equipment and all related ancillaries. (Cables, regulators, ovens, quivers etc.)
Incoming Consumables:
All pipe/plate and welding consumables for Size, Type and Condition.
Marking out preparation & set up:
Correct method of cutting weld preparations. (pre-Heat for thermal cutting if applicable)
Correct preparation. (Relevant bevel angles, root face, root gap, root radius, land, etc.)
Correct pre-welding distortion control. (Tacking, bridging, jigs, line up clamps, etc.)
Correct pre heat applied prior to tack welding.
All tack welding to be monitored and inspected
Welding Inspection - Duties of a Welding Inspector
2.1
Rev 09-09-02
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V!7fll. _
During welding:
Pre-heat values. (Heating method, location and control)
In-process distortion control. (Sequence or balanced welding)
Consumable control. (Specification, size, condition, and any special treatments)
Process type and all related variable parameters. (Voltage, amperage, travel speed)
Purging gases. (Type, pressure/flow and control method)
Welding conditions for root run/hot pass and all subsequent run, and inter-run cleaning.
Minimum, or maximum inter-pass temperature. (Temperature and controlling method)
Compliance with all other variables stated on the approved welding p r o c e d ~ r e .
Mter welding:
Visual inspection ofthe welded joint. (Including dimensional aspects)
NDT requirements. (Method and qualification of operator, and execution)
Identify repairs from assessment ofvisual or NDT reports. (Refer to repairs below)
Post weld heat treatment (pWHT) (Heating method and temperature recording system)
Re-inspect with visual/NDT after PWHT. (If applicable)
Hydrostatic test procedures. (For pipelines or pressure vessels)
Repairs:
Excavation procedure. (Approval and execution)
Approval ofthe NDT procedures (For assessment of complete defect removal)
Repair procedure. (Approval ofre-welding procedures and welder approval)
Execution of approved re-welding procedure. (Compliance with repair procedure)
Re-inspect the repair area with visual inspection and approved NDT method.
Submission of inspection reports, and all related documents to the Q/C department.
2.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Responsibilities of a Welding Inspector:
To Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality throughout production.
This will include a :final visual inspection of the weld area.
1,--:;_O_R_e_co_r_d___
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to quality, including a final
map and report sheet showing all identified welding imperfections.
__""
To compare all reported information with the acceptance levels/criteria and clauses
within the applied application standard.
Submit a fmal inspection report of your findings to the QAlQC department for
analysis and any remedial actions.
2.3
Rev 09-09-02
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V!lOI. _
Mechanical Testing:
Mechanical tests are generally carried out to ensure that the required levels of certain
mechanical properties have been achieved.
When metals have been welded, the mechanical properties of the plates may have
changed in the HAZ due to the thermal effects of the welding process.
It is also necessary to establish that the weld metal itself reaches the minimum specified
values.
The mechanical types of properties or characteristics most commonly evaluated are:
Hardness:
Toughness:
Strength:
Ductility:
The ability of a material to resist indentation.
The ability of a material to absorb impact energy and resist fracture.
The ability of a material to resist a force. (Normally tension)
The ability of a material to plastically deform under tension.
To carry out these evaluations we require specific tests. There are a number of
mechanical tests available to test for these specific mechanical properties, the most
common ofwhich are:
1) Hardness testing. (VickerslBrinelllRockwell)
3) Tensile testing. (ReducedlRadius IAII weld metal)
2) Toughness testing. (Charpy VlIzod/CTOD)
Used to measure
Quantity.
Tests 1- 3 have units and are termed quantitative tests.
We use other tests to evaluate the quality of welds
4) Macro testing.
7) Butt weld Nick-break testing.
5)
6)
Bend testing. (SidelFacelRoot)
Fillet. weld fracture testing.
Used to measure
Quality.
Tests 4 -7 have no units and are termed qualitative tests.
Welding Inspection - Mechanical Testing
4.1
Rev 09-09-02
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V!lfll. _
1) Hardness tests: Used to check the level of hardness across the weld.
Types ofhardness test are:
a) Rockwell scale.
b) Vickers pyramid. VPN
c) Brinell. BHN
d) Shore Schlerescope.
(Diamond or steel ball)
(Diamond)
(5 or 10 mm diameter steel ball)
(Measures resilience)
Most hardness tests are carried out by (1) impressing a ball, or a diamond into the
surface of a material under a fixed load, (2) then measuring the resultant indentation and
comparing it to a scale of units (BHNNPN etc.) relevant to that type of test. Hardness
surveys are generally carried out across the weld as shown below. In some applications it
may also be required to takes hardness readings at the weld junction/fusion zone.
A shore schlerescope measures hardness by dropping a weight from a height onto the
surface of a metal and measuring the height of the rebound. The higher the rebound of
the weight, the harder is the material. Early equipment was cumbersome, but more
portable compared to other hardness testing methods. Equipment is now available which
works on the resilience principle, and is the size of a ballpoint pen. This equipment is
generally scaled to give hardness values in all ofthe above scales.
Plate
1
+
o
4.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!llll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
2) Toughness tests: Used to check the resistance to impact loading.
Types oftoughness test are:
a) Charpy V. (Jollies) Specimen held horizontally in test machine, notch to the rear.
b) Izod. (Ftlbs) Specimen held vertically in test machine, notch to the front.
c) CTOD or Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing. (mm)
There are many factors that affect the toughness of the weldment and weld metal. One of
the important effects is that of testing temperature. In the Charpy V and Izod test, the
fracture toughness is assessed by the amount of impact energy absorbed by a small
specimen of 10 mm
2
during fracture by a swinging hammer. A graph can be produced
using temperature as the base. The notch is 2mm deep, 0.25 root radius, and notch e45
0
10 x 10 mm
Machined notch
Graduated scale of Joules
absorbed energy
4.3
Fusion zone & HAZ
Release lever
/
Pendllium locked in
position
Specimen
Rev 09-09-02
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VOI. _
DuctilelBrittle transition curve for a typical ferritic steel
Temperature range~
I
Transition range
47 Joules
14--.-----.. DuctilelBrittle transition point
28 Joules
Energy absorbed
(Joules)
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10
Degrees Centigrade
20 30 40
The curve can be moved by many factors, including alloying & heat input:
a) Alloying:
The curve can be moved to the left by additions of manganese of up to 1.6 %. In other
words the addition of manganese of up to 1.6% has a positive effect on improving the
toughness of plain ferritic steels. Nickel also has a very positive effect on low
temperature toughnessof steels, however nickel is a very expensive metallic element and
is used only where low temperatures are severe. Steels containing 9% nickel have
excellent low temperature toughness. Fully austenitic stainless steels show measurable
toughness at -270 C, or a few degrees above absolute zero.
b) Heat input:
The curve can be moved to the right by too high a heat input during the welding cycle.
This happens because of the effect called grain growth. At high temperatures, grains
grow and fuse together to form larger grains. The amount of energy needed to fracture a
large grain structure is much less than a fme grain structure. Hence the need to control
inter-pass temperatures.
4.4
Rev 09-09-02
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VflUI. _
3) Tensile Test: Used to measure tensile strength (N/mm
2
) (Ductility as E %)
Types oftensile tests are:
a) Transverse tensile test:
Reduced section: Used to test the strength ofthe weldment.
Radius reduced section: Can be used to assess the strength ofthe weld metal.
b) All weld metal tensile test:
Used to test weld metal for UTS, yield point and elongation, or E %.
Transverse tensile tests are taken across the weld to test the value of tensile strength in
this area. A reduced tensile test is the standard test where the specimen is first cut and
then reduced to allow a gripping area for the machine with a very low stress
concentration. A radius may be cut into the weld to assess the weld metal strength.
A transverse tensile test specimen
Test gripping area
/
Weld
Radius (For radius reduced test specimens only)
Plate m a t e r i a l ~ I
<:
50mm
Elongation marks
....
'Reduced Section
Failure is generally expected in the plate material, though failure in the weld or HAZ is
not reason to fail the test if the minimum specified tensile stress has been reached.
In a Radius reduced tensile test the weld metal is turned down, and so failure would be
expected in the weld, due to a smaller CSA. It is sometimes used to show the tensile
strength of the weld metal, but it is not very accurate due to the local stress
concentrations that are produced.
All weld metal tensile tests are carried out by electrode manufacturers to determine
weld metal strength, and also ductility as elongation (E%). A deep weld is made in a
plate and then a tensile specimen is cut along the length of the weld, which should
contain 99.9% undiluted, or pure weld metal. Prior to the test, marks are made 50 mm
apart along the length of the specimen. As the test is being carried out yield stress and
fracture stress are recorded and documented. After fracture, the pieces are placed back
together and the elongation is calculated from the original gauge length and given as E%
4.5
Rev 09-09-02
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Vfl!7I. _
4) Macro examination tests: Used to check the intemallevel of quality in the
weld.
A macro specimen is normally cut from a stop/start position in the root, or hot pass of a
welder approval test. The start/stop position is marked out during a welder approval test
by the welding inspector. Once cut, the specimen is polished using progressively fmer
grit papers and polishing at 90 to previous polishing direction, until all the scratches
caused by the previous polishing direction have been removed. It is then etched in an
acid solution which is normally 5 -10% Nitric acid in alcohol (carbon steels). Care must
be taken not to under-etch or over-etch the specimen, as this will mask the elements that
can be observed on a correctly etched specimen. After etching for the correct time, the
specimen is then washed and dried. A visual examination should be carried out at all
stages of production to observe any imperfections that are visible. Finally, a report is
then produced on the visual fmdings, then compared and assessed to the levels of
acceptance in the application standard.
Macro samples may be sprayed with clear lacquer after inspection, for storage purposes.
Macro Assessment Table
1) Excess weld metal height. 2)
3) Slag with lack of inter-run fusion. 4)
5) Root penetration bead height. 6)
7) Undercut
Slag with lack of sidewall fusion.
Angular misalignment.
Segregation bands.
4.6
Rev 09-09-02
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5) Bend tests: Used to check weld ductility & fusion in the area under stress.
The fonner is moved through a guide (guided bend test), or rollers, and the specimen is
bent to the desired angle.
Types of bend test are:
a) Face bends b) Root bends c) Side bends d) Longitudinal bends
Fonner.
. . Before testing
After testing
A guided side bend test
Specimen
Guide
Specimen is bent through pre-determined angle
Generally, bend tests are carried out for welder approval tests, though they may also be
used during procedure approval to establish good sidewall, root, or weld face fusion.
Inspection ofthe test face is made after the test to check the integrity ofthe area in test.
For materials of greater than 12mm thickness, a slice of 1O-12mm is nonnally cut out
along the length and the material is side bend tested. Bend testing is a qualitative
method of mechanical testing. Ductility may be observed but is not measured.
4.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
rofll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
6) Fillet weld fracture tests. Used to assess root fusion in fillet welds.
A fillet weld fracture test is normally only carried out during a welder approval test.
The specimen is normally cut by hacksaw through the weld face to a depth (usually 1-2
mm) stated in the standard. It is then held in a vice and fractured with a hammer blow
from the rear. Once fracture has been made, both fractured surfaces are inspected for
imperfections.
Finally the vertical plate X is moved through 90 and the line of root fusion is observed
for continuity. Any straight line would indicate a lack of root fusion. In most standards
this is sufficient to fail the welder.
Hammer blow
Fracture line t
X
B
1
y
Saw cut
Full fracture
~ 3
1
I
Line of fusion
c
"Lack of root fusion"
After inspection of both fractured surfaces for imperfections, turn fracture piece X
through 90 vertically and inspect the line of root fusion. (Line 2)
A Fillet weld fracture test is a qualitative mechanical test, as we are observing weld
quality.
4.8
Rev 09-09-02
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VOOI. _
7) Nick-break tests:
Used to assess root penetration and fusion in double-sided butt welds, and the internal
faces of single sided butt welds. A Nick-break test is normally carried out during a
welder approval test.
The specimen is normally cut by hacksawthrough the weld faces to a depth stated in the
standard. It is then held in a vice and fractured with a hammer blow from the rear. Once
fracture has been made then both fractures are turned horizontally through 90 and may
then be inspected for imperfections on the fracture faces, as shown below in C.
Saw Cuts Hammer blow
A
Fracture line
B
Lack of root penetration, or fusion Inclusions on the fracture line
A butt Nick-break test is a qualitative test, as we are observing quality.
4.9
Rev 09-09-02
Quantitative and Qualitative Mechanical Testing:
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Vl7fll. _
Quantitative:
We test weldments mechanically to establish the level of mechanical properties of the
weld. In such a case we may use the following types of tests:
1) Hardness:
Vickers (VPN) Brinell (BHN) Rockwell (Scale C for steels)
2) Toughness:
Charpy V (Joules) Izod (Ftlbs) CTOD(mm)
3) Tensile Strength:
N/mm
2
(UK) & PSI (USA)
Transverse reduced & radius reduced. Longitudinal all weld metal.
Elongation E% may be measured during tensile testing.
(The ductility value often given as a % reduction in area mainly in transverse and short
transverse tensile tests)
All the above tests 1 - 3 have units, and are thus termed quantitative tests.
They are used only in welding procedure approvals.
Qualitative:
We also test weldments mechanically to establish the level of quality in the weld.
In such a case we may use the following types of test:
4) Macro testing.
5) Bend testing. (Face. Root. Side. & Longitudinal)
6) Fillet weld fracture testing.
7) Butt nick-break testing.
All the above tests 4 - 7 have no units, and are thus termed qualitative tests.
They are mainly used in welder approvals.
Some of the qualitative tests may be used during procedural approval to establish
good fusion/penetration etc.
4.10
Rev 09-09-02
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Vllfl#. _
Summary of Mechanical Testing:
Name Property Qualitative Units, if Used mainly for
If applicable or applicable
Quantitative
Rockwell scale Hardness Quantitative Scale C is used Welding
for Steels Procedure tests
Vickers pyramid Hardness Quantitative VPN Welding
Procedure tests
Brinell Hardness Quantitative BHN Welding
Procedure tests
Shore Schlerescope Hardness Quantitative Measures Measuring
Resilience mm Stock materials
CharpyV Toughness Quantitative Joules. Energy Welding
absorbed Procedure tests
Izod Toughness Quantitative Ft.lbs Welding
Procedure tests
CTOD Notch Ductility Quantitative 0.0000 mm+ a Welding
Toughness detailed report Procedure tests
Transverse Reduced Tensile Strength Quantitative N/mm.lor PSI Welding
Tensile Ductility
% Reduction Area
Procedure tests
All Weld Metal Tensile Strength Quantitative N/mm.lor PSI Welding
Tensile Ductility Elon2ation % Consumable tests
Radius Reduced Tensile Strength Quantitative N / m m ~ or PSI Welding
Transverse Tensile of weld metal Procedure tests
Macro N/A Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
or Procedure tests
I
Bends Ductility may be Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
Face Root or Side observed or Procedure tests
Fillet Weld Fracture N/A Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
T & Lap Joints or Procedure tests
Nick Break Test N/A Qualitative N/A Welder Approval
Butt Joints or Procedure tests
4.11
Rev 09-09-02
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Welding Procedures:
What is a welding procedure?
A welding procedure is a systematic method of producing a sound weld. For production
purposes this is generally held as a written, or a computer generated document.
Testing a weld sample:
Most production welding procedures are approved. (They have been thoroughly tested)
Having carried out a test weld using the preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(pWPS), the welded specimen is generally sent for visual inspection and non-destructive
testing to assess the level of quality.
If the test weld passes these tests it may then be sent for any required mechanical testing.
The test coupons are cut from the welded test piece from locations that are generally
specified in the application standard, and are then sent to a test house for testing.
These tests may include quantitative tests such as hardness, toughness or tensile tests, and
any required qualitative tests such as macros, bends, or fracture tests.
Documentation:
If all the tests have met the requirements of the standard, the procedure will become
approved. The Welding Procedure Approval Record *(wpAR) will include all the
various welding parameters and test record data.
*Also commonly referred to as a Procedure Qualification record (PQR)
From this data a workable document for production welding is prepared and called a
Welding Procedure Specification (WPS).
Generally the approved Welding Procedure Specification will have an "Extent of
approval" which may include the following variable parameters:
1) Thickness of plate. 2) Diameter of pipe.
3) Welding position. 4) Material groups.
5) Amperage range. 6) Number of runs.
7) Consumables. 8) Heat input range. (kJ/mm)
A CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector would generally witness the welding of the
procedure and supervise the subsequent testing of the weld.
Welding Inspection- Welder & Procedure Approval
5.1
Rev 09-09-02
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Welder Approval:
A welder approval test is a test of the level of skill attained by the welder.
Once a welding procedure has been approved it is then important to ensure that all
welders employed using the procedure on a project can meet the level of quality set
down in the application standard. Welder approvals are therefore carried-out, where the
welders are directed to accurately follow the approved WPS by the welding inspector.
The test plate, or pipe is then tested for quality using NDE/NDT and some qualitative
mechanical tests. In general a visual examination is carried out, followed by radiography
or ultrasonic testing (depending on the level of skill demanded from the welder) to look
for internal imperfections. The specimen may then be cut into coupons for the various
qualitative mechanical tests. These tests generally require simple equipment such as a
hacksaw, hammer, vice, polishing equipments, and bend testing machine.
The mechanical tests of a welder approval may include:
a) Bend tests. (Side. Face. Root)
c) Nick Break tests.
b)
d)
Fillet weld fracture tests.
Macro Assessments.
When supervising a welder test the welding inspector should:
\
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
Check the welding process, condition of equipment and test area for suitability.
Check that extraction systems, goggles and all safety equipment are available.
Check grinders, chipping hammers, wire brush and all hand tools are available.
Check materials to be welded are correct and stamped correctly for the test.
Check welding consumables specification, diameter, and treatment with WPS.
Check the welder's name and stamp details are correct.
Check that the joint has been correctly prepared and tacked, or jigged.
Check that the joint and seam is in the correct position for the test.
Explain the nature ofthe test and check that the welder understands the WPS.
Check that the welder carries out the root run, fill and cap as per the WPS.
Ensure welders identity and stop start location are clearly marked.
Supervise or carry out the required tests and submit results to Q/C department.
A CSWIP 3.1 welding inspector may be called upon to witness/conduct a welder
approval test, and supervise, or carry out the subsequent testing of the weld.
Welding Inspection - Welder & Procedure Approval
5.2
Rev 09-09-02
A typical welder approval certificate to BS 4872 would contain the following data:
TWI
VllDI. _
Organization's Symbol Logo: Welder approval test certificate Test record No
&
(BS 4872: Part 11982) 321
Manufacturers name: Welders name & Identity No Issue No
XYZ Fabrications Ltd.
Mr. A Welder. Stamp 123 001
Test piece details: Date of test
9
th
September 2002
Welding process: MMA III
Parent material: Ferritic steel
Extent of approval:
Thickness: 5mm
Joint type: Single V butt.
Welding Process: MMA
Pipe outside 0: 150mm
Materials Range: Ferritic steels.
Welding position: Overhead. Vertical up.
Thickness range: 2.5-10mm.
Horizontal vertical. Flat.
Joint types: Butt welds in
Test piece position: Axis
o
inclined 45
plate & pipe.
Fixed/rotated: Fixed
Pipe outside 0: 75 -30Omm
Welding consumables:
Welding Position: All except
Vertical down.
Consumables: Rutile & Basic.
Filler metal: BOC Fortrex 7018
(Make & type)
Weld preparation (dimensioned sketch)
Composition: Ferritic steel.

Specification: E 50 5 B 12 H5
1.5-2mm
Shielding gas: N/A
Specification number: BSEn4991994 ... 1.5-2mm

Visual examination & Test results:
Visual Inspection:
Contour: l1"'ftaJfe, Penetration (No
l1"'ftaJ&
Undercut: l1"'ftaJfe, Penetration (with backing)
Not Of/llellfe,
Smoothness of joins: l1"'ftaJfe, Surface defects
l1"'ftaJ&
Destructive tests:
Macro I
Side Bend
I Root Bend I Fillet fracture I Butt Nick break
Not l'ejD/iwi
I
Not I'ejwI'd
I
Xc:' l1"'ftaJfe,
I
Not l'ejD/iwi
I
Not I'ejwiwI
Remarks: Tk Nlel' lOG I""' 1JIr' ia' apo' lJIr'toe JleI(d.
The statements in this certificate are correct. The test weld was prepared in
accordance with the requirements of BS 4872: Part 11982.
Manufacturers Representative: Inspecting authority, or test house:
Mr. A Representative ABC Inspection Ltd.
......................... . .
::::::A'" 'roved::::::
11 Re!l"UeI(tatiue Ie PleI(t,
.... PP. ........
Position. Witnessed by:
.:CSWlP 123:'
..............................
. . Mr'ICPlinlY ..
Quality Manager Mr. I C Plenty
.. .. .. .. ......
...... .....
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Date: 9
th
September 2002 Date: 9
th
September 2002
Welding Inspection - Welder & Procedure Approval
5.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VllOI. _
Materials Inspection:
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
1) Size.
2) Condition.
3) Type/Specification.
In addition, other elements may need to be considered depending on the materials fonn
or shape. Most plate materials begin life as a casting, which is then rolled out into plate.
Plate is sometimes rolled into pipe and then welded with a longitudinal, or helical seam.
Some imperfections associated with rolling are shown below:
Direction of rolling
I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~
z
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. --.-
Segregation and
Laminations contain impurities and major inclusions such as slags that solidify in the
ingot.
When rolled out these major inclusions may exist throughout the plate thickness.
Gas pores in the solidified ingot can also cause laminations when rolled out but will
generally 'close up' during the hot rolling process.
Laminations will become thinner as the plate is rolled into thinner sections and will
eventually become invisible to the naked eye in thinner sheet or plate.
Segregation bands occur in the centre ofthe plate and are low melting point impurities
such as sulphur or phosphorous which have segregated to the centre of the ingot as that
is the last place to cool. Great care needs to be taken when welding low quality steel as
sulphur levels may be present in the steel which cannot be detected by non destructive
testing.
Segregation bands can only be found on etched surfaces and have an appearance
similar to that of a weld HAZ.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapped metal does not fuse to the base
material due to insufficient temperature, and or pressure.
Welding Inspection - Materials Inspection
6.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!llll. _
Plate Inspection:
Condition:
Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps and Laminations.
Size:
Length
... ,;.'
, ;;-.'
Width
I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
Thickness
Other checks need to be made such as heat treatment condition, distortion,
tolerance, quantity, storage and identification.
6.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7DI. _
Pipe Inspection:
Condition:
Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Wall thickness, Ovality, Laps, Laminations.
Type/Specification:
Welded seam
Length
Size:
Other checks also need to be made, such as heat treatment condition, distortion,
tolerance, quantity, identification and storage.
6.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Codes and Standards:
A code of practice is generally a legally binding document containing the rules and laws
required to design, and test a specific product, whereas a standard will generally contain,
or refer to all the relevant optional and mandatory manufacturing, testing and measuring
data. The definitions given in the English dictionary state:
A code of practice:
A set of law's, or rules that shall be followed when providing a service or product.
An applied standard:
A level of quality, or specification too which something must be tested.
We use codes and standards to manufacture many things that have been built many times
before. The lessons of failures, or under-design are generally incorporated into the next
revised edition.
Typical design/construction codes and standards used in industry include:
Pipe lines carrying low, and high-pressure fluids.
Oil storage tanks.
Pressure vessels.
Offshore structures.
Nuclear installations.
Composite concrete and steel bridge construction.
Vehicle manufacture.
Nuclear power station pipe work.
Submarine hull construction.
Earth moving equipment.
Building construction etc.
Generally; the higher the level of quality required then the more specific is the
code/standard in terms of the manufacturing method, materials, workmanship, testing
and acceptable imperfection levels.
The application code/standard gives important information to the welding inspector
as it determines the inspection points and stages, and other relevant criteria that must be
followed, or achieved by the contractor during the fabrication process.
Most major application codes and standards contain 3 major sections, which are
dedicated to:
1) Design.
2) Manufacture.
3) Testing.
Welding Inspection - Codes and Standards
7.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VllOI. _
Application codes/standards may not contain all the relevant data required for
manufacture, but may refer to other applicable standards for special elements. Examples
of these are given below:
1) Materials specifications.
2) Welding consumable specifications.
3) Welding procedure and welder approvals.
4) Personnel qualifications for NDT operators.
5) NDT Methods.
On many occasions the application code/standard will contain it own levels of
acceptance, which are drawn up by a board of professional senior engineers, who operate
in that specific industrial area.
Codes and standards are' revised periodically to take into account new data, new
manufacturing methods, or processes that may come into being. If no local legal
obligations exist then it is the year of the application code/standard within the contract
documents, which becomes the legally binding version.
The main areas of responsibility within an application standard is generally divided into:
1) The client, or customer.
2) The contractor, or manufacturer.
3) The third party inspection authority, or client's representative.
The applied code/standard will form hub of the contract documents hence any deviation,
or non-conformance from the code/standard must be applied for by application from the
contractor to the client as a concession. Once a concession has been agreed, it must then
become a signed and written document, which is then filed with the fabrication quality
documents.
Welding Inspection - Codes and Standards
7.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VllOI. _
Weld Symbols on Drawings:
We use weld symbols to transfer infonnation from the design office to the workshop.
It is essential that a welding inspector can interpret weld symbols, as a large proportion
of the welding inspectors time will be spent checking that the welder is correctly
completing the weld in accordance with the approved fabrication drawing. Therefore
without a good knowledge of weld symbols, a welding inspector is unable to carry out
his full scope of work. Standards for weld symbols do not follow logic, but are based on
simple conventions.
There are many different standards for weld symbols, as most major manufacturing
countries have their own. Basically a weld symbol is made of 5 different components,
and the following is common to all major standards:
1) The arrow line:
The arrow line is always a straight and unbroken line, (With the exception of instances
in AWS AlA) and has only 1 of 2 points on the joint where it must touch, as shown
below:
2) The reference line:
The reference line must touch the arrow line, and is generally parallel to the bottom of
the drawing page. There is therefore always an angle between the arrow line and
reference line. The point ofthe joint ofthe 2 lines is referred to as the knuckle.
~ , - . - - - - - Either/or
3) The symbol:
The orientation of the symbol on the line is generally the same in most standards,
however the concept of arrow side and other side is shown differently in some
standards. This convention is explained within the following text for UK, European, and
ISO standards. (AWS Al.4 convention for arrow and other side follows that ofBS 499)
4) The dimensions:
Basically, all cross sectional dimensions are given to the left, and all linear dimensions
are given to the right hand side of the symbols in most standards.
5) Supplementary information:
Supplementary information, such as welding process, weld profile, NDT, and any special
instructions may differ from standard to standard.
The following section gives a guide to the standards used in UK and Europe.
Welding Inspection - Weld Symbols on Drawings
8.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!llll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
1) Convention ofBS 499 (UK):
The Arrow Line:
a) Shall touch the joint intersection.
b) Shall not be parallel to the drawing.
c) Shall point towards a single plate preparation.
The Reference Line:
a) Shall join the arrow line.
b) Shall be parallel to the bottomofthe drawing.
The Weld Symbol:
a) Welds done from this side (Arrow side) ofjoint, go underneath the reference line.
b) Welds done from the other side ofthe joint, go on top ofthe reference line.
c) Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn with the vertical line drawn
to the left side ofthe symbol.
d) All cross sectional dimensions are shown to the left ofthe symbol.
Fillet throat thickness is preceded by the letter a and the leg length by the letter b
When only leg length is shown the reference letter (b) is optional.
The throat thickness for partial penetration butt welds is preceded by the letter s
e) All linear dimensions are shown on the right ofthe symbol
I.e. Number of welds, length ofwelds, length of any spaces.
Example:
X Length (Space) a Throat. b. Leg
Example: a.7 b.10 x 50 (100)
Copyright 2002 TWI Ltd.
8.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Examples of BS 499 ISO 2553 and BSEn 22553
Double-sided butt weld symbols
Double bevel Double V DoubleJ Double U
Supplementary & further weld symbols to BS 499:
Weld all around Weld on site Square butt weld
/ Profile offillet weld/ C\
1 0 l ~ ~
111 (Welding process to ISO 4063
'SPOt weld
Compound weld (Single bevel and double fillet)
Intermittent welds in BS 499 and BSEn 22553 are given as shown as below with
number of welds x length of each weld, with gap length given in brackets i.e. 3 x 20 (50)
A staggered intermittent weld may be shown with a Zdrawn across the axis between
the weld length and gap.
3 No's 20mm length
~ ~
3x20
Staggered
8.3
/
(50)
(50)
50 mm gap
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
2) Convention of ISO 2553 and BSEn 22553: (Has now replaced BS 499 in UK)
The Arrow Line: (As per BS 499)
a)
b)
c)
Shall touch the joint intersection.
Shall not be parallel to the drawing. I
Shall point towards a single plate preparation.
The Reference Line:
a) Shall join the arrow line. J- As per BS 499
b) Shall be parallel to the bottomofthe drawing.
c) Shall have a broken line placed above, or beneath the reference line.
------
or
The Symbol: As per BS 499 with the following exceptions:
The other side of the joint is represented by the broken line, which shall be shown
above, or below the reference line, except in the case where the welds are totally
symmetrical about the central axis ofthe joint.
Fillet weld leg length shall always be preceded by the letter z.
Nominal fillet weld throat thickness shall always be preceded by the letter a.
Effective throat thickness shall always be preceded by the letter S for deep penetration
fillet welds and partial penetration butt welds.
Unbroken line representing the arrow side of the joint
Broken line indicating
other side of the joint
Welding process to BSEn 24063
L JI' Reference information
1310
- - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - - -
..8 ..10 Z . 1 0 ~
\ Weld toes to be
ground smoothly
Removable backing strip
/
I MR I s.10
8.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7fll. _
Table 10 * Numerical indication of process
No. Process
1 Arc welding
11 Metal-arc welding without gas protection
III Metal-arc welding with covered electrode
112 Gravity arc welding with covered electrode
113 Bare wire metal-arc welding
114 Flux cored metal-arc welding
115 Coated wire metal-arc welding
118 Firecracker welding
12 Submerged arc welding
121 Submerged arc welding with wire electrode
122 Submerged arc welding with strip electrode
13 Gas shielded metal-arc welding
131 MIG welding: (With an inert shield gas)
135 MAG welding: (With an active gas shield)
136 Flux cored arc welding (With an active gas shield)
14 Gas-shielded welding (Non-consumable electrode)
141 TIG welding
149 Atomic-hydrogen welding
15 Plasma arc welding
18 Other arc welding processes
181 Carbon arc welding
185 Rotating arc welding
2 Resistance welding
21 Spot welding
22 Seam welding
221 Lap seam welding
225 Seam welding with strip
23 Projection welding
24 Flash welding
25 Resistance butt welding
29 Other resistance welding processes
291 HF resistance welding
3 Gas welding
31 Oxy-fuel gas welding
311 Oxy-acetylene welding
312 Oxy-propane welding
313 Oxy-hydrogen welding
32 Air fuel gas welding
321 Air-acetylene welding
322 Air-propane welding
4 Solid phase welding: Pressure welding
41 Ultrasonic welding
42 Friction welding
43 Forge welding
44 Welding by high mechanical energy
441 Explosive welding
45 Diffusion welding
47 Gas pressure welding
48 Cold welding
No.
7
71
72
73
74
75
751
752
753
76
77
78
781
782
9
91
911
912
913
914
915
916
917
918
919
923
924
93
94
941
942
943
944
945
946
947
948
949
951
952
953
954
96
97
971
972
Process
Other welding processes
Thermit welding
Electroslag welding
Electrogas welding
Induction welding
Light radiation welding
Laser Welding
Arc image welding
Infrared welding
Electron beam welding
Percussion welding
Stud welding
Arc stud welding
Resistance welding
Brazing, soldering & braze welding
Brazing
Infrared brazing
Flame brazing
Furnace brazing
Dip brazing
Salt bath brazing
Induction brazing
Ultrasonic brazing
Resistance brazing
Diffusion brazing
Friction brazing
Vacuum brazing
Other brazing processes
Soldering
Infrared soldering
Flame soldering
Furnace soldering
Dip soldering
Salt bath soldering
Induction soldering
Ultrasonic soldering
Resistance soldering
Diffusion soldering
Flow soldering
Soldering with soldering iron
Friction soldering
Vacuum soldering
Other soldering processes
Braze welding
Gas braze welding
Arc braze welding
* This table complies with International Standard ISO 4063 (Now BSEn 24063)
Copyright 2002 TWl Ltd.
8.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VlJDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Complete a symbols drawing for the welded cruciform joint given below:
All butt weld are welded with the MIG process and fillet welds with MMA.
35
15
20
30
All fillet weld leg lengths are 10 mm
Use the sheets overleaf to transcribe the information shown above into weld
symbols complying with the following standards:
BS 499 Part II
BSEn 22553
Use the drawings provided overleaf
The course lecturer will present the solutions, after you have completed the
exercise.
8.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7fll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
BS499Partll
\
~
BSEn 22553
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
8.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Introduction to Welding Processes:
A welding process: Special equipment used with method, for producing welds.
The 4 main requirements of any fusion welding process are:
Adequate
properties
Heating:
Protection:
Cleaning:
Adequate:
properties
Of high enough intensity to cause melting of base metals and filler metals.
Of the molten filler metal in transit and base metal from oxidation, and to
protect the heat source and metals from ingress of gases such as hydrogen
& oxygen.
Of the weld metal to remove oxides and impurities, and refine the grains.
Adding alloying elements to the weld, to produce the desired mechanical
properties.
Welding Inspection - Introduction to Welding Processes 9.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!l!7I. _
Heating:
There are many heat sources used for welding. In fusion welding, the main requirement
is that the source must be of sufficient temperature to melt the materials being welded.
Combustion of gases:
Oxygen & acetylene will combust to produce a temperature of 3,200 C. Other fuel
gases may be used for oxy fuel gas cutting. The intensity of the flame is not as high as
other heating methods and so longer time has to be spent to bring the material to its
melting point.
Electrical resistance:
The heat generated by electrical resistance between 2 surfaces is used to produce over
95% of all welds made, in the resistance spot welding process. Electrical resistance is
also used as a heat source in the Electro Slag welding process where the resistance is
given by the molten slag. This process is classed as a resistive heating process.
High intensity energy beams:
We use 3 types ofconcentrated high intensity energy beams, which are:
I) Laser. (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emissions of Radiation)
2) Electron Beam. (Concentrated beam of electrons, generally in a vacuum)
3) Plasma. (A gas forced through an electric arc to create an ionised gas)
All these welding processes use beams of high energy creating extremely high
temperatures. These energy beams also enable very high welding speeds, which reduce
the amount of overall distortion with increased productivity.
Friction:
We can use the heat generated by friction (and pressure) to weld components together.
The joint is made with the materials faces in the plastic state.
The Electric Arc:
By far the most common heat source for fusion welding, the electric arc is utilised in
most of the common welding processes. The electric arc can produce heat of> 6000 C
with extreme levels of ultra-violet, infrared and visible light. Heat is derived from the
collision of electrons and ions with the base material and the electrode. An electric arc
may be defined as the passage of current across an ionised gap. All gases are insulators
and thus sufficient voltage, or pressure needs to be available to enable an electron to be
stripped from an atom into the next. Once this conducting path or plasma has been
created, a lower voltage can maintain the arc. The voltage required to initiate the arc is
termed the open circuit voltage or OCV requirement of the process/consumable. The
voltage that maintains the arc once it is created is termed the welding, or arc voltage.
The conducting path produced is termed the plasma column.
Welding Inspection- Introduction to Welding Processes 9.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7!lI. _
Protection:
In MMA welding, the gas shield is produced from the combustion of compounds in the
electrode coating. The gas produced is mainly C0
2
but electrodes are available that
produce hydrogen gas, which give a very high level of penetration.
In Submerged Arc welding the gas shield is again produced from the combustion of
compounds, but these compounds are supplied in a granulated flux, which is supplied
separately to the wire. MMA electrodes or SAW fluxes containing high levels of basic
compounds are used where hydrogen controlled welding is required.
In MIGIMAG & TIG welding the gas is supplied directly from a cylinder, or bulk feed
system and may be stored in a gaseous, or liquid state. In TIG & MIG welding we
generally use the inert gases argon or helium. In MAG welding we generally use C0
2
or
mixtures of C0
2
or 0
2
in argon.
Cleaning (of surface contaminants):
The cleaning, refIning and de-oxidation of the weld metal is a major requirement of all
common fusion welding processes. As a weld can be considered as a casting, it is
possible to use low quality wires in some processes, and yet produce high quality weld
metal by adding cleaning agents to the flux. This is especially true in MMA welding,
where many cleaning agents and de-oxidants may be added directly to the electrode
coating. De-oxidants and cleaning agents are also generally added to FCAW & SAW
fluxes. For MIGIMAG & TIG welding wires, de-oxidants, such as silicon, aluminium
and manganese must be added to the wire during initial casting. Electrodes and wires for
MIG & TIG welding must also be refIned to the highest quality prior to casting, as they
have no flux to add cleaning agents to the solidifying weld metal.
Adequate properties (from alloying):
As with de-oxidants, we may add alloying elements to the weld metal via a flux in some
processes to produce the desired weld metal properties. It is the main reason why there is
a wide range of consumables for the MMA process. The chemical composition of the
deposited weld metal can be changed easily during manufacture of the flux coating. This
also increases the electrode efficiency. (Electrodes of> 160% are not uncommon). In
SAW, elements such as Ferro-manganese may be added to agglomerated fluxes. It is
much cheaper to add alloying elements to the weld via the flux as an ore, or compound.
As with the cleaning requirement described above, wires for MIGIMAG & TIG must be
drawn as cast, thus all the elements required in the deposited weld metal composition
must be within the cast and drawn wire. This is the main reason why the range of these
consumables is very limited. With the developments of flux core wires, the range of
consumables for FCAW is now very extensive, as alloying elements may be easily added
to the flux core in the same way as MMA electrodes fluxes.
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vlll. _
Special Terms Related to Welding Safety:
Duty cycle:
A Duty Cycle is the amount of current that can be safely carried by a conductor in a
period of time. The time base is normally 10 minutes and a 60% duty cycle means that
the conductor can safely carry this current for 6 minutes in 10 and then must rest and
cool for 4 minutes. At a 100% duty cycle equipment can carry the current continuously.
Generally 60% & 100% duty cycles are given on welding equipment.
Example: 350amps at 60% duty cycle and 300amps 100% duty cycle.
This should not be confused with the term Operating Factor, often wrongly used for
Duty Cycle, as they are both measured as a percentage. Operating Factors are mainly
used in economic calculations to calculate the amount of time required from a welding
process to deposit an amount of weld metal. A typical Operating Factor for MMA would
be only 30%
Occupational, and Maximum Exposure Limit (OEL and MEL):
Operational, and Maximum Exposure Limits may be defmed as a safe, or maximum
working limit of exposure to various fume, gases or compounds during certain time
limits, as calculated by the Health and Safety Executive or HSE in the UK. The branch
of the executive that holds responsibility for this function is known as COSHH or
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health. Examples of levels of some fume and gases
that workers may be exposed to, taken from Guidance Note EHl40 2002, are given in
the table below:
Fume orgas Exposure Limit Effect on Health
Cadmium 0.025Mg/m
j
Extremely toxic
General Welding Fume 5Mg/m
j
Low toxicity
Iron 5Mg/m
j
Low toxicity
Aluminium 5Mg/m
j
Low toxicity
Ozone 0.20 PPM Extremely toxic
Phosgene 0.02 PPM Extremely toxic
Argon NoOELValue Very lowtoxicity
0
2
air content to be controlled
*Note MEL/OEL values given in Guidance Note EHl40 may change annually.
The toxicity of these examples can be gauged by the value of exposure limit. Any of the
above examples may be present in welding under certain conditions, which will be
expanded upon by your course lecturer at the relevant time, though Welding Safety will
be discussed fully as a separate subject area.
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lfll. _
Arc Characteristic for MMA & TIG:
In MMA & TIG welding, the arc length is controlled by the welder. Whilst an
experienced and highly skilled welder can keep the arc length at a fairly constant length,
there will always be some variation.
When the arc length is increased, the voltage or pressure required to maintain the arc will
also need to increase. This would also reduce the current supplied in a normal electrical
circuit, where the supplied voltage is proportional to a drop in current.
Thus we need to find a way of reducing a large drop in current for the variation in arc
voltage. This is achieved by the use of special electrical components within the
equipment that produce sets of curves as shown below.
The graph below shows amperage curve (A) selected @ 100 amps, with the effect of
variation in the arc gap and voltage.
Note how an increase in arc length increases the area under the graph, which
appears to give an increase in overall heat input. The extra heat is, however,
generally lost in the arc and is not transferred to the weld pool.
Constant Current (Drooping) Characteristic
Output Curves for current selector settings:
A: 100 Amps. B: 140 Amps. C: 180 Amps
OCV
50-90 volts 1P--............
Arc Voltage
Short arc gap
Normal arc
Long arc gap
Welding Amperage
ABC
A large variation in voltage = A smaller variation in amperage
Welding Inspection - Manual Metal Arc Welding
10.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
roDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Manual Metal Arc Welding:
MMA is a welding process that was first developed in the late 19
th
century using bare
wire electrodes.
Definitions:
MMA:
SMAW:
Manual Metal Arc Welding. (UK)
Shielded Metal Arc Welding. (USA)
Introduction:
MMA is simple process in terms of equipment and consumables, using short flux covered
electrodes. The electrode is secured in the electrode holder and the leads for this, and the
power return cable are placed in the + or - electrical ports as required. The process
demands a high level of skill from the welder to obtain consistent high quality welds, but
is widely used in industry, mainly because of the range of available consumables, its
positional capabilities and adaptability to site work. (photograph 1)
The electrode core wire is often of very low quality, as refining elements are easily added
to the flux coating, which can produce high quality weld metal relatively cheaply.
The arc is struck by striking the electrode onto the surface of the plate and withdrawing
it a small distance, as you would strike a match. The arc should be struck in the direct
area of the weld preparation avoiding arc strikes, or stray flash on the plate material. Care
should also be taken to maintain a short and constant arc length and speed of travel.
Photograph 2 shows a trainee dressed in the correct safety clothing, whilst photograph 3
indicates the level of process-produced fume, and the use of a flexible hose extraction
system. Little has changed with the basic principles ofthe process since it was developed,
but improvements in consumable technologies occur on a very regular basis.
10.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!71l1. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Manual Metal Arc Welding
Basic Equipment Requirements:
1) Power source TransformerlRectifier. (Constant current type)
2) Holding oven. (Temperature up to 200C)
3) Inverter power source.
4) Electrode holder.
5) Power cable.
6) Welding visor with correct fIlter glass rating.
7) Power return cable.
8) Electrodes.
9) Electrode oven. (Bakes up to 350 C)
10) Control panel. (Amperage & polarity)
10.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Variable Parameters:
1) Voltage:
The Arc Voltage of the MMA welding process is measured as close to the arc as
possible. It is variable only by changes in arc length.
The OCV (Open Circuit Voltage) is the voltage required to initiate, or re-ignite the
electric arc and will change with the type of electrode being used. Most basic coated
electrodes require an OCV of 70 - 90 volts. Most rutile electrodes require only 50 volts.
2) Current & Polarity:
The type and value of current used will be determined by the choice of electrode
classification, electrode diameter, material type and thickness, and the welding position.
Electrode polarity is generally determined by the operation i.e. surfacing/joining and the
type of electrode, or electrode coating being used. Most surfacing and non-ferrous alloys
require DC - for correct deposition, although there are exceptions to this rule. Electrode
burn off rates will vary with AC or DC + or - depending on the coating type and the
choice of polarity will also affect heat balance of the electric arc.
Important Inspection Points/Checks when MMA Welding:
1) The Welding Equipment:
A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in good condition.
2) The Electrode:
Checks should be made to ensure that the correct specification of electrode is being used,
that the electrode is ofthe correct diameter and that the flux coating is in good condition.
A check should be made to ensure that any basic coated electrode being used has been
pre-baked to that specified in the welding procedure. A general pre-use treatment for
basic coated electrodes would typically be:
a) Baked at 350C for 1 hour.
b) Held in holding ovens at 150 C
c) Issued to the welder in a heated quiver (Normally around 70C)
Vacuum pack pre-baked electrodes do not need to undergo this pre-baking treatment.
If the vacuum seal appears be broken at the point of opening the carton, users should
follow the manufacturers advice and instructions to maintain the hydrogen level specified
on electrode cartons.
The date and time of opening must be recorded to enable re-baking as required.
10.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Cellulosic and rutile electrodes do not require this pre-use,treatment, but should be stored
in a dry condition. Rutile electrodes may require "drying only when damp" and should
therefore be treated as damp unless evidence dictates otherwise and dried at specified
temperature.
3) OCV
A check should be made to ensure that the equipment can produce the OCV required by
the consumable and that any voltage selector has been moved to the correct position.
4) Current & Polarity.
A check should be made to ensure the current type and range is as detailed on the WPS.
5) Other Variable Welding Parameters:
Checks should be made for correct angle of electrode, arc gap distance, speed of travel
and all other essential variables ofthe process, given on the approve,d welding procedure.
6) Safety Checks:
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment, and
that all electrical insulation is sound.
A check should also be made that correct eye protection is being used when welding and
chipping slag and that an efficient extraction system is in use, to avoid over exposure to
toxic fumes and gases.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the
procedure being employed.
Typical Welding Imperfections:
1) Slag inclusions caused by poor welding technique or insufficient inter-run
cleaning.
2) Porosity from using damp, or damaged electrodes or welding contaminated
material.
3) Lack of root fusion or penetration caused by in-correct settings of amps, root
gap or face.
4) Undercut caused by too high amperage for the position or by a poor welding
technique e.g. travel speed too fast or too slow, arc length (therefore voltage)
variations during weaving in particular.
5) Arc strikes, caused by incorrect arc striking procedure, or lack of skill.
These may be also caused by incorrectly fitted/secured power return lead clamps.
6) Hydrogen cracks caused by the use of incorrect electrode type, or incorrect
baking procedure and/or control of basic coated electrodes.
10.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Summary of MMAISMAW:
Equipment requirements:
1) A Transformer/Rectifier, generator, inverter. (Constant amperage type).
2) A power and power return cable. '-, -'-
3) Electrode holder.
4) Electrode.
5) Correct visor/glass, all safety clothing and good extraction.
Parameters & Inspection Points:
1)
3)
5)
7)
9)
Amperage.
AC/DC & Polarity. Dy-f
Electrode type & diameter.
Electrode condition.
Insulation/extraction.
2)
4)
6)
8)
10)
Voltage.
Speed of travel.
Duty cycles.
Connections.
Any special electrode treatment.
1) Slag inclusions. 2)
3) Lack of root fusion or penetration. 4)
5) Arc Strikes. (q L<D+) 6)
Advantages & Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Porosity.
Undercut.
H2 Cracks. (Electrode treatment)
Disadvantages:
1) Field or shop use.
2) Range of consumables.
3) All positional.
4) Very portable.
5) Simple equipment.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
High skill factor required
Arc strikes/Slag inclusions.
* Low Operating Factor.
High level of generated fumes.
Hydrogen control.
* Comparatively uneconomic when compared with some other processes Le. MAG
FACW&SAW'
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r f 0 j {)
I ( . ~ '[)
10.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lDI. _
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding:
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
TIG welding was first developed in the USA during the 2
nd
world war for welding
aluminium alloys. As helium was used as the gas, the process was known as Heliarc.
Definitions:
TIG:
GTAW:
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding. (UK)
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. (USA)
Introduction:
TIG welding is a process that requires a very high level of welder skill, which can be
gauged in the degree of concentration of the welder shown in photograph 1 above. It is a
process synonymous with high quality welds, as shown in application of the offshore
powerboat repair in photograph 2. It is considered a comparatively slow process, but
with the development of hot-wire TIG (Photograph 3) TIG welding may produce high
quality welds with deposition rates higher than SAW.
The ari may be struckby using a number of methods,but in cheaper equipment the arc
is struck (Scratch start) in a similar way to MMA welding. This can easily cause
contamination of the tungsten and weld metal and to avoid this high frequency arc
ignition is often used in most equipment to initiate the are, however high frequency may
cause interference with hi-tech electrical equipment and computer systems. To overcome
this, Lift arc has been developed where the electrode is touched onto the plate and is
withdrawn slightly. An arc is produced with very low amperage, which is increased to
full amperage as the electrode is extended to the normal arc length. In contrast with other
arc processes, the filler wire is added directly into the pool separately by the welder,
which requires a very high level of hand dexterity and artisan craft skill.
TIG is a far more complex process than MMA, with more variable parameters to adjust,
and parts to check, and therefore more inspection points for the inspector to meet.
Welding Inspection - Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
11.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
Power source. (Constant Amperage type)
Inverter power source.
P\Jwer control panel.
Power cable hose.

Flow-meter.
Tungsten electrodes.
Torch assemblies.
Power return cable.
Power Control panel. (Amperage & polarity)
11.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOI._------------- THE WELDING INSTITUTE
The TIG Torch Head Assembly:
1) Tungsten electrodes.
2) S p a ~ e ceramic shield.
3) Gas lens.
4) Torch body.
5) Spare ceramic shield.
6) Gas diffuser.
7) Split copper collett. (For securing the tungsten electrode)
8) On/off or latching switch.
9) Tungsten housing.
Copyright 2002 TW1 Ltd.
11.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vf7!lI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
1) Voltage:
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the type of gas being used,
and changes in arc length as in MMA.
The current is adjusted proportionally to the diameter of the tungsten being used. The
higher the level of the current, then the higher is the level of penetration and fusion that is
obtained.
The polarity used for steels is always DC -ve as most of the heat is concentrated at the +
pole in TIG welding. This is required to keep the tungsten as cool as possible during
welding. AC is used when welding aluminium and its alloys.
When welding aluminium alloys with
AC, the tungsten end is chamfered, and
forms a ball end during welding.
vr!' bOD
The tungsten vertex angle e
/
/ /
")1U-l, l) j7

fOJ
LJ j, y t2//C
t ! '/ Jj .. -
gl(,(( ) (, ,'- c i y"
/i :/ "-'
v 4) Gas type and flow rate:
Generally 2 types of pure gases are used for TIG welding; namely argon and helium,
though nitrogen is sometimes added for welding copper and hydrogen additions may be
made for austenitic stainless steels (increasing welding speed). The gas flow rate is a
further essential variable of the welding procedure. This will change on joint type and
welding position.
3) Tungsten type and vertex angle:
The tungsten diameter, type of tungsten, and vertex angle, are all critical factors
considered as essential variables of a welding procedure. The most common types of
tungsten used are thoriated or ceriated zirconiated with AC (aluminium
alloys) The vertex angle is measured as shown Ii. f/u 10fr r: I
Too fine an angle will promote
melting of the tungsten tip
TIG gases are produced in purity of 99.99% and though argon is cheaper than helium
and has higher density than air, it has low ionisation potential, giving relatively shallow
penetration. Helium is more expensive than argon and has a lower density than argon
and air, and higher ionisation potential, giving higher penetration and a hotter arc. This
means practically that the flow rate of helium must be increased in the down-hand
position, and argon increased in the overhead position, for a similar joint design in order
to maintain adequate gas cover of the weld zone. We sometimes mix argon and helium
gases to combine the useful features of each gas Le. gas cover and penetration.
11.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V/lfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
5) Slope in and slope out:
Slope in and slope out are variables available on some TIG welding equipments, which
can regulate the current climb and decay. This is very beneficial in avoiding crater pipes
at the end of weld runs. The slope in and slope out control may be shown on the
equipment as below:
Slopein /
During welding it is used to control the rise and decay of the current at the start and end
of a weld as shown below:
Weld Start
(Slope out) (Slope In)
6) Gas cut off delay:
The gas cut off delay control delays the gas solenoid shut off time at the end ofthe weld,
and is used to give continued shielding of the solidifying and cooling weld metal at the
end of a run. It is often used when welding materials that oxidise at high temperatures
such as stainless and titanium alloys. It may be shown on the welding equipment as
follows:
7) Pulsed TIG welding variables:
The pulse parameters ofpulsed TIG are generally adjustable as follows:
a)
b)
Pulse background current.
Pulse duration.
c)
d)
Pulse peak current.
Pulse frequency.
11.5
Rev 09-09-02
_________________ THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Important Inspection Points/Checks when TIG Welding:
2) The Torch Head Assembly:
Check the diameter and specification of the tungsten, the required vertex angle has been
correctly ground, and that a gas lens has been fitted. Check the tungsten protrudes the
correct length from the ceramic, the ceramic is the correct type, and is in good condition.
3) Gas type and Dow rate:
Check the correct gas, or gas mixture is being used and the flow rate is correct for the
given joint design and position as stated on the approved welding procedure.
Checks should be made to ensure that the type of current and polarity are correctly set,
and that the current range is within that given on the procedure. These values will be
controlled by, the material type, thickness, and diameter and type oftungsten being used.
Checks should be made for correct angle oftorch, arc gap distance, speed oftravel and all
other essential variables of the process given on the approved welding procedure.
In mechanised welding checks will need to be made on the speed of the carriage
mechanism and the speed of the filler wire. Additionally when welding reactive materials
checks will need to be made on purging, or backing gas type and pressures.
6) Safety Checks:
that all electrical insulation is sound. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid
exposure to ozone and other toxic fumes.
A Check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the
1) Tungsten inclusions, caused by a lack of welder skill, too high current setting,
andlor incorrect vertex angle.
2) Surface porosity, caused by a loss of gas shield particularly when site welding, or
incorrect gas flow rate for the joint design and/or welding position.
3) Crater pipes, caused by poor weld finish technique, or incorrect use of current
decay.
4) Weld/root oxidation ifusing insufficient gas cut-off delay, or purge pressure when
welding stainless steels or titanium alloys.
Welding Inspection- Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
11.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!ll. THEWELDING INSTITUTE
Summary ofTIG/GTAW:
1) A Transfonner/Rectifier. (Constant amperage type)
2) A power and power return cable.
3) An inert shielding gas. (Argon or Helium)
4) Gas hose, flow meter, & gas regulator.
5) TIG torch head with ground tungsten, collets, and ceramics.
6) Method of arc ignition. (High frequency, lift arc, or scratch start.)
7) Correct visor/glass, all safety clothing and good extraction.
8) Optional filler metal in rod fonn, to correct specification.
1) Amperage.
3) ACfDC & Polarity.
5) Tungsten type & diameter.
7) Tungsten vertex angle.
9) Gas type & flow rate.
11) Ceramic condition, size and type.
2) Arc voltage.
4) Speed of travel.
6) Duty cycles.
8) Connections.
10) Insulation/extraction.
12) Gas lens.
1) Tungsten Inclusions.
3) Crater pipes.
Advantages:
1) High quality.
2) Good control.
3) All positional.
4) Lowest H2 arc welding process.
5) Low inter run cleaning.
2)
4)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Surface porosity.
Weld/root oxidation.
Disadvantages:
High skill factor required.
Small range of consumables.
Protection for site work.
Low productivity (o/f).
High ozone levels.
Ut
l
--
V
llCf2f--:;I
!/-tC
11.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VIlDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Arc Characteristic for MIG & SAW:
In MIGIMAG & SAW welding we require different welding equipment than used
for MMA & TIG, as the arc length is controlled by voltage.
To achieve this we require a Constant Voltage (Flat) characteristic power source.
Constant Voltage (Flat) Characteristic
. 4 ~
......
'r
~ r .
" p
....... ...
...... ~
...
....
OCV
Arc Voltage
Large arcga
Normal are gap
Small arc ga
Welding Amperage
Small change in voltage = Much larger change in amperage.
i.e. 2 volts = 100 amps
When pre.calculating the welding arc voltage from the OCV setting it is considered that
1-2 Open Circuit Volts are lost for every 100 amps of welding current being used.
Welding Inspection - Metal Inert!Active Gas Welding
12.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lll#. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Metal Inert Gas Welding:
MIG welding was initially developed in the USA in the late 4 O ~ s for the welding of
aluminium alloys structures, using argon, or helium gas shielding.
Definitions:
MIG: Metal Inert Gas (Using an inert shielding gas Le. argon or helium)
MAG: Metal Active Gas (Using active gases Le. pure C(h, Ar/C02 or Ar/Oz mixtures)
GMAW: Gas Metal Arc Welding (Used to describe the MIG/MAG process in USA)
FCAW: Flux Cored Arc Welding (Used to describe the flux cored arc process in USA) i
Introduction:
The basic equipment requirements of MIG/MAG welding differ from MMA and TIG as a
different type of power source characteristic is required and a continuous wire (from a
spool) is supplied at the welding torch head automatically. The shielding gas is supplied
externally from a separate cylinder. A separate wire feed unit, or internal wire drive
mechanism is also required to drive the wire electrode.
The arc is struck by short circuit of the wire on contact with the work piece, as it is
driven by the drive rolls through the liner, and then out through the contact tip. The type
of metal transfer that occurs is entirely dependant on gas type being used and
amperage/WFS and voltages set. As the electric arc length is controlled by the power
source the process is classified as a semi automatic welding process, which may be used
manually, fully automated by robotics, or can be simply mechanised by using tracking
and/or weaving system. Photograph 1 and 2 show the basic process components and
photograph 3 shows simple mechanisation in the overhead position.
Welding Inspection - Metal Inert/Active Gas Welding
12.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!llll. _
Metal Inert Gas Welding
1) Power source. TransformerlRectifier (Constant Voltage type)
2) Inverter power source.
3) Power hose assembly. (Liner. Power cable. Water hose. Gas hose)
4) Liner.
5) Spare contact tips.
6) Torch head assembly.
7) Power-return cable & clamp.
8) 15kgwire spool. (Copper coated & uncoated wires)
9) Power control panel.
10) External wire feed unit.
12.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
The MIGIMAG Wire Drive Assembly
1) An internal wire drive system
2) Half groove bottom drive roller. 3) Wire guide.
12.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7!lI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
The MIG Torch Head Assembly
1) Torch body.
2) On/off or latching switch.
3) Spot welding spacer attachment.
; ~ ~ : m ; : : . (1
0
gf' (J( 0 0
0Il
,J ) ,
6) Sparesbrouds.
7) Torch head assembly. (Less the shroud)
/1
,), i
li/
2
_
V
dl t
Welding lnspection- Metal Inert/Active Gas Welding
12.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lDI. _
THEWELDING INSTITUTE
Immediately on pressing the torch on/off Oatching) switch, the following occurs:
a) The gas solenoid opens and delivers the shielding gas.
b) The wire begins to be driven from the reel and through the contact tip.
c) The contactor closes and delivers current to the contact tip.
d) The water pump circulates the cooling water. (If required)
Types of Metal Transfer:
1) Dip Transfer:
In dip transfer the wire short-circuits the arc between 50 - 200 times/second. This type of
transfer is normally achieved with C02 or mixtures of C02 & argon gas + low amps &
welding volts < 24 volts. Dip transfer is all positional, but with a low deposition rate,
penetration and fusion. This is because of the time when the arc is extinguished and only
resistance heating takes place. It is mainly used for thin sheet steel < 3mm(and may also
be used for positional welding in thicker section). The weld metal is deposited during the
short circuit part of the welding cycle.
2) Spray Transfer:
In spray transfer a continuous electric arc and spray metal transfer is produced. This is
usually achieved with pure argon, or argon C02 mixtures and higher amps & volts> 24
volts. With steels it can be used only in down-hand butts and HIV fillet welds, but gives
higher deposition rate, penetration and fusion than dip transfer because of the continuous
arc heating. It is mainly used for plate steel > 3mm but may be have limited use for
positional welding due to the potential large weld pool involved.
3) Pulsed Transfer:
Pulse transfer uses pulses of current to fire a single globule ofmetal across the arc gap at
a :frequency between 50 -300 Pulses/second. Pulse transfer is a development of spray
transfer, that gives positional welding capability for steels, combined with controlled heat
input, good fusion, and high productivity. It may be used for all sheet steel thickness>
Imm, but is mainly used for positional welding of steels> 6mm.
As all the parameters require extremely fme adjustment synergic equipment is nonnally
used for pulse transfer.
4) Synergic Pulsed Transfer:
Synergic MIGIMAG was developed in the 1980's and uses microprocessor control to
adjust the parameters of the electric are, in maintaining an optimum conditions for a
selection of wire type & diameter, material and gas. The microprocessor control will
change all other pulse parameters automatically and immediately, for any change in WFS
(Wire feed speed). Equipment may also be used for standard dip, spray and globular
transfer.
5) Globular Transfer:
Globular transfer occurs between dip & spray, but is not normally used for solid wire
MIG-MAG welding, but is sometimes used in FCAW. (Flux cored arc welding)
12.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VI7/lI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
1) Wire Feed Speed:
Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the wire.
Wires are generally produced in 0.6/0.8/1.0/1.2/1.4 & 1.6 mm diameter.
2) Voltage:
The voltage setting is the most important setting in spray transfer as it controls the arc
length. In dip transfer it also effects the rise of current and the overall heat input into the
weld. An increase of both WFS/current and voltage will increase heat input. The welding
connections need to be checked for soundness, as any slack connections will give a hot
junction where voltage will be lost from the circuit and will affect the characteristic of the
welding arc greatly. The voltage will affect the type of transfer achievable, but this is also
highly dependant on the type of gas being used.
3) Gases:
C02 gas cannot sustain spray transfer, as the Ionisation Potential of the gas is too high.
Because of this high ionisation potential it gives very good penetration, but also a very
unstable arc and lots of spatter. Argon has a much lower Ionisation potential and can
sustain spray transfer above 24 welding volts. Argon gives a very stable arc and little
spatter, but lower penetration than C02. We mix both argon and C02 gas in mixtures of
between 5 - 20% C02 in argon to get the benefit of both gases i.e. good penetration with
a stable arc and very little spatter. C02 gas is much cheaper than argon or its mixtures.
4) Inductance:
Inductance causes a backpressure of voltage to occur in the wire and operates only when
there is a changing current value. In dip transfer welding the current rises as the electrode
short circuits on the plate and it is then that the inductance resists the rapid rate of rise of
current at the tip of the electrode. This has a main effect of reducing the level of spatter.
Important Inspection Points/Checks when MIGIMAG Welding:
2) The Electrode Wire
The diameter, specification and the quality of the wire are the main inspection headings.
The level of de-oxidation of the wire is an important factor with Single, Double & Triple
de-oxidized wires being available. The quality ofthe wire winding is also important.
The higher the level of de-oxidants in the wire, then the lower is the chance of occurrence
of porosity in the weld. The quality of the copper coating, and the quality of the wire
temper and winding are also important factors in minimizing wire feed problems.
Quality of wire windings and increasing costs
(a) Random wound. (b) Layer wound. c) Precision layerwoun
12.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VllL7I. _
3) The Drive Rolls and Liner.
Check the drive rolls are of the correct size for the wire and that the pressure is only hand
tight, or just sufficient to drive the wire. Any excess pressure will deform the wire to an
ovular shape. This will make the wire very difficult to drive through the liner and result in
arcing in the contact tip and excessive wear ofthe contact tip and liner.
Check that the liner is the correct type and size for the wire. A size of liner will generally
fit 2 sizes of wire Le. (0.6 & 0.8) (1.0 & 1.2) (1.4 & 1.6) mm diameter. Steel liners are
used for steel wires and Teflon liners for aluminium wires.
4) The Contact Tip.
Check that the contact tip is the correct size for the wire being driven, and check the
amount of wear frequently. Any loss of contact between the wire and contact tip will
reduce the efficiency of current pick. Most steel wires are copper coated to maximise the
transfer of current by contact between 2 copper surfaces at the contact tip, this also
inhibits corrosion. The contact tip should be replaced regularly.
5) The Connections.
The length of the electric arc in MIGMAG welding is controlled by the voltage settings.
This is achieved by using a constant voltage volt/amp characteristic inside the equipment.
Any poor connection in the welding circuit will affect the nature and stability of the
electric arc, and is thus is a major inspection point.
6) Gas & Gas Flow Rate.
The type of gas used is extremely important to MIG/MAG welding, as is the flow rate
from the cylinder, which must be adequate to give good coverage over the solidifying and
molten metal to avoid oxidation and porosity.
7) Other Variable Welding Parameters.
Checks should be made for correct WFS, Voltage, Speed of travel, and all other essential
variables ofthe process given on the approved welding procedure.
8) Safety Checks:
Checks should be made on the current carrying capacity, or duty cycle of equipment and
electrical insulation. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid exposure to
ozone and fumes.
A check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the
1) Silica inclusions, (on ferritic steels only) caused by poor inter-run cleaning.
2) Lack of sidewall fusion during dip transfer welding thick section vertically down.
3) Porosity caused from loss of gas shield and lowtolerance to contaminants
4) Burn through from using the incorrect metal transfer mode on sheet metal.
12.8
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Advantages of Flux Cored Arc Welding:
In the mid 80's the development of self-shielded and dual-shielded FCAW was a major
step in the successful application of on-site semi automatic welding, and has also enabled
a much wider range of materials to be welded.
The wire consists of a metal sheath containing a granular flux. This flux can contain
elements that would normally be used in MMA electrodes and so the process has a very
wide range of applications.
In addition we can also add gas producing elements and compounds to the flux and so the
process can become independent of a separate gas shield, which restricted the use of
conventional MIG/MAG welding in many field applications. "Dual Shield" wires obtain
their gas shielding from a combination of flux and separate shielding gas.
Most wires are sealed mechanically and hermetically with various forms of joint. The
effectiveness of the joint of the wire is an inspection point of cored wire welding,
particularly with wires containing basic fluxes, as moisture can easily be absorbed into a
damaged or poor seam.
It is the accepted practise when using basic wires that the first few meters of wire from
the reel is stripped off and discarded as moisture can be absorbed up the length of the
wire through the core of flux if incorrectly stored. Baking of cored wires is ineffective
and will do nothing to restore the condition of a contaminated flux within a wire.
A major advantage of fluxed cored wires is that they produce extremely good penetration.
This is caused by the amount of current density in the wire, or in other words the amount
ofcurrent carried in the available CSA ofthe conductor.
This area is very small in flux-cored wires, in comparison with other welding processes.
MMA
3.25 mm 0 @125 Amps
Solid MIG Wire
1.2 mm 0 @180 Amps
Flux Cored Wires
2.0mm 0 @180 Amps
Wire sheath
-----i.
carrying current
Flux core centre
- - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~
Increasing Current Density & Penetration Power
12.9
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VflL _
Equipment requinmumts:
1) l!t.:L (Constant voltage t)rpe)
A power and power rett-UTI cable.
An Tn",rt ""t;,r", or ..";v,,,r'l .,}"",lr'l;nn n"., (A rnon nr r{)2'1
.L.Jo..I..x. .L.L.LV.L", u..VIl,..I,,,,,,,,, 'V.L f:>........u'. \.1. .J,..].O....,.J..1. V.L ................. I
4) Gas hose, flow meter, & gas regulator.
5) torch hose, liner, difftJSer:') contact tip & nozzle..
6) Wire feed unitwiih correct drive rolls.
7'1 Pl",,,tror'l,,, ur;..", tn "n...."'''t .,n",,,if'1,,,,t'nn "nrl A'".."",t",r
I} ,LJ........ V\..LV1o.I-..... '-" VV.L.LV_'" ......u..'''.L'V'.L.L U..L.l."-I.- ....,. ........... .1. .......... " ....... .&..
8) Correct visor/glass, all safety clothing and good eAi:raction.
1)
3)
,,)
vI
7)
9)
11)
'\lfSI
'''ir a 'P
vv Ire type"" UiamCIer.
Contact tip size and condition.
Liner size.
In.sulationlextraction.
D-aty eyclcs.
')'1
"'1
4)
h\
'JI
8)
1m

1 '""\'\
1)
r"' ....... 4--............. 0... -t:1 "" ...............+ ....
vu::; lYlJ'" "" HUW lULl,;.
Roller size and pressure"
Inductance settings.
Connections. ('lo1tage drops)
Travel specd, direction & angles.
1'1

3)
Siiica inclusions.
Sfu"i:ace Porosity.
')'1
"'1
4)
Lack offJSion" dip transfer)
":"'"\. "'- CD ... r- 't .:\.
bummrougn 'smg spray ror snccI)
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1'1
LI
2)
'.n
oJI
4)
5)
l-i' n}, prnAll"tl'"'t,, (n/i)
-L ......e ...... .Lv.....\,.1...... '" '1'''''''J VI"" ..
Easily automatcd.
LAJl positional. (Dip & Pulse)
Matcrial thickness range.
Continuous electrode.
1)
2)
':t'l
JI
4)
5)
T <If'lr nf'fug'nn (D'n T""nsf':er)
.I....J""'.......a:ll.. VL .L 1'-".1.. 11-'.L.I.\4I..L
Small range of consumabks.
Prot",,,t'nn f'nr "'t,,, urnrlr'nn
.... 1 f>3.L......, VTV.I..I.'1o...1.1...Lz:,"
Complex equipment.
High ozonc levels.
Welding Inspectiofi.- Metalillett/Active Gas Welding
Copytight 2002 TWi Ltd.
i2.10
n n,n. 1\1"\ 1"'\ ...
KI;;V \I:t-V:-.r-U...
TWI
V!l!ll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Submerged Arc Welding:
SAW or Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union during the 2Dd
world war as an economical means of welding thick steel sections.
Definitions:
SAW: Submerged Arc Welding. (UK & USA)
Introduction:
This welding process is normally mechanised and uses a constant voltage power source,
as it is the voltage that controls the arc length. Amperages can range from 100 up to and
over 2,000 amps, which gives very high current density in the wire and deep penetration
and dilution into the base metal.
The arc is struck in the same manner as MIG, which is generally aided by the linear
movement of the electrode tip across the surface of the run on tab, though HIF arc
striking is also possible on some equipment. As its name suggests the arc is submerged
beneath a covering of flux, which is ofa granular nature.
A flux delivery system must be incorporated into the equipment, which may also be
accompanied by a flux recovery system. It is restricted in position and is generally used
for thickness of over 10mm. Run-on and run-off tabs are normally used on welded
seams, as this allows the welding arc to settle to its required conditions prior to the
commencement of the actual welding seam. The run off plate allows a similar set of
conditions to occur at the end ofthe weld. Both run-on and run-off tabs are removed after
the weld seam has been completed. The arc is normally formed as the point of the wire
comes into moving contact with the plate. The flux blanket protects the arc from
atmosphere and decompose, in the heat of the arc adding alloying elements and de-
oxidants to the molten weld metal. The flux also provides a slag, which forms a
protective barrier to the cooling weld in a similar manner to MMA.
Photographs 1 and 2 show a stationary SAW head with rotated pipe, and photograph 3
shows a mobile tractor/carriage assembly, which may be used for welding deck plates.
Welding Inspection - Submerged Arc Welding
13.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VO#. _
Submerged Arc Welding
1) Welding carriage control panel.
2) Welding carriage assembly.
3) Reel of wire.
4) Granulated DUL
5) Transfonner rectifier.
6) Power source control panel.
7) Power return cable.
8) Flux hopper.
13.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
fllDI._- THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Immediately on pressing the switch, the following occurs:
a) The flux is released fonning a layer beneath the torch head.
b) The wire begins to feed and strikes the arc.
c) The contactor closes and delivers current to the contact tip.
d) The tractor begins to move. (If mechanised)
Because of the nature of the granular flux, the use of Submerged Arc Welding for
positional welding has been restricted to the flat position. However the process has been
continually developed and is now capable of certain degree of positional welding, with an
addition of some simple extra equipment (Le. flux dams).
Submerged arc welding has many applications, but certain limitations exist other than the
positional capability of the process, as with the restriction of full penetration welds from
one side without the use of a backing bar or backing strip. One of the most popular
applications for SAW is in the welding of "Spirally welded pipe" where a fixed unit is
stationed inside the pipe to weld the internal seam with an additional fixed unit placed on
the top ofthe pipe for the outer seam. Full penetration welding takes place as the pipe is
spiralled through. Other factors that may need to be taken into consideration are the
toughness requirements ofthe joint, as the arc energy input is comparatively high.
Arc blow can also be a major problem as its occurrence due to magnetic field is
proportional to the current used and in SAW currents of over 1,500 amps are not
uncommon. Arc blow can be minimised by the use of tandem wire systems with the
leading wire on DC+ and the trailing wire on AC producing opposing magnetic fields.
The use of double, or multi run techniques also has effects on the properties of the weld
metal and HAZ. Multi run techniques tends to nonnalise previous weld deposits and
HAZ, giving superior properties. The resultant SAW weld metal is difficult to predict, as
the weld is made up from 3 elements. A typical set of values is given below, but this can
change dramatically with any changes in the welding parameters:
1) The Electrode. (25%)
2) Elements in the flux. (15%)
3) Dilution. (60%)
SAW Weld Metal Analysis
~
1
02
EJ3
The proportion of these elements in the final weld deposit will vary depending on the
welding parameters set and a variation in arc voltage will change the arc length and thus
affect the amount of flux being melted and overall % of alloying elements in the final
weld.
13.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lfll.__------
1) Wire Feed Speed:
Increasing the wire feed speed automatically increases the current in the wire. The
density of the current in the wire is dependant on the cross section area of the wire. The
higher the density of the current, then the higher is the level ofpenetration and fusion that
is obtained.
2) Voltage:
The voltage setting is a critical variable in SAW affecting the bead shape and penetration
profile and is an essential variable of a SAW welding procedure. It also governs arc
length beneath the flux layer and any changes in arc length will radically alter weld metal
composition due to more or less elements from the flux being alloyed in the weld metal.
3) Electrode stick out:
This variable parameter is adjusted by adjusting the distance of the welding head
assembly from the work surface. It will affect the arc amperage, as power will be
consumed in the resistance heating ofthe wire from the tip ofthe contact tip to the end of
the wire. The electrode stick out dimension should be given on the approved welding
procedure specification sheet.
4) Flux depth:
The flux depth is controlled by the flux. feed rate and the distance from the feeding head
to the work surface. The flux. depth needs to be sufficiently high to cover the arc.
5) Travel Speed:
As SAW is most often a mechanised process the travel speed can be considered as an
important variable parameter affecting penetration and bead profile.
The correct travel speed for the joint should be given on the approved welding procedure
specification sheet.
Important Inspection Points/Checks when Submerged Arc Welding:
2) The Welding Head Assembly & Flux Delivery System:
Checks should be made that the diameter, specification of the electrode wire and the
specification and mesh size of flux. being used is correct to the approved WPS.
Checks should also be made to ensure the wire drive system has correct rollers diameter
and that the flux delivery system is operational. A check should be made that the
electrode stick out dimension is correct, and if using run on and run off plates that these
are fitted and tacked in place correctly.
Welding Inspection- Submerged Arc Welding
Copyright 2002 1WI Ltd
13.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VI7!lI. _
40-50
0
Checks should be made to ensure that the type of current being used is correct and if DC
that the polarity is correct and that the current range is within that given on the
procedure. Multi wire welding may use both types of current Le. DC +leading wire with
an AC trailing wire as this improves welding times and offsets the effects of "arc blow"
If using multi wire process the angle of the trailing wire must also be checked. All
parameters should be given on the approved WPS.
Other procedural parameters may include the use of backing bar or backing strips
particularly when welding from a single side. In addition to the inspection points
mentioned previously checks should also be made to ensure that arc voltage and speed of
travel are within the acceptable limits. All these parameters should be given on the WPS.
A typical single sided weld preparation for SAW could look like this:
A broad root face
with no root gap
A permanently welded backing bar.
5) Safety Checks:
that all electrical insulation is sound. Correct extraction systems should be in use to avoid
exposure to toxic fumes.
1) Porosity from the use of damp welding fluxes or improperly cleaned plates.
2) Centreline cracks caused by high dilution and sulphur pick up or deep and
narrow welds (Le. depth/width ratio of>3/2)
3) Shrinkage cavities caused by a weld depth/ratio of > 3/2
4) Lack of fusion caused by the effects of arc blow.
13.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Summary of Sub Arc Welding:
1) ATransformer/Rectifier. (Constant voltage type)
2) A power and power return cable.
3) Atorch head assembly.
4) A granulated flux ofthe correct type/specification and mesh size.
5) A flux delivery system.
6) Aflux recovery system.
7) Electrode wire to correct specification and diameter.
8) Correct safety clothing and good extraction.
1) AC/DC WFS/Amperage.
3) Flux type and mesh size.
5) Electrode wire and condition.
7) Flux delivery/recovery system.
9) Insulation/duty cycles.
11) Contact tip size/condition.
2) DCV & Welding Voltage.
4) Flux condition. (Baking etc.)
6) Wire specification.
8) Electrode stick-out.
10) Connections.
12) Speed oftravel.
1) Lack offusion.
3) Shrinkage cavities.
2)
4)
Solidification, or centreline cracks.
Porosity.
Restricted in positional welding.
High probability of arc-blow. (DC+/-)
Prone to shrinkage cavities.
Difficult penetration control.
Variable compositions. (Arc length)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Advantages & Disadvantages: t-
o L i
01>
J .! Disadvantages: Advantages:
1) Low weld-metal costs/
2) Easily mechanised.
3) Low levels of ozone production.
4) High productivity (o/f).
5) No visible arc light.
13.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Summary of Arc Welding Processes:
Process MMA TIG MIGIMAG SAW
Transformer! Transformer! Transformer! Transformer!
Rectifier. Rectifier. Rectifier. Rectifier.
Power!power Head assembly. Head assembly. Head assembly.
return cables. Hose assembly. Hose assembly. Hose assembly.
Electrode holder. Power return cable. Wire Liner. Power return cable.
Basic Visor with lens. Torch head Power return cable. Wire feed unit.
Equipment Fume extraction. assembly. Wire feed unit. Flux hopper.
Requirements. Gas cylinder. Gas cylinder. Flux delivery system.
Gas hoses. Gas hoses. Flux recovery system.
Gas regulators. Gas regulators. Run on/off tabs.
I Gas flow meter. Gas flow meter. Tractor carriage.
Visor with lens. Visor with lens. Fume extraction.
Fume extraction. Fume extraction.
The Arc is struck Scratch Start. Wire contact is made Wire contact is made
Arc Striking. striking the core (Low quality) by the advancement by the advancement
wire onto the plate HIF or Lift Arc. of the wire by the ofthe wire by the
and withdrawing. (High quality) mechanical drive. mechanical drive.
Arc and weld
Gas for the Arc, Cylinder fed inert Cylinder fed inert Gas for Arc, and Slag
shielding.
and Slag for Weld. Gas shield for Arc & !active Gas shield for for the weld. Derived
Derived from flux. Weld. Arc & Weld. from 2ranular flux.
Weld Refining
Compounds and Very clean, high Very clean, high Compounds within
and Cleaning.
cleaning agents quaHty drawn wire. quaHty drawn wire. flux + higher quality
within the flux. wire than MMA.
OCV. Amperage. OCV. OCV.
Amperage. Polarity. Arc voltage. Arc voltage.
Polarity (ACIDC +1-) (DC -ve for steels) AmperagelWFS. AmperageIWFS.
Process Full electrode (AC for Aluminium) Polarity DC +ve Polarity (ACIDC +!-)
Variable specification. Inert gas type. Gas type. Electrode stick-out.
Parameters. Electrode 0. Gas flow rate. Gas flow rate. Flux type.
,
Electrode pre-use
Tungsten type. Inductance. Flux mesh-size.
baking treatments! Tungsten 0. Electrode wire type. Electrode wire type.
specified holding Wire type. Electrode wire 0. Electrode wire 0.
conditions. Wire 0. Tip/drive roller sizes. Wire/flux specification.
Speed oftravel. Speed of travel. Speed oftravel. Speed oftravel.
Consumables.
Short flux coated High quality drawn High quality drawn High quality drawn
electrodes. wire + inert 2as. wire + inert/active gas. wire + granular flux.
2 x Typical Arc Strikes. Tungsten Inclusions. Lack offusion. Shrinkage cavities.
Imperfections. Slag inclusions. Crater pipes. Porosity. Solidification cracks.
2 x General Shop and Site use. High quality welds. High Productivity. Lowweld-metal costs.
Advantages. Electrodes range. Low H
2
content. Easily Automated. No visible arc light.
2 x General High skill factor. AvaUable wires. AvaUable wires. Penetration control.
Disadvant32es. Low productivity. High Ozone level. Il.i2h Ozone levels. Arc blow.
Positional
All positional, but All positional. Dip: All positional. Flat only, but may be
Capabilities.
very dependant on Spray: Flat only. adapted for welding
consumable types. Pulse: All Positional. HIV butt welds.
Welding Inspection Arc Process Summary
13a.l
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vflfll. _
Welding Consumables:
Welding consumables are defmed as all those things that are used up in the production of
a weld.
This list could include many things including electrical energy, however we normally
refer to welding consumables as those things used up by a particular welding process.
These are namely:
Electrodes wires Fluxes Gases
When inspecting welding consumables arriving at site, it is important that they are
checked for the following:
1) Size.
2) Type or Specification.
3) Condition.
Welding Inspection -Welding Consumables
14.1 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vllfll. _
Consumables for MMA Welding:
Welding consumable for MMA consist of a core wire typically between 350 and 450mm
length and from 2.5 - 6mm diameter. Other lengths and diameters are also available.
The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating. The core wire is generally of low
quality steel (Rimming Steel) as the weld can be considered as a casting, and therefore
the weld can be refined by the addition of cleaning, or refining agents in the flux coating.
The flux coating contains many elements and compounds that all have a variety of jobs
during welding.
Silicon is mainly added as a de-oxidising agent (in the form of Ferro silicate), which
removes oxygen from the weld metal by forming the oxide Silica. Manganese additions
ofup 1.6% will improve the strength and toughness of steel.
Other metallic and non-metallic compounds are added that have many functions, some of
which are as follows:
1) To aid arc ignition.
2) To improve arc stabilisation.
3) To produce a shielding gas to protect the arc column.
4) To refine and clean the solidifying weld-metal.
5) To form a slag which protects the solidifying weld-metal.
6) To add alloying elements.
7) To control hydrogen content ofthe weld metal.
8) To form a cone at the end ofthe electrode, which directs the arc.
Electrodes for MMA/SMAW are grouped depending on the main constituent in their flux
coating, which in turn has a major effect on the weld properties and ease ofuse.
The common groups, are given below:
Group Constituent Shield eas Uses AWSA5.1
Rutile Titania CO
2
General purpose E6013
Basic Calcium compounds
CO2
HiJ];h Quality E7018
Cellulosic Cellulose Hydrogen +CO Pipe root runs E 6010
Welding fuspectiOll-Welding Conswnables
14.2 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
rzJ/lI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
A Typical BS 639 Specification: E 51 33 B 160 2 0 H
Reference given in box letter: A) B) C) D) E) F) G)
.
A) Tensile streng1h:
Symbol Min Yield Tensile Strength
N/mm
2
N/mm
2
43 330 430-550
51 380 510-650
C) Covering types:
B Basic
BB Basic High Efficiency
C Cellulosic
0 Oxidising
R Rutile Medium Coated
RR Rutile Heavy Coated
S Other Types
E) Welding position:
Symbol Position
1 All positions
2 All positions except
Vertical Down
3 Flat Butt & Fillets + HV
Fillets.
4 Flat Butt & Fillets
5 Vertical Down +
.
positions of symbol 3
9 Any position not
classified by the above.
B) Toughness:
First Digit Second Digit Testing
28J 47 J Temperature
0 0 Not specified
1 1 +20
2 2 0
3 3 -20
4 4 -30
5 5 -40
D) Electrode Efficiency:
% Recovery to the nearest 10% (> = 110)
F) Electrical characteristic:
Symbol DC Polarity ACMin OCV
0 Polarity as Not recommended
recommended
1 +or- 500CV
2
-
500CV
3 + 500CV
4 + or- 700CV
5 - 700CV
6 + 700CV
7 + or- 900CV
8
-
900CV
9 + 900CV
G) Hydro2en Control:
H Indicates Low Hydrogen Potential
14.3 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vf7fll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
A Typical Electrode Specification to BSEn 499
A Typical Electrode Specification to AWS A5.1 & A5.5
14.4 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V/lOI. _
A Typical BSEn 499 Specification:
Reference given in box letter:
E 46 3 INi B 5 4 H5
A) B) C) D) E) F) G)
A) Tensile strenlrth:
Symbol Min Yield Tensile Min
Strength Strength E%
N/mm
2
N/mm
2
35 355 440-570 22
38 380 470-600 20
42 420 500-640 20
46 460 530-680 20
50 500 560-720 18
C) Alloying:
(Deposited weld chemical composition) .
Symbol Mn Mo Ni
None
2.0 - -
Mo 1.4 0.3-0.6 -
MnMo >1.4-2.0 .0.3-0.6 -
INi 1.4 - 0.6-1.2
2Ni 1.4 - 1.8-2.6
3NI 1.4 - >2.6-3.8
MnlNi >1.4-2.0
-
0.6-1.2
INiMo 1.4 0.3-0.6 0.6-1.2
Z Any other agreed
composition
E) Electrical characteristic + recovery %
Symbol Recovery % Current type
1 < 105 ac+dc
2 < 105 dc
3 > 105 < 125 ac+dc
4 > 105 < 125 dc
5 > 125 < 160 ac+dc
6 > 125 < 160 dc
7 > 160 ac+dc
8 > 160 dc
G) Hydrogen Content of
deposited weld metal:
Symbol Max H
2
Content
ml/100mgm
H5 5
HIO 10
Hl5 15
B) Toughness at minimum
impact e n e ~ 47 Joules:
Z No requirement
A +20
0 0
2 -20
3 -30
4 -40
5 -50
6 -60
D) Coverin2 types:
A Acid
C Cellulosic
R Rutile
RR Rutile thick covering
RC Rutile/Cellulosic
RA Rutile/Acid
RB Rutile/Basic
B Basic
F) Welding position:
Symbol Position
1 All positions
2 All positions except
Vertical Down
3 Flat Butt & Fillets + HV
Fillets.
4 Flat Butt & Fillets
5 Vertical Down +
positions of symbol 3
The strength, toughness, coating of BS 639 plus any light alloying elements of BS EN
499 (If applicable) are the mandatory elements of information that shall be shown on all
electrodes. All other information is normally given on the electrode carton
14.5 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
A Typical AWS A5.1 & A5.5 Specification E 80 1 8 G
Reference given in box letter: A) B) C) (D For A5.5 only)
A) Tensile Yield Strenlrth and E%: B) W e l d i n ~ Position:
Code I
Min Yield Min Tensile MinE % 1 All Positional
PSI x 1000 PSI x 1000 In 2" min
2 Flat butt & HIV Fillet Welds
General
3 Flat only
E60xx 48,000 60,000 17-22
Care should be taken when selecting an
E70xx 57,000 70,000 17-22
electrode for Vertical Down, as not all
E80xx 68-80,000 80,000 19-22
electrodes can weld in this position.
E IOOxx 87,000 100,000 13-16
V Notch Impact Radiographic
Specific Electrode Information for E 60xx and 70xx Izod test (fUbs) Standard.
E6010 48,000 60,000 22 20 tUbs at -20
0
F Grade 2
E6011 48,000 60,000 22 20 tUbs at -20
0
F Grade 2
E6012 48,000 60,000 17 Not required Not required
E6013 48,000 60,000 17 Not required Grade 2
E6022 Not required 60,000 Not required Not required Not required
E6027 48,000 60,000 22 20 tUbs at -20
0
F Grade 2
E7015 58,000 70,000 22
20 tUbs at -20
0
F Grade 1
E7016 58,000 70,000 22 20 iUbs at -20
0
F Grade 1
E7018 58,000 70,000 22 20 ft.lbs at -20
0
F Grade 1
E7028 58,000 70,000 20
20 ft.lbs at 0
0
F Grade 2
C) Electrode Coating &
Electrical Characteristic
Code Coating Current type
Exxl0 Cellulosic/Organic DC + only
Exx11 Cellulosic/Organic ACorDC+
Exx12 Rutile ACorDC-
Exx13 Rutile + 30% Fe Powder ACorDC+/-
Exx14 Rutile AC or DC +/-
Exx15 Basic DC + only
Exx16 Basic ACorDC+
Exx18 Basic + 25% Fe Powder ACorDC+
Exx20 High Fe Oxide content ACorDC+/-
Exx24 Rutile + 50% Fe Powder ACorDC+/-
Exx27 Mineral + 50% Fe Powder ACorDC+/-
Exx28 Basic + 50% Fe Powder ACorDC+
D) AWS A5.5 Low Alloy Steels
Symbol
Approximate Alloy Deposit
Al 0.5%Mo
Bl 0.5% Cr + 0.5% Mo
B2 1.25% Cr + 0.5% Mo
B3 2.25% Cr + 1.0%Mo
B4 2.0% Cr + 0.5% Mo
B5 0.5% Cr + 1.0% Mo
Cl 2.5%Ni
C2 3.25% Ni
C3
l%Ni +0.35%Mo +0.15%Cr
D1/2
0.25 - 0.45%Mo +0.15%Cr
G 0.5%Ni or/& O.3%Cr or/&
0.2%Mo or/& O.I%V
For G only 1 element is required
*The above tables giving data for BS 499. BSEn 639. AWS A5.1 and A5.5 are not fully complete,
and are also subject to periodic changes. Thus latest revisions of the relevant standard should
always be consulted for full, and up to date electrode classification and technical data.
Welding Inspection -Welding Conswnables
14.6 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Inspection Points for MMA Consumables
1: Size:
<
Wire Diameter & length.
>
2: Condition: Cracks, chips & concentricity.
3: Type (Specification): Correct specification/code.
Checks should also be made to ensure that basic electrodes have been through the
correct pre-use procedure. Having been baked to the correct temperature (typically 300-
350C) for 1 hour and then held in a holding oven at 150C before being issued to the
welders in heated quivers. Most electrode flux coatings will deteriorate rapidly when
damp and care should be taken to inspect storage facilities to ensure that they are
adequately dry, and that all electrodes are stored in conditions ofcontrolled humidity.
Vacuum packed electrodes may be used directly from the carton, only if the vacuum has
been maintained. Directions for hydrogen control are always given on the carton and
should be strictly adhered to.
The cost of each electrode is insignificant compared with the cost of any repair, thus
basic electrodes that are left in the heated quiver after the day's shift may potentially be
re baked, but would normally be discarded to avoid the risk ofHz induced problems.
14.7 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!l!ll. _
Consumables for TIG Welding:
Consumables for TIG/GTAW consist of a wire and gas, though tungsten electrodes may
also be grouped in this. Though it is considered as a non-consumable electrode process,
the electrode is consumed by erosion in the arc, and by grinding and incorrect welding
technique.
The wire needs to be of a very high quality as normally no extra cleaning elements can
be added into the weld. The wire is refined at the original casting stage to a very high
quality where it is then rolled and finally drawn down to the correct size.
It is then copper coated and cut into 1m lengths. A code is then stamped on the wire with
a manufacturer's, or nationally recognised number for the correct identification of
chemical composition. A grade of wire is selected from a table of compositions. The
wires are mostly copper coated which inhibits the effects of corrosion. Gases for
TIG/GTAWare generally inert.
Pure argon or helium gases are generally used for TIG welding. The gases are extracted
from the air by liquefaction. Argon is more common in air than helium and thus it is
generally cheaper than helium.
In the USA vast pockets of naturally occurring helium are found and thus helium gas is
more often used in USA. Helium gas produces a deeper penetrating arc than argon. It is
less dense (lighter) than air and needs 2 to 3 times the flow rate of argon gas to produce
sufficient cover to the weld area when welding down-hand. Argon on the other hand is
denser (heavier) than air and thus less gas needs to be used in the down-hand position.
We often use mixtures of argon and helium to balance the properties of the arc and the
shielding cover ability ofthe gas. Gases for TIG/GTAW need to be ofthe highest purity
(99.99% pure). Careful attention and inspection should be given to the purging of, and
the condition of gas hoses, as it is possible that contamination ofthe shielding gas can be
made through a worn, or withered hose.
Tungsten electrodes for TIG welding are generally produced by powder forging
technology. The electrodes contain other oxides to increase their conductivity, electron
emission and also have an effect on the characteristics of the arc. Sizes of tungsten
electrodes are available offthe shelf between 1.6 - lOmm diameter. Ceramic shields may
also be considered as a consumable item, as they are easily broken.
The size and shape of ceramic used depends on the type ofjoint design and the diameter
ofthe tungsten.
14.8 Rev 09-09-02
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VlJDI. _
Consumables for MIGIMAG Welding:
Consumables for MIG/MAG welding consist of a wire and gas. The wire specifications
used for TIG welding are also used for MIGIMAG welding, as a similar level of quality
is required in the wire.
The main purpose ofthe copper coating of steel MIGIMAG welding wire is to maximise
current pick-up at the contact tip and reduce the level of coefficient of friction in the
liner, with protection against the effects ofcorrosion being a secondary function.
Wires are available that have not been copper coated as the effects of copper flaking in
the liner can cause many wire feed problems. These wires may be coated in a graphite
compound, which again increases current pick up and reduces friction in the liner. Some
wires, including many cored wires are nickel coated.
Wires are available in sizes from 0.6 - 1.6 rom diameter with finer wires available on a
lkg reel though most wires are supplied on a 15kg drum.
Common gases and mixtures used for MIGIMAG welding include:
Gas Type Process Used for Characteristic
Spray or Pulse Very stable arc with
Pure Argon MIG
Welding ofSteels and poor penetration and
Aluminiumalloys low snatter levels.
Dip Transfer Good penetration
Pure CO
2
MAG
Welding of Steels Unstable arc and high
levels of snatter.
Argon +
Dip Spray or Pulse Good penetration
5 - 20%) CO
2
MAG
Welding of Steels with a stable arc and
low levels of spatter.
Spray or Pulse Active additive gives
Argon + MAG
Welding of good tluidity to the
1-2% O
2
Austenitic or Ferritic molten stainless, and
Stainless Steels Only imDroves toe blend.
Welding Inspection -Welding Conswnables
14.9 Rev 09-09-02
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Consumables for Sub Arc Welding:
Cdnsumable for Submerged Arc SAW consist of an electrode wire and flux. Electrode
wires are normally of high quality and for welding C/Mn steels are generally graded on
their increasing Carbon and Manganese content, and the level of de-oxidation.
Electrode wires for welding other alloy steels are generally graded by chemical
composition in a table, in a similar way to MIG and TIG electrode wires. Fluxes for
Submerged Arc Welding are graded by their manufacture and composition. There are 2
normal methods ofmanufacture known as fused and agglomerated.
1) Fused fluxes:
Fused fluxes are mixed together and baked at a very high temperature where all the
components become fused together. When cooled the resultant mass resembles a sheet of
black glass, which is then pulverised into small particles.
These particles again resemble small slivers of black glass. They are hard, reflective,
irregular shaped, and cannot be crushed in the hand. It is impossible to incorporate
certain alloying compounds into the flux such as Ferro manganese, as these would be
destroyed in the high temperatures of the manufacturing process. Fused fluxes tend to be
of the acidic type, which are fairly tolerant of poor surface conditions, but produce
comparatively low quality weld metal in terms of the mechanical properties of tensile
strength and toughness.
14.10 Rev 09-09-02
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Vllfll. _
Agglomerated fluxes:
Agglomerated fluxes on the other hand are a mixture of compounds that are baked at a
much lower temperature and are essentially bonded together by bonding agents into
small particles. The recognition points of these types of fluxes is easier, as they are dull,
generally round granules, that are friable (easily crushed), and can also be very brightly
coloured, as colouring agents may be added in manufacture as a method of identification,
unlike fused fluxes. Agglomerated fluxes tend to be of the basic type and will produce
weld metal that is of much higher quality in terms of strength and toughness. This is at
the expense of usability as these fluxes are much less tolerant of poor surface conditions.
It can be seen that the weld metal properties will result from using a particular wire, with
a particular flux, in a particular weld sequence and therefore the grading of SAW
consumables is given as a function of a wire/flux combination and welding sequence.
A typical grade will give values for:
1)
2)
Tensile Strength.
Toughness (Joules at temp)
2)
3)
Elongation %.
Toughness testing temperature.
The re-use or mixing of used and new flux will depend on the class of work being
undertaken and is generally addressed in the application standard. All consumables for
SAW (wires and fluxes) should be stored in a dry and humid free atmosphere.
Basic fluxes may require baking prior to use, and the manufacturers instructions should
be strictly followed. On no account should different types of fluxes be mixed together.
14.11 Rev 09-09-02
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Non-Destructive Testing:
NDT, or Non Destructive Testing is used to assess the quality of a component without
destroying it.
There are many methods ofNDT some of which require a very high level of skill both in
application and analysis and therefore NDT operators for these methods require a high
degree oftraining and experience to apply them successfully.
The four basic methods ofNDT are:
1) Penetrant testing.
2) Magnetic particle testing.
3) Ultrasonic testing.
4) Radiographic testing.
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of an these methods, their
applications, advantages and disadvantages.
NDT operators are examined to establish their level of skill, which is dependant on their
knowledge and experience, in the same way as welders and welding inspectors are
examined and tested to establish their level ofskill.
Various examination schemes exist for this purpose throughout the world. In the UK the
CSWIP and PCNexamination schemes are those that are recognised most widely.
A good NDT operator has both knowledge and experience, however some of the above
techniques are more reliant on these factors than others.
Welding Inspection - Non-Destructive Testing
15.1
Rev 09-09-02
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VIIlI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Penetrant Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) Surface preparation.
Component must be thoroughly cleaned.
2) Penetrant application.
Penetrant applied and allowed to dwell for a specified time. (Contact time)
3) Removal of excess penetrant.
Once the dwell or contact time has elapsed, the excess penetrant is removed by
wiping with a clean lint free cloth, finally wipe with a soft paper towel
moistened with liquid solvent. (solvent wipe)
4) Application of developer.
Penetrant that has been drawn into a crack by capillary action will be drawn out of
the defect by reverse capillary action.
5) Inspection.
6) Post cleaning and protection.
Method: (Colour contrast, solvent removable)
1) Apply Penetrant. 2) Clean then apply Developer. 3) Result.
15.2
Rev 09-09-02
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mOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Advantage Disadvantages
1) Low operator skill level. 1) Careful surface preparation
required.
2) Applicable to non-ferromagnetic 2) Surface breaking flaws only.
materials.
3) Low cost. 3) Not applicable to porous
materials.
4) Simple, cheap and easy to interpret. 4) No permanent record.
5) Portability. 5) Potentially hazardous
chemicals.
15.3
Rev 09-09-02
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rt7fll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Magnetic Particle Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) Test method for the detection of surface and sub-surface defects in ferromagnetic
materials.
2) Magnetic field induced in component.
(permanent magnet, electromagnet (Y6 Yoke) or current flow (Prods).
3) Defects disrupt the magnetic flux.
4) Defects revealed by applying ferromagnetic particles.
(Background contrast paint may be required)
Method:
1) Apply contrast paint. 2) Apply magnet & ink. 3) Result.
1) Pre-cleaning not as critical as with DPI. 1) Ferromagnetic materials only.
2) Will detect some sub-surface defects. 2) Demagnetisation may be
required.
3) Relatively low cost. 3) Direct current flow may
produce Arc strikes.
4) Simple equipment. 4) No permanent record.
5) Possible to inspect through thin coatings. 5) Required to test in 2 directions.
15.4
Rev 09-09-02
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Wl. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Ultrasonic Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) Component must be thoroughly cleaned; this may involve light grinding to remove
any spatter, pitting etc in order to obtain a smooth surface.
2) Couplant is then applied to the test surface. (water, oil, grease etc.)
This enables the ultrasound to be transmitted from the probe into the component
under test.
3) A range ofangle probes are used to examine the weld root region and fusion faces.
(Ultrasound must strike the fusion faces or any discontinuities present in the weld at
90 in order to obtain the best reflection of ultrasound back to the probe for display
on the cathode ray tube)
Method:
1) Apply Couplant. 2) Apply sound wave. 3) Result.
Signal rebound from the
lack of sidewall fusion
Couplant
Advantage
I) Can easily detect lack of sidewall fusion. 1)
2) Ferrous & Non - ferrous alloys. 2)
3) No major safety requirements. 3)
4) Portable with instant results. 4)
5) Able to detect sub-surface defects. 5)
Measures depth and through wall extent.
Disadvantages
High operator skill level.
Difficult to interpret.
Requires calibration.
No permanent record.
(Unless automated)
Not easily applied to complex
geometry.
15.5
Rev 09-09-02
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V!7!lI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Radiographic Testing:
Basic Procedure:
1) X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object.
2) Radiation is transmitted in varying degrees dependant upon the density of the
material through which it is travelling.
3) Variations in transmission detected by photographic film or fluorescent screens.
(Film placed between lead screens then placed inside a cassette)
4) An IQI (image quality indicator) should always be placed on top of the specimen to
record the sensitivity ofthe radiograph.
Method:
Developed
graph
Radioactive source
c) Developed graph.
Latent, or hidden image
b) Exposure to radiation.
-!,
Load film cassette. a)
1) Permanent record.
2) Most materials can be tested.
3) Detects internal flaws.
1)
2)
3)
Skilled interpretation required.
Access to both sides required.
Sensitive to defect orientation.
(possible to miss planar flaws)
4) Gives a direct image of flaws.
5) Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging.
4)
5)
Health hazard.
High capital cost.
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Summary of Non Destructive Testing:
Discipline Application Advanta2es Disadvanta2es
Welds/Castings. Lowoperator skill level Highly clean the material
Surface testing only. All non porous material
Penetrant All materials can be surfaces may be tested Surface flaws only
Testing tested. Colour Lowcost process Extremely messy
contrast & florescent. Simple equipment No pennanent record
Welds/Castings Lowoperator skill level Fe magnetic metals only
Ferrous metals only. Surface/Sub surface flaws De-magnetise after use
Magnetic Wet & Dry inks. Can cause arc strikes using
Particle Yolks. Permanent Relatively low cost straight current technique
Testing magnets and straight
Simple equipment No pennanent record
current ACIDC
Welds/Castings. Can more easily fmd lack of High operator skill level
One side access. sidewall fusion defects
Ultra Sonic Un-favoured for large A wide variety ofmaterials Difficult to interpret
Testing grained structured can be tested
alloys. No safety requirements Requires calibration
i.e. Austenitic SIS
Portable with instant results No pennanent record
Welds/Castings. Pennanent record of results High operator skill level
Access from both A wide variety ofmaterials Difficult to interpret
sides is required. can be tested
Radiographic All materials. Gamma
Can assess penetration in Cannot generally identify
Testing and X-ray sources of small diameter, or line pipe lack of sidewall fusion**
radiation used.
Gamma ray is very portable High safety requirements
** To identify planar or 2 dimensional defects such as lack of side wall fusion, or cracks
etc, the orientation ofthe radiation beammust be in line with the orientation ofthe defect
as shown below, hence if the radiation source is at the centre of the weld then no
indication oflack of side wall fusion may be shown on the radiograph.
Lack of
sidewall fusion
15.7
Film
Radiation beam
Rev 09-09-02
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VOI. _
Weld Repairs:
Weld repairs can be divided into two specific areas:
1) Production repairs
2) In service repairs
1) Production repairs:
The Welding Inspector, or NOT operator usually identify production repairs during the
process of inspection, or evaluation of reports to the code or applied standard. A typical
defect is shown below:
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need to be fulfilled:
1) An analysis of the defect may need to be made by the Q/A department to
discover the likely reason for the occurrence of the defect (MateriaVProcess or
Skill related).
2) A detailed assessment needs to be made to fmd out the extremity of the defect.
This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface NDT method.
3) Once established the excavation site must be clearly identified and marked out.
4) An excavation procedure will need to be produced, approved and executed.
5). NDT should be used to provide confirmation that the defect has been located
. 6) NDT used to establish total removal ofthe defect
7) A welding repair procedure will need to be drafted and approved.
8) Welder approval to the approved repair procedure.
(Normally carried out during the repair procedural approval)
9) A fmal method of NDT will have to be identified and a procedure prepared to
ensure that the repair has been successfully carried out.
10) Any post repair procedures that need to be carried out i.e. Heat treatment
)
Welding Inspection - Weld Repairs
16.1
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Analysis:
As this defect has occurred in the HAZ the fault could be a problem with either the
material or the welding procedure, however if the approved procedure was followed no
blame can be apportioned to the skill ofthe welder.
Assessment:
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, penetrant testing may be used
to gauge the depth and length ofthe defect.
Excavation:
As this defect is a crack it is likely that the ends of the crack should be drilled to avoid
further propagation during excavation, particularly if a thermal method of excavation is
being used.
The excavation procedure may also need approval, particularly if it will affect the
metallurgical structure of the component Le. Arc Gouging.
Plan View ofdefect with drilled ends
Side View of defect excavation
Welding Inspection- Weld Repairs
16.2
Rev 09-09-02
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V!7fll. _
Confirmation of excavation:
At this stage NDT should be used to confIrm that the defect has been completely
excavated from the area.
Re-welding of the excavation:
Prior to of the excavation a detailed weld procedure will need to be drafted
and approved. This is often carried out by the welder to be used in the repair who should
then become automatically approved, should the procedure become qualifIed.
NDT confirmation of successful repair:
After the excavation has been filled the weldment should then undergo a complete retest
using NDT to ensure no further defects have been introduced by the repair. NDT may
also need to be further applied after any additional post weld heat treatment has been
carried out.
In service repairs:
Most in service repairs can be of a very complex nature, as the component is very likely
to be in a different welding position and condition than it was during production. It may
also have been in contact with toxic, or combustible fluids hence a permit to work will
need to be sought prior to any work being carried out. The repair welding procedure may
look very different to the original production procedure due to changes in these elements.
Other factors may also be taken into consideration, such as the effect of heat on any
surrounding areas of the component i.e. electrical components, or materials that may
become damaged by the repair procedure. This may also include difficulty in carrying
out any required pre or post welding heat treatments and a possible restriction of access
to the area to be repaired. For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must also take
place on site and without a shut down of operations, which may bring other elements that
need to be considered.
Repair of in service defects may require consideration of these and many other factors,
and as such are generally considered more complicated than production repairs.
Welding Inspection- Weld Repairs
16.3
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V!lOI. _
Residual Stress and Distortion:
Residual stresses are defined as those stresses remaining inside a material after a process
has been carried out. The process used is welding, and the stresses are caused by the heat
of welding producing local expansion and contraction to take place. If a block of metal
was heated uniformly to a temperature and then cooled under the same conditions no
stresses would be left in the block, as expansion and contraction is uniform and equal.
Welding causes un-uniform heating and cooling conditions to exist and are compounded
by the fact that the material is increasingly restricted from freedom of movement as the
welder moves along the welded seam. The stresses that remain in the structure after
welding are called residual stresses. Residual stresses may compound with applied
stresses to cause early failure, and may be reduced after welding by heat treatments.
The stresses caused by local expansion and contractional strain can be a very complex
pattern in a welded construction, however we can say that they have three basic
directions.
Plan View of a welded plate.
Transverse
Longitudinal
End View of a welded plate.
Short transverse
One effect of welding stresses is to move the material from its original shape to produce
distortion. Distortion is the movement of material in one area caused by expansion and
contraction, which misshapes the component.
Welding Inspection - Residual Stress and Distortion
17.1
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The degree of distortion that occurs is dependant on the ability of the material to resist
these stresses and defonnation.
It is this defonnation that produces distortion of a product. Distortion, like the overall
pattern of residual stresses can be very complex, however we can show the three basic
directions of distortion exaggerated as follows:
Longitudinal distortion
Transverse distortion
t
Angular distortion
17.2
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The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of local expansion and
contraction, hence the more volume of weld metal then the overall amount of distortion
will be higher.
Preparation angle of 60
0
0
0
The effect of expansion and contraction causing distortion during welding can be
graphically seen when gas welding 2 free plates together, as the plates tend fIrst to move
apart and then back together and then apart again and finally change direction once again
and move together. This effect is caused by what is called the reversal of stresses, where
expansion and contraction are taking place as the weld cools and each weld element acts
as a fulcrum for the following element upon contraction. As progression is made down
the weld the weld becomes fIXed in a fmal position and is restrained from further
movement by the previous length ofweld, as shown below:
1) Plates are 2) Welding begins 3) Fulcrum effect. 4) Fulcrum reversal. 5) Final position.
unrestrained. with contraction.
Welding Inspection- Residual Stress and Distortion
17.3
Rev 09-09-02
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To counteract the effects of expansion contraction and distortion we can carry out one of
the following techniques:
Offsetting:
Offsetting means to offset the plates to a pre-determined angle to allow distortion to take
place, with the final position of the weld being that required. Examples of this are shown
below:
L
tt
.. .' ~ 4 # 4 # i J ? " .
...arip;Wt%'Ip>-;:] r .. :::J
"\,../
.OJ' '
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of trial & error, but if there are
many numbers of components to produce it can be an economical method of controlling
distortion.
Back-step welding and balance welding:
These 2 methods of distortion control use a special welding technique, or welding
sequence to control the effects of distortion. Examples are given below:
Back-step welding Balance welding of a pipe butt weld

Weld 1 from A-B
Weld 3 from B-C
17.4
C
Weld 2 fromC-D
Weld 4 fromD-A
Rev 09-09-02
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V!7[J#. _
Clamping Jigging and Tacking:
In clamping and jigging, the materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the
clamp or jig. The advantage of using a jig is that elements in a fabrication can be
precisely located in the position to be welded and can be a very time saving method of
manufacturing high volume products. On most occasions the components are accurately
positioned by the jig and then tacked in position to prevent movement, then the jig is
removed to allow full access for welding. The use of clamps, jigs, strong backs, bridging
pieces, and tack welds will severely restrict any movement of material, and so reduce
distortion, this however will also increase the maximum amount of residual stresses.
Pictorial examples of some ofthese methods are shown below:
Summary of Residual Stresses & Distortion:
1) Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is caused by local expansion &
contraction in the weld area.
2) Residual stresses should be removed from structures after welding as they may
cause Stress Corrosion Cracking to occur, and can compound with applied stresses.
They may also affect dimensional stability, when machining a welded component.
3) The amount ofcontraction is controlled by: The volume of weld metal in the joint,
the thickness, heat input, joint design, and the coefficient ofconduction.
4) Offsetting may be used to finalise the position ofthe joint
5) Ifplates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking, clamping or jigging etc
(restraint). then the amount of residual stresses that remain will be higher.
6) The movement caused by welding related stresses is called distortion.
7) The directions ofcontractional stresses and distortion is very complex, as is the
amount and type offmal distortion, however we can say that there are 3 directions:
a) Longitudinal b) Transverse c) Short transverse
8) A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by heat treatments.
Ultrasound has also been used in the stress relieving offabrications.
9) The peening ofweld faces (With the use a pneumatic needle gun) will only re-
distribute the residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.
Copyright @ 2002 TWI Ltd.
17.5
Rev 09-09-02
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Heat Treatment of Steels:
All heat treatments are basically cycles ofthree elements, which are:
a) Heating. b) Holding, or Soaking. c) Cooling.
c. Cooling
b. Holding
a. Heating
~
~
~
=.
!
c-- ........
Time
We use heat treatments to change properties of metal, or as a method of controlling
formation ofstructures, or expansion/contractional forces during welding.
In heat treating metals and alloys there are many elements for the welding inspector to
check that may be of great importance, such as the rate of climb and any hold points in
the heating cycle. The holding or soaking time is generally calculated at 1hour for every
25mm of thickness, but this can vary. Heat treatments that are briefly covered in this
section are as follows:
1) Annealing 2) Normalising
3) Hardening 4) Tempering
5) Stress relieving 6) Pre-heating
The methods/sources that may be used to apply heat to a fabrication may include:
a) Flame burners/heaters (Propane etc.). Preheating.
b) Electric resistance heating blankets. Pre-heating & PWHT.
c) Furnaces. Annealing. Normalising. Hardening. Tempering.
The tools that an inspector may use to measure the temperatures of furnaces and heated
materials may include.
a) Temperature indicating crayons (Tempil sticks). Pre-heating. PWHT.
b) Thermo-couples. All heat treatments.
c) Pyrometers (Optical. Resistance. Radiation.). Furnace heat treatments.
d) Segar cones. Furnace heat treatments.
All heat treatment records are an important part of the quaDty documentation.
Welding Inspection - Heat Treatment of Steels
Copyright @ 2002 TWI Ltd
18.1
Rev 09-09-02
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1) Annealing:
Full Annealing
UCT
LCT
Annealing for steels
Annealing is a heat treatment process that may be carried out on steels, and most metals
that have been worked hardened or strengthened by an alloying precipitant, to regain the
softness and ductility. In the latter case we generally refer to solution annealing. In
work hardened non-ferrous metals, annealing is used to re-crystallise work-hardened
grains. When annealing most work hardened non-ferrous alloys the cooling rate is not
always critical, and cooling may be rapid without forming any hardened structures. In
steels we can carry out 2 basic kinds ofannealing:
a) Full Annealing (Including Solution Annealing)
b) Sub Critical Annealing
In full annealing of steels the steel is heated above its UCT (upper critical temperature)
and allowed to cool very slowly in a furnace. This slow cooling will result in a degree of
grain growth, which produces a soft and ductile structure. There are no temperatures that
can be quoted for annealing steels, as this will depend entirely upon the carbon content of
the steel.
The UCT range ofPlain Carbon Steels is between 910 -723C, however the temperature
is mostly taken to 50C above the calculated UCT to allow for any inaccuracies in the
temperature measuring device. Plain carbon steel of carbon content of 0.2% would have
an annealing temperature in the region of 850 - 950C
The solution annealing of some metallic alloys may require a rapid cooling rate.
In sub c r i t i ~ 1 annealing the steel is heated to temperatures well below the lower critical
temperature (723C). This type of annealing is similar to that used with non-ferrous
metals as it is only the deformed ferritic grains that can be re-crystallised at these lower
temperatures.
The term annealing generally means to bring a metal, or alloy, to its softest and most
ductile natural condition. In steels this also means a reduction in toughness, as the
resultant large grain structure shows very low impact strength.
18.2
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2) Normalising:
UCT
Cooling in still air
Normalising is a heat treatment process that is generally used for steels. The temperature
climb and holding may be exactly the same as for annealing, however the steel is
removed from the furnace after the soaking period to be allowed to cool in still air.
This produces a much rmer grain structure than annealing and although the softness and
ductility is reduced, the strength and hardness is increased. Far more importantly the
toughness, or impact strength is vastly improved.
3) Hardening:
UCT
Rapid cooling
In the thermal hardening of steels the alloy must be taken above its UCT as with all the
heat treatment processes discussed thus far, and soaked for the same period. The major
difference is in the cooling cycle where cooling is generally rapid.
For plain carbon steel, the steel must have a sufficiently high carbon content to be
hardened by thermal treatment, which is generally considered as > 0.3% carbon. Alloy
steels containing carbon contents below 0.1% with added Mo. Cr. Mo. or Ni. Etc. can be
made much harder by thermal heat treatment
Some steels are specially designed to produce hardness even at very slow rates of
cooling, and are included in a group of steels called Air Hardening Steels.
The cooling media for quenching steels is very important; as if the steel is cooled too
quickly then the thermal shock may be too rapid and cause cracking to occur in the steel.
Brine is considered to be the fasted cooling media followed by water and then oil.
18.3
Rev 09-09-02
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Tempering range 220 723C
...... : . ~ ~ , .
220C
Fe steel temper colours:
r----....,.... . 2 2 X ~ - -
4) Tempering:
Tempering is a sub critical heat treatment process that is used only after hardening has
fIrst been carried out. Hardening will leave some steels very hard, but also very brittle.
Balance of properties, after Hardening.
Balance of properties after a temper at 350C
Balance of properties after a temper at 720C
Welding fuspection - Heat Treatment of Steels
18.4
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The softness, and far more importantly the toughness, is of very low values after thermal
hardening, and the tenn temper really means to balance. When tempering steel we re-
balance the properties of excessive hardness and brittleness by decreasing the hardness
and increasing the level oftoughness.
The process of tempering the hardness commences measurably at around 220C and
continues up to the LCT, or 723C. At this point most of the extra hardness produced by
thermal hardening has been removed, or fully tempered, but the fme grain structure
produced by the hardening process will remain, giving the steel good toughness and
strength. This is the mechanism used to give good toughness, and strength to Qff steels.
5) Stress relieving, or PWHT:
The purpose of stress relieving is to relieve internal elastic stress that has become trapped
inside the weld during welding. The procedure of heat, hold and cool is the same as all
other heat treatments however special heating curves are required when stress relieving
some types of steels, particularly Creep Resistant Steels.
In stress relieving the steel may be heated between 200-950 C depending on the steel
type and the amount of stress that is to be relieved. To understand what happens during
stress relieving there are a number oftenns that require to be defmed:
Yield Point (Re)
This is the point where steel can no longer support elastic strain and becomes plastically
deformed i.e. plastic strain occurs. This means that the steel will no longer return to its
original dimensions. The residual stresses that are contained within steels after welding
are all elastic, with the remaining stresses having been absorbed by plastic movement of
the steel (Distortion). The stress/strain diagram of annealed low carbon steel below
shows this point:
Yield Point
Elastic strain Plastic Strain
When steel is heated the yield point is suppressed, which means that the elastic strain
shown above will now start to become plastic strain. The higher the temperature, then
generally the more elastic strain will be converted to plastic strain, or plastic movement.
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It is generally accepted that up to 90% of residual welding stresses can be plastically
relieved during this process. This change is shown diagrammatically below:
/'" Failure point
New Yield Point
..
f ..
...
Plastic Strain
When the temperature is returned to ambient temperatures, the yield point returns to
practically the same position as at the start ofthe heat treatment.
6) Pre-beating:
We can preheat metals and alloys when welding for a number of reasons._ Primarily we
use most pre-heats to achieve one or more ofthe following: \
1) To control the structure ofthe weld metal and HAZ on cooling.
2) To improve the diffusion ofgas molecules through an atomic structure.
3) To control the effects of expansion and contraction.
We can control the formation of un-desirable microstructures that are produced from
rapid cooling of certain types of steel. Martensite is produced by the entrapment of
carbon in solution at temperatures below 300 C. The function of a pre-heat with
susceptible steels is thus 2 f o l ~ the frrst being the suppression of martensite formation by
delaying the cooling rate, and secondly allowing the trapped hydrogen gas to diffuse out
of the HAZ, or weld metal area back to the atmosphere. We may also control the effect
of expansion and contraction in welds.
Summary:
We use heat treatments to change, or control the final properties of welded joints and
fabrications. All heat treatments are cycles of 3 elements, beating, bolding and cooling.
Tbe welding inspector sbould carefully monitor tbe beat treatment procedure, its
metbod of application, and measuring system. All documents and graphs relating to
heat treatments should be submitted to the Senior Inspector in the Q/C department
to be logged in the fabrication quality document fdes.
Welding Inspection- Heat Treatment of Steels
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Summary of Heat Treatments of Steels:
Treatment Method Uses
The steel is heated above its upper critical temperature Used to make steels soft
and soaked for 1 hour for every 25mm of thickness. and ductile.
The furnace is then turned off and the steel remains in
Annealing the furnace to cool.
This produces a large or course grain structure that is
soft and ductile but has very low toughness.
The steel is heated above its upper critical temperature Used to make steels
as in annealing and soaked for 1 hour for every 25mm tougher and stronger
Normalising of thickness. Once the soaking time has elapsed the
steel is removed from the furnace to cool in still air.
Produces a small, or fine grain structure that has high
toughness and strength, though ductility is lower than
annealed steel.
The steel is heated above its upper critical temperature Used to make medium
as in annealing and soaked for 1 hour for every 25mm or high plain carbon and
of thickness. Once the soaking time has elapsed the most low alloy steels
Hardening steel is removed from the furnace to quench in a harder.
cooling medium.
Produces a fme grain martensitic structure that has
very high hardness and strength, though ductility is
almost zero, with very low toughness.
The steel is re-heated after hardening, and the balance Used to rebalance the
of hardness to toughness is adjusted as the temperature properties of thermally
is increased from 220 - 723C hardened steels.
Tempering
At 723 C all martensite has been tempered removing
brittleness, and returning the ductility.
The fme structure is retained giving high strength and
further improving the toughness.
The steel is heated to a temperature dependant on the
Used after welding to
type of steel being heat-treated.
relieve ths)rapped
Stress
elastic streSses caqsed by
Relieving Plastic flow of stresses increases as the temperature
expansion/contraction.
rises relieving the locked in elastic stresses.
The steel is heated to a temperature dependant on the
Used to control the
Pre-Heating type of steel being heat treated, but normally less than
formation of Hz cracks.
350C Also used to control the
This suppresses the formation ofMartensite and allows effects of expansion and
time/temperature for diffusion of H
2
contractional stresses.
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Oxy Fuel Gas Welding and Cutting:
The oxy fuel gas heating method has been used for many decades as a portable means of
applying heat for many operations directly linked to welding, some of which are given
below:
1) Pre-heating.
3) Cutting.
S) Brazing.
7) Fusion welding.
2)
4)
6)
8)
PWHT.
Soldering.
Bronze welding.
Straightening.
The equipment generally consists of2 cylinders, 1 containing acetylene and 1 containing
oxygen. Acetylene gas is very unstable and will self detonate at very low pressure, hence
it becomes a very dangerous gas to store in a cylinder under pressure.
To enable storage to be achieved acetylene is dissolved in liquid acetone, which can
absorb around 25 times its own volume of acetylene gas. The acetone is then absorbed in
a charcoal and kapok mass, this makes the gas much more stable to store.
For this reason the cylinder should always be used in the vertical position, as liquid
acetone will be expelled from the blowpipe if it is not used vertically. This will have a
similar effect to a flame-thrower, and is a very dangerous situation.
Iftransported, or stored horizontally the cylinder should be placed vertically and not used
for a minimum of 1 hour to avoid this effect.
Oxygen may be supplied at pressures of up to 3,500 PSI and must therefore be treated
with the greatest respect. Should the valve seat of an oxygen cylinder become fractured
by sudden impact the results would be horrific, with a high possibility of death for
anyone in the vicinity.
Key safety factors that must be observed:
Cylinders must be secured in vertical position
Only correct fittings must be used for connections*
Oil and grease must not be used on connections**
Left-handed threads must be used for fuel gasses
Colour coding of hoses must be adhered to
Flash back arrestors must be used on oxygen and fuel gas supplies
One way valves must be used on each hose/torch connection
The correct start up and shutdown procedure must be foUowed
All equipment must be thoroughly leak tested
*Use of non-propriety grades of brass may contain a high % of eu which may form
explosive compounds on contact with pressurised acetylene.
**Oxygen will readily spontaneously combust when in contact with oil and grease.
/ .'
Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding ICutting 19J
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A typical set of oxy-acetylene welding equipment is shown below:
Cylinder
I;On1enl$ gaUlle
/
Flam,! tr'IP
/
Safetycradle cylinder standi
Oxy - Acetylene Fusion Welding:
The flame temperature of Acetylene combusted in air is 2,300 c, whilst the flame
temperature combusted with oxygen is 3,200 c, which is the highest temperature
achievable from the normal combustion of industrial gases.
This is higher than all the metals with the exception of tungsten, which has a melting
point of over 3,410 C. During the welding of metals and alloys it is required that the
surface oxide needs to be removed from the molten pool. In the arc welding processes
the heat of the arc is generally high enough to melt the surface oxides of the metal with
the exception of the TIG welding of aluminium as the surface oxide called alumina
(aluminium oxide) has a melting point ofover 2000 C
For this reason we often need to use a flux when gas welding many ferrous and non
ferrous alloys, such as the fusion welding ofstainless steels and aluminium alloys. When
welding plain carbon steels we do not need a flux as the melting point of iron oxide is
below that ofthe alloy.
Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding ICutting
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Oxy - Acetylene Flame Types
Uses
A neutral flame used for the fusion
welding of most metals and alloys,
including all types of steels
Also used for cutting (nozzle difference)
An oxidising flame used mainly for
bronze welding.
A carburising flame used mainly for
hard facing, and the fusion welding and
brazing of aluminium and its alloys.
Oxy - Fuel Gas Brazing and Bronze Welding:
Oxy fuel gas welding may be used very successfully as a heat source for brazing and
bronze welding, the difference between the tenns being that the term brazing involves a
capillary action of some kind within the joint, and bronze welding is simply a shape of
weld, which is generally a fillet or butt weld, made ofa bronze, or brass alloy. Cast irons
are very often brazed as the heat input is far less than fusion welding, and therefore the
chances of cracking due to expansion forces is also less. 9% Nickel bronze filler wires
are mostly used for brazing of cast irons. (Nickel bronze has a tensile strength double
that of low carbon steels) Aluminium and aluminium alloys may be brazed using an
Oxy-Acetylene flame heat source, with an aluminium braze filler metal containing>15%
silicon.
In the correct application, a brazed, or bronze weldedjoint may be stronger than a fusion-
welded joint, as the surface area ofbonding is much higher, as shown below:
Area of fusion welds Area of braze weld
Fusion welded T joint
Welding Inspection - Oxy - Fuel Gas Welding /Cutting 19.3
Brazed T joint
Rev 09-09-02
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Oxy Fuel Gas Cutting:
In oxy-fuel gas cutting we do not need to melt the steel, but simply heat it until it reaches
its ignition temperature. (Appears bright cherry red) At this temperature the iron will
react with pure oxygen to produce an exothermic chemical reaction, the product being
FE3 0
4
or magnetic oxide of iron. A jet of pure oxygen is sent from an orifice in the
centre of the nozzle that reacts with the iron at its ignition temperature. The velocity of
the oxygen jet removes the magnetic iron oxide from the cut face (The kerf).
As we do not require to reach the high temperatures needed for fusion welding, we do
not need to use acetylene gas. Therefore propane, butane and other cheaper gases may be
used for oxy-fuel gas cutting. Temperature reached during the chemical exothermic
reaction of oxygen with iron is sufficient to melt most metals, though a restriction of
oxy-fuel gas cutting is that it cannot be used successfully in its conventional form to cut
metals with high melting point oxides (i.e. Stainless Steels). By the addition of an iron
powder injection system, the iron-oxygen reaction can be produced ahead of the
materials surface by the exothermic reaction ofthe heated iron powder within the oxygen
jet. The thickness of steel that may be cut using the Oxy-Fuel gas cutting method is
solely dependant on the nozzle size and gas pressure available. The oxy-fuel gas cutting
system may be simply mechanised and used to cut plates (Photograph 1) and
preparations on pipe to be welded. (Photographs 2.3. & 4). It must be recognised that the
cut face may be hardened up to a depth of 3mm, therefore dressing is normally required
to remove this hardened region as well as removing oxide.
The main inspection points ofconventional oxy fuel gas cutting will include:
SAFETY POINTS +
1) Cutting nozzle type, and size. 2) Nozzle distance from work.
3) Cutting{)xygen pressure. 4) Speed oftravel ofthe cutting head.
5) Angle of cut. 6) Fuel gas type and flame setting.
7) Pre-heat, if specified. 8) The condition of the kerf.
If all the above parameters are set correctly then the cnt face or kerf should appear
as in photograph 4 below.
Welding Inspection - Oxy -Fuel Gas Welding ICutting 19.4
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Arc and Plasma Cutting Processes:
All thermal cutting processes that we use in fabrication must satisfy 2 major functions to
be successfully used as a cutting/gouging process.
I)A high temperature. (Capable of melting the materials being cut)
2)A high Velocity. (Capable ofremoving the molten materials in the cut)
In oxy-fuel gas cutting described in the previous section the temperature is achieved by
the exothermic reaction of iron at its ignition temperature and pure oxygen. The product
of iron oxide is removed from the cut edge, or kerf by the velocity ofthe oxygen gas jet.
Plasma Cutting:
Plasma cutting utilises the temperatures reached from the production of the plasmas from
certain types of gases. Nitrogen gas plasma can reach a temperature of over 20,OOOC but
temperature of air plasma is much lower. Air however is freely available and therefore
cheaper and can be compressed by a compressor in the equipment, but is restricted in the
depth of cut attainable.
The velocity for plasma cutting is produced by the expansion of the plasma in the torch
chamber, which is then forced through a constricting orifice at the torch head, producing
the velocity required.
There are 2 different types ofthe plasma cutting process, which are:
1) Transferred arc. (Used for cutting conductive materials)
2) Non-transferred arc. (Used for cutting non-conductive materials)
Tungsten electrode
- ~ ~ . ~ ~ " . _ . _ " ~
-ve
Power
source
Air Plasma Cutting Equipment
Water cooling
Plasma jet column
Welding Inspection- Arc and Plasma Cutting
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Arc Cutting & Gouging:
We can use the temperature attained by an electric arc in cutting processes to reach the
temperatures required to melt the metal or alloy to be cut. There are 3 types of process
that are generally used, the main differences being in the consumables and the gas used
in producing the velocity required.
1) Conventional cutting/gouging electrodes.
2) Oxy-Arc cutting/gouging.
3) Arc-Air cutting/gouging.
Conventional cutting/gouging electrodes:
In conventional arc gouging there is no requirement for any additional equipment other
than that required for MMAlSMAW welding. The consumables consist of a light alloy
central core wire. which is mainly to give rigidity. and a heavy flux coating. which
provides elements that produce arc energy. The arc is struck in a conventional way to
MMA welding, however the arc melts the base material, which is then pushed away by
using a pushing action with the electrode. The process generates a great volume of
welding fume and is not very effective. but is suitable for the occasional need to remove
old welds. or gouge grooves in base metal.
Oxy-Arc cutting/gouging:
In oxy-arc cutting we require a special type of electrode holder. The consumables are
tubular in section and are coated with a very light flux coating. The electrode is located
in the special electrode holder to which is attached a power cable and gas hose. The
power cable is attached to the power source and the gas hose is attached to a source of
compressed oxygen. The arc is struck and the compressedoxygen may be activated at the
torch head. The heat of the electric arc will melt the base metal or alloy and the velocity
to remove it is provided by the compressed oxygen. When cutting ferritic alloys, a
similar effect can be produced to the exothermic reaction found when using conventional
oxy-fuel gas cutting. This process is generally used for decommissioning/scrapping plant
as the cut surface is generally not consistent.
Arc-Air cutting/gouging:
Arc-air cutting is the most commonly used method of arc cutting/gouging and is used
extensively for gouging old welds and removing materials. The consumable is a copper
coated carbon electrode. The gas used is of course compressed air. The process is
basically a "melt and blow process" in that no exothermic reaction is involved
The main disadvantages include the high level of high-pitched noise produced and the
volume of fumes generated. The cut face will require dressing due to potential carbon
pick up and the rapid heating/ cooling cycle involved. A major safety inspection point in
the use of all arc processes is that correct ear protection is in use and also that an efficient
fully isolated breathing supply system is also being used.
Welding Inspection - Arc and Plasma Cutting
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Cross Section
Light flux coating
Tubular steel core wire containing
compressed oxygen
Gouged metal
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1) Oxy-Arc Gouging.
2) Arc-Air Gouging.
Jet of compressed air
supplied from holes in
the electrode holder --...
~ Gouged metal
~ ~ 0
~
Copper covered carbon electrode
Welding Inspection - Arc and Plasma Cutting
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Welding Safety:
As a respected officer, it is a duty of a welding inspector to ensure that safe working
practices are strictly followed. Safety in welding can be divided into several areas, some
of which are as follows:
1) Welding/cutting process safety.
2) Electrical safety.
3) Welding fumes & gases. (Use & storage of gases.)
4) Safe use oflifting equipment.
5) Safe use of hand tools and grinding machines.
6) General welding safety awareness.
1) Welding/cutting process safety:
Consideration should be given to safety when using gas, or arc cutting systems by:
a) Removing any combustible materials from the area.
b) Checking all containers to be cut or welded are fume free. (permits to work etc.)
c) Providing ventilation and extraction where required.
d) Ensuring good gas safety is being practised.
e) Keeping oil and grease away from oxygen.
f) Appropriate PPE is worn at all times
Welding Inspection - Welding Related Safety
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2) Electrical Safety:
Safe working with electrical power is essential. Ensure that insulation is used where
required and that cables and connections are in good condition. Be especially vigilant in
wet or damp conditions.
Low voltage supply (110 v) must be used where appropriate for all power tools etc.
All electrical equipment must be regularly tested and identified as such accordingly.
3) Gases & Fume Safety:
The danger of exposure to dangerous fumes and gases in welding cannot be over
emphasised. Exposure to these welding fumes and gases may come from electrodes,
plating, base metals and gases used in and produced during the welding process.
Dangerous gases that may be produced during the welding process include ozone,
nitrous oxides, and phosgene (caused by the breakdown of Trichloroethlylene based
degreasing agents in arc light); all of which are extremely poisonous and will result in
death when over-exposure occurs.
Other gases used in welding can also cause problems by displacing air, or reducing the
oxygen content
Most gases are stored under high pressure, and therefore the greatest care should be
exercised in the storage and use of such gases. All gases should be treated with respect
and are considered a major hazard area in welding safety.
Cadmium, chromium, and other metallic fumes are extremely toxic and again will
result in death if over-exposure results. Know the effects of a coating fume and always
use correct extraction or breathing systems, which are essential items in safe welding
practice.
Ifin doubt stop the work! Until a health and safety officer takes full responsibility.
4) Lifting Equipment:
It is essential that correct lifting practices are used for slinging and that strops of the
correct load rating are used for lifts. All lifting equipment is subject to regular inspection
according to national regulations in the country concerned. In the UK this is governed by
the HSE under the LOLER requirements, which are mandatory for all operations within
the UK.
Cutting comers is an extremely dangerous practice when lifting and often leads to
fatalities. (Never stand beneath a load)
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5) Hand tools and grinding machines:
Hand tools should always be in a safe and serviceable condition (grinding machines
should have wheels changed by an approved person) and should always be used in a safe
and correct manner. Use cutting discs for cutting, and grinding discs for grinding only.
6) General:
Accidents do not just happen, but are usually attributable to someone's neglect, or
ignorance ofa hazard. Be aware ofthe hazards in any welding job, and always minimise
the risk. Always refer to your safety advisor ifany doubt exists.
f
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Exercise:
Complete the table below, by inserting any specific safety issues that will need to be
considered:
Material Process Other Information Issues to be considered
Stainless Steel MAG
Vessel contained
explosive & toxic
compounds
Stainless Steel Silver braze Cd braze alloy
Steel Gas Galvanized
Welding
Steel MMA Cadmium plated
Steel TIG
Degreased with
Trichloroethylene,
but still damp
Steel Arc Air Confmed space
Gouging
Steel Overhead 500 tonnes
Lift
Steel MMA Site work
Wet conditions
Stainless Steel TIG Confmed space
Steel Oxy-Fuel In an area containing
cutting combustibles
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The Weldability of Steels:
In general, the tenn weldability ofmaterials can be defmed as:
"The ability of a material to be welded by most of the common welding processes, and
retain the properties for which it has been designed"
The weldability of steels can involve many factors depending on the type of steel, the
process and the mechanical properties required.
Welding engineers involved only with the welding ofC/Mn structural steel could probably
define weldability as carbon equivalent, however this is a narrow application ofthe tenn.
Poor weldability generally results in the occurrence of some sort of cracking problem,
though most steels have a degree ofweldability.
When considering any type of weld cracking mechanism, three elements must be present
for it's occurrence:
I)
2)
3)
Stress.
Restraint.
Susceptible microstructure.
I. Residual stress is always present in weldments, through local expansion & contraction.
2. Restraint may be a local restriction, or through plates being welded to others.
3. The microstructure is often made susceptible to cracking by the process ofwelding.
The types of cracking mechanism prevalent in steels in which the CSWIP 3.1 Welding
Inspector should have some knowledge are:
1. Hydrogen induced HAZ cracking. (elMo steels)
2. Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking. (lISLA steels)
3. Solidification cracking. (All steels)
4. Lamellar tearing. (All steels)
5. Inter-crystalline corrosion. (Stainless steels)
Welding Inspection - The Weldability of Steels
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Definitions:
To compliment this section it is important to understand the following terms.
Solubility:
Maximum
Solubility:
Steel:
Plain
Carbon Steels:
Low
Carbon Steel:
Medium
Carbon Steel:
High
Carbon Steels:
Low
Alloy Steels:
High
Alloy Steels:
Ferrite:
Austenite:
Martensite:
Diffusion:
To be able to dissolve one substance in another, like sugar in tea.
The maximum %ofa substance that can be dissolved in another.
An alloy of the iron with the non-metal carbon. (0.01-1.4% C)
Steels that contain only iron & carbon as main alloying elements.
Traces ofMn, Si, A, P & S may be also present from refining.
Plain carbon steels containing between 0.01 - 0.3% C
Plain carbon steels containing between 0.3 - 0.6% C
Plain carbon steels containing between 0.6 - 1.4 %C
Steel containing iron and carbon, and other allying elements Le.
Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo < 7% Total
Steel containing iron and carbon, and other alloying elements Le.
Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo > 7% Total
A low temperature structure of iron & dissolved carbon, the
maximum solubility of carbon occurring in this structure is 0.02 %
A high temperature structure of iron & dissolved carbon, the
maximum solubility of carbon occurring in this structure is 2.06%
A hard structure produced in some steels by the rapid cooling from
high temperature austenite, generally to temperatures below 300C
The movement of solute atoms, or molecules through a crystalline
structure. This can generally be accelerated with increasing levels
of heat energy in the material.
Copyright 2002 "!WI Ltd
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Effect of alloying elements:
Elements may be added to steels to produce the properties required to make it useful for
an application. Most elements can have many effects on the properties of steels.
Below is a list ofmost common elements alloyed to steel, with some of their effects.
Aluminium:
Carbon:
Chromium:
Manganese:
Molybdenum:
Nickel:
Niobium:
Silicon:
Titanium:
Tungsten:
Vanadium:
Alloyed to steels mainly as a grain refiner, and is also used as a de-
oxidising agent in triple de-oxidised steel and welding consumables.
A prime and essential element in steel alloys. An increase in Carbon
content will increase hardness and strength, but reduces the ductility.
Alloyed in additions> 120/0 to produce stainless steels, but is often
used in low alloy steels < 5% to increase hardness strength and
greatly increase the resistance to oxidation at higher temperatures.
Chromium stabilises carbide formation, but promotes grain growth
ifadded in isolation. It is thus often alloyed together with Ni or Mo
Alloyed to structural steels < 1.6% to increase the toughness and
strength. It is also used to control solidification cracking in ferritic
steels. Alloyed up to 14% in wear/impact resistant Hadfield steel.
Alloyed to low alloy steels to control the effects of creep. It is also
used as a stabilising element in stainless steels, and will a limit the
effects of grain growth. Alloyed in Cr/Ni/Mo low alloy steels to
control an effect called temper embrittlement.
Nickel is alloyed to produce austenitic stainless steels. It may also
be added < 9% in the low temperature nickel steels. It promotes
graphitisation, but is good grain refiner, and is often used to offset
some effects of Chromium. Nickel is very expensive, but improves
the strength, toughness, ductility and corrosion resistance ofsteels.
Carbide former used to stabilise stainless, also in HSLA < .05%
Is alloyed in small amounts < 0.8% as a de-oxidant in ferritic steels.
It is alloyed to valve and spring steels, and can also increase fluidity.
Used mainly to stabilise stainless steel, and < .05% in HSLA steels.
Mainly alloyed to high alloy High Speed Tool steels. This increases
the high temperature hardness required of such steels, due to the
tempering effect of frictional heat on other steels during cutting.
Used as a de-oxidant, or as a binary alloy as in HSLA steels < .05%
It should be remembered that most alloying additions increases the ability of a steel to
harden by the thermal hardening process. This property is termed "hardenability"
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Crack type:
Location:
Steel types:
Susceptible microstructure:
Causes:
Hydrogen cracking (cold cracking)
a. HAZ. Longitudinal
b. Weld metal. Transverse or longitudinal
a.AJlhardenablesteeh
b. HSLA steels & QT Steels
Martensite.
Hydrogen cracking may occur in the HAZ or the weld metal, depending on the type of
steel being welded. Hydrogen may be absorbed into the arc from water on the plates,
moisture in the air, paint or oil on the plates or the breakdown of gas shielding etc. An
E6010 cellulosic electrode uses hydrogen as a shielding gas.
Hydrogen will easily dissolve in the molten weld metal, and remain in solution on
solidification to austenite. The weld will cool down and transform to ferrite, where the
hydrogen has less solubility and will want to diffuse to the HAZ, which will still be
austenitic.
This occurs rapidly as diffusion is increased with high temperatures. If the HAZ is un-
hardenable it will itself transform to ferrite and the hydrogen, which has some solubility
in ferrite, will eventually diffuse out of the weldment. If the HAZ has some
hardenability, then the transformation of the HAZ will be from austenite to martensite,
which has no solubility for hydrogen.
This will result in great internal stress, occurring in a microstructure, which is very
brittle. Cracks may occur at areas of high stress concentration, such as the toes of a
weld, and move through the hardened HAZ and in extreme cases, the weld metal.
The four minimum critical factors and their values, where hydrogen cracking is
likely to occur, are considered to be: .
a. Hydrogen content: > 15 mlll00 gm of deposited weld metal.
b. Hardness: > 350 VPN.
c. Stresses: > 0.5 of the yield stress.
d. Temperature: < 300C.
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Hydrogen may be absorbed into the arc zone and liquid weld metal from:
Rust, oil, grease, or
paint etc. on the plate.
E 6010 electrodes produce
H
2
as a shielding gas.
A long, or an unstable arc.
'Y Austenite in HAZ
Weld metal changes
phase to a. ferrite and
H
2
diffuses into HAZ
H2 diffusion to HAZ
Martensitic HAZ
H2 HAZ Cracking a. Butt joints.
H
2
HAZ Cracking
Martensitic HAZ
b. T joints.
Austenite in HAZ changes to
martensite at 300C trapping H
2
and forcing it out of solution.
Stress concentrations
Stress concentrations
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Prevention of hydrogen HAZ cracking:
To control hydrogen cracking in the HAZ it may be necessary to pre-heat the weldment.
Pre-heating retards the rate of cooling and suppresses the formation of martensite and
other hard structures, which is formed on rapid cooling.
It will also allow some of the trapped hydrogen to diffuse back to the atmosphere.
Elements that are to be considered when calculating pre-heat are:
a. Hardenability of the joint. (Le. Ceq)
c. Arc energy input.
b. Thickness ofmetal andjoint type.
d. Hydrogen scale, or achievable limit.
Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking is found when welding HSLA (High strength
low alloy) steels which are alloyed with micro amounts of titanium, vanadium and/or
niobium. (Typically 0.05%)
In order to match the weld strength to plate strength, weld metal with increased carbon
content is used, as carbon content increases tensile strength. A graph showing the effect
of carbon on the properties of plain carbon steels is given below.
This results in a hardenable steel weld deposit, in which the austenite of the weld
transforms directly to martensite, causing the same conditions as found in the HAZ
previously and cracking may now occur within the weld metal.
Prevention of H2 for these steels is as per H
2
HAZ cracking, by the preheating of the
weld area, but this is principally to allow any trapped hydrogen the time at temperature to
diffuse from the weld & HAZ area back to the atmosphere.
Both HAZ and weld metal H2 cracks are considered as cold cracks 300C) and fmal
inspection is often delayed for up to 72 hours as these cracks may appear within this
time.
I
Tensile Strength
Hardness
Ductility
I
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 % Carbon
22.6
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vlllll. _
It can be clearly seen from the graph that additions of carbon (up to O.83%C) will
increase the tensile strength of plain carbon steel dramatically. Whilst this will serve the
purpose of cheaply matching the weld metal strength to the base metal, it will also give
the weld metal much higher hardenability.
This may now result in H2 cracking in the weld metal, as the weld will transfonn from
austenite - martensite trapping the hydrogen in weld, before it is able to diffuse to the
HAZ. It can also be seen from the graph that higher carbon steels have very little
ductility, which further complicates the problem.
Cracks tend to be transverse, as the main residual stresses are generally in the
longitudinal direction, though they may occasionally be longitudinal, or even at 45 to
the weld metal.
High strength low ductility weld metal. Hydrogen induced weld metal cracks.
Prevention of hydrogen cracking in the weld metal of HSLA, or Micro-alloyed steels
is very much the same as for hydrogen cracking in the HAZ of other low anoy
steels.
Summary ofprevention methods:
a. Use a low hydrogen process and/or hydrogen controlled consumables.
b. Maximise arc energy (taking HAZ and weld toughness into consideration).
c. Use correctly treated H
2
controlled consumables
d. Minimise restraint
e. Ensure plate is dry and free from rust, oil, paint or other coatings.
f. Use a constant and correct arc length.
g. Ensure pre-heat is applied and maintained before any arc is struck.
h. Control interpass temperature
i. Ensure welding is carried out under controlled environmental conditions
22.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vflll. _
Crack type:
Location:
Steel types:
Causes:
Solidification cracking (Hot cracking)
Weld centre. (longitudinal)
All
Columnar grains.
(In the direction of solidification)
Solidification cracking, is a hot cracking mechanism that occurs during solidification of
welds in steels, having high sulphur content or contaminated with sulphur.
Another potential cause is the depth/width ratio of the weld, which in normal welding
situations refers to deep narrow welds (cladding applications may produce shallow wide
welds, which are also prone to this problem).
Therefore if we have a combination of deep narrow welds with a high incidence of
sulphur we are greatly increasing the likelihood of hot cracking.
As with all cracking mechanisms stress plays a major role in susceptibility.
During welding, sulphur in or on the plate may be re-melted and will join with the iron to
form iron sulphides. Iron sulphides are low melting point impurities, which will seek the
last point of solidification ofthe weld, which is the weld centreline.
It is here that they form liquid films around the hot solidifying grains, which are
themselves now under great stress due to the actions of contractional forces.
The bonding between the grains may now be insufficient to maintain cohesion and a
crack will result running the length ofthe weld on its centreline.
Prevention of solidification cracking in ferritic steels: To prevent the occurrence of
solidification cracking in ferritic steels that contain high levels of sulphur (these steels
are said to suffer from Bot Shortness), manganese is added to the weld via the
consumable.
Sulphur related:
Scrutiny of Mill sheets is essential to assess the materials Sulphur content.
A typical maximum level allowed in a low carbon steel specification is 0.05%. Even this
seemingly low figure may be excessive for certain high stress/higher carbon applications,
or if the depth/width ratio is excessive.
Another potential source of Sulphur is paint, oil and grease. This is why temperature
Crayons always carry the statement "sulphur free".
22.8
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vfl!ll. _
This is a prime reason for thorough cleaning, which becomes of even greater
importance when dealing with Austenitic Stainless Steels
If material availability dictates the necessity of welding high sulphur steels consumables
with a relatively high Manganese content are specified.
An example of steel with very high sulphur levels would be a free machining steel. Some
ofthe free machining steels could be considered not weldable in normal circumstances as
sulphur levels are so high.
Manganese has the effect of forming preferential manganese sulphides with the sulphur.
MnIS are spherical, solidify at a higher temperature than iron sulphides and therefore are
distributed more evenly throughout the weld. The cohesion between the grains is thus
maintained and the crack will not occur.
Careful consideration must be given to the Mn/S ratio, which should be in the region of
about 40: 1. Increased carbon content can rapidly increase the required ratio
exponentially; thus carbon must be reduced as low as possible, with low plate dilution
and low carbon, high manganese filler wires.
A summary of prevention methods:
a. Use low dilution processes
c. Maintain a low carbon content
e. Specify low sulphur content of plate
g. Thorough cleaning of preparation
b. Use high manganese consumables
d. Minimise restraint/stress
f. Remove laminations
h. Minimise dilution
Solidification cracking (Sulphur related)
Direction of grain solidification
Weld centre line with liquid Iro__
around the solidifying grains -
22.9
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vfl!ll. _
Effect of Manganese Sulphides formation
Direction of grain solidification
Spheroidal Mn sulphides form between the
solidifying grains, maintaining inter-granular
strength.
Depth/width ratio related
The shape of the weld will also contribute to the possibility of cracking. This may be
totally independent from the sulphur aspect but is usually in combination.
Processes such as SAW and MAG (using spray transfer) may readily provide these
deep/narrow susceptible welds.
However it is not the weld volume that is the prime factor but the weld shape as referred
to previously. Therefore root runs and tack welds may readily provide the susceptible
profile. As root runs are also areas of high dilution (therefore greater sulphur pick up)
and more likely to be highly stressed these must always be inspected with solidification
cracking in mind.
22.10
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lfll. _
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steel is particularly prone to solidification cracking.
This is due to:
A comparatively large grain size, which gives rise to a reduction of grain boundary area
High coefficient ofthermal expansion, with resultant high stress.
An atomic structure that is very intolerant of contaminants, such as sulphur,
phosphorous and additional elements such as boron.
The cause and avoidance may be regarded as the same as that of plain carbon steel but
with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning requirements prior to welding.
The welding procedure will have been written to control the balance of austenite and
ferrite in the weld metal. This balance will directly effect the structures tolerance of
contaminants and the resultant grain boundary area. This is why the filler material
specified often does not appear to match the parent material.
Careful monitoring of parameters is required to control dilution to ensure this balance is
maintained.
22.11 Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lO#. - _
Crack type:
Location:
Steel types:
Lamellar tearing.
Parent material
Any steel type
Low through thickness ductility
Causes:
When welding of joints where high contractional stresses are passed in the through
thickness direction of one ofthe plates in the joint.
This short transverse direction is lacking in ductility in cold rolled plates, but ductility
is required to accommodate the plastic strain caused by contraction.
A stepped like crack may initiate in the affected plate, just below the HAZ, in a
horizontal plane. Micro inclusions of impurities such as sulphides and silicates, which
occur during steel manufacture, cause this poor through thickness ductility. When
subjected to high short transverse stress this may lead to lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing. (Ferritic steels)
a. Comer joints.
b. Butt joints.
Through thickness contractional strain. = ~
22.12
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VOI. _
To assess the risk of a materials susceptibility to lamellar tearing through thickness
tensile tests are normally carried out.
There are 2 types of short transverse tensile tests that may be done:
1) Conventional short transverse tensile test.
2) Compound welded cruciform joint tensile test.
Full penetration compound
welded cruciform joint.
Plate to be tested.
In test 1 the observation is made on the level of through thickness ductility, which
should show a certain minimum level.
In test 2 failure of the specimen would be expected at much lower levels than specified
iflamellar tearing were to be a problem.
Prevention of lamellar tearing:
To reduce the risk oflamellartearing, the following steps may be taken:
a. Check the chemical analysis, and for laminations with UT & PT on plate edges.
b. A buttering layer of high ductility weld metal may be deposited where the vertical
member is to be welded, which will enable the plastic strain to be absorbed.
c. A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical members enabling the
contractional movement to take place.
d. Joint design may be improved, to reduce or change the direction of stresses.
e. A complete re-design of the welded joint may be required; using pre formed
T pieces.
22.13
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
f[J[jI. _
Methods of controlling the occurrence of lamellar tearing:
1) Change ofweld design
2) Use weld metal buttering layers
3) Minimise restraint
Aluminium wire
A pre fanned T piece
4) Use pre formed T piece for critical joints
22.14
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VlJIJI. _
"Crack" type:
Location:
Steel types:
Inter-crystalline corrosion
Weld HAZ. (longitudinal)
Austenitic stainless steels.
Sensitised grain boundaries.
Causes:
During the welding of stainless steels, temperature gradients are met in the HAZ where
chromium carbides can be formed from the carbon and chrome.
This carbide formation depletes the affected grains of chromium, which will severely
reduce their corrosion resistance. Immediately after such an effect has occurred we can
say that the stainless steel has been sensitised, that is to say it has become sensitive to
corrosion.
If no further treatment is given, corrosion will appear parallel to the weld toes, within the
HAZ. This corrosion will occur only when the weld is subsequently put in service. This
is commonly known as weld decay. This corrosion initiates as localised pitting which in
stainless steel may lead to relatively rapid failure.
Prevention of weld decay in stainless
a. To prevent the occurrence of weld decay, we can use parent material with a carbon
content below 0.03% C. This reduces the free carbon available to form chromium
carbides. For example E316 stainless steel containing a low carbon content is designated
as E 316L.
b. Another option is to add other elements such as niobium and titanium to.the plate
and electrodes to stabilise the steel. These are termed stabilising elements, and tie up
any free carbon by forming preferential carbides, thus leaving chromium within the
grain, where it will perform its function in resisting corrosion.
c. The conversion of chromium and carbon into chrome carbides occurs between
approximately 500 - 850
0
C. Most welding procedures are designed to reduce the amount
of time that the HAZ is undergoing this temperature range. Therefore it is normal to see
maximum interpass temperature controls applied.
d. A sensitised stainless steel may be solution annealed after welding by heating to
nooc and quenching. This dissolves the chromium carbides and inhibits their re-
association.
22.15
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7!lI. _
Summary of Weldability of Steels:
Keywords:
.
H
l
HAZ cracks Process Consumables Paint, Rust, Grease
Delayed inspection. Solubility cr concentrations HAZ
Diffusion Transformation Martensite Critical factors =
Hardness> 350VPN Hydrogen >15ml cr > 0.5 yield stress. Temp < 300C
Hydrogen induced HAZ or weld metal cracks.
Cause
HSLAweld cracks
Weld contraction
.
Pre-heat Hydrogen control Bake consumable Use low H~ Process
Minimise restraint Remove coatings Stable arc length
y SIS Weld metal
Arc energy Use low Ceq plate Use hot pass ASAP Use low H ~ Cons'
Prevention
Keywords:
Weld centreline
Loss ofcohesion
Contraction
Hot shortness
Lamellar tearing in CIMo steels.
Cause:
Keywords:
Short transverse
Plastic strain
Contraction
Poor ductili
Inter - crystalline corrosion in stainless steels.
Cause:
Keywords:
Chromium de letion
Parallel to weld
CrCarbide
Loss ofresistance
Sensitisation
Stabilised
Prevention:
Low Carbon .03%
Low heat in t
Niobium
Solution anneal
22.16
Rev 09-09-02
r
TWI
Vllfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Practical Visual Inspection:
The CSWIP (Certification Scheme for Welding & Inspection Personnel) examination
scheme for welding inspectors consists at present ofthe following categories:
CSWIP 3.0 Visual Welding Inspector
CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspector
CSWIP 3.2 Senior Welding Inspector
As this text is aimed at candidates attempting the entry level, the CSWIP 3.0 3.1 and
AWS Bridge examination content only is given below:
Exam:
eSWIP3.0
Time
Practical butt welded plate (code provided) Ihour 45 minutes.
Practical fillet welded T joint (code provided) Ihour 15 minutes.
Total time: 3 hours.
eSWIP3.1
Practical butt welded plate (code provided) Ihour 15 minutes.
Practical butt welded pipe (to candidates supplied code) Ihour 45 minutes.
Practical assessment ofmacros (2 x macros to a code provided) 45 minutes.
Theory Specific. (4 from 6 questions) 1 hour 15 minutes.
Theory General. (30 Multi choice questions) 30 minutes.
Oral. (Questions on code and general inspection) 15 minutes.
Total time: 5 hours 45 minutes.
AWS eWI - eSWIP 3.1 Bridge
Practical butt welded pipe (code provided) Ihour 45 minutes.
Practical assessment of macro (1 x macro to code provided) 25 minutes.
Theory Specific. (llong answer +9 short answer questions) 1 hour 20 minutes.
Total time: 3 hours 30 minutes.
Welding Inspection - Practical Visual Inspection
23.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7f7l. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
To successfully attempt the practical inspection elements of these examinations will
require a number of important tools:
1) Good eyesight.
2) Specialist Gauges.
3) Hand tools i.e. Magnifying glass, torch, mirror, graduated scale etc.
4) Pencil/pen, report forms, acceptance criteria, and a watch.
1) Good eyesight:
To effectively carry out your scope of work as a CSWIP qualified Welding Inspector it is
important that your close vision acuity is of an acceptable level, and thus a test certificate
of your close vision acuity must be provided before your examination to any CSWIP
Welding Inspection, or NDT subject area.
For colour contrast penetrant and fluorescent penetrant and magnetic particle inspection,
inspectors must also be able to distinguish between these contrasting colours; therefore a
colour blindness test for these colours is also required.
All candidates for CSWIP examinations must be tested; by a qualified optometrist.
Alternatively tests may be conducted; by qualified personnel available at most TWI
examination centres.
It is also important to be aware that human visual ability may decay rapidly as the years
progress.
Holders of CSWIP Welding Inspection certificates should thus make every effort to have
their vision professionally tested twice yearly. Up to date test certificates must be supplied
to the CSWIP examination board as proof ofvision ability.
2) Specialist Gauges:
A number of specialist gauges are available to measure the various elements that need to
be measured in a welded fabrication including:
a) Hi - Lo gauges, for measuring mismatch between pipe wall and plate thickness.
b) Fillet weld profile gauges, for measuring fillet weld face profile and sizes.
c) Angle gauges, for measuring weld preparation angles.
d) Multi functional weld gauges, for measuring many different weld measurements.
23.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lfll. _
TWI CAMBRIDGE MULTI-PURPOSE WELDING GAUGE:
Angle of Preparation:
This scale reads 0 to 60 in 5 steps.
The angle is read against the chamfered
edge ofthe plate, or pipe.
Fillet Weld Actual Throat Thickness:
The small sliding pointer reads up to
20mm, or % inch. When measuring the
throat it is supposed that the fillet weld
has a 'nominal' design throat thickness,
as an 'effective' design throat thickness
cannot be measured in this manner.
Fillet Weld Leg Length:
The gauge may be used to measure fillet
weld leg lengths ofup to 25mm, as
shown on left.
Linear Misalignment:
The gauge may be used to measure
misalignment of members by placing the
edge of the gauge on the lower member
and rotating the segment until the pointed
fmger contacts the higher member.
23.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VllUI. _
Excess Weld MetallRoot penetration:
The scale is used to measure excess
weld metal height or root penetration
bead height of single sided butt welds,
by placing the edge of the gauge on the
plate and rotating the segment until the
pointed fmger contacts the excess weld
metal or root bead at its highest point.
Undercut:
The gauge may be used to measure
undercut by placing the edge of the
gauge on the plate and rotating the
segment until the pointed finger contacts
the lowest depth of the undercut.
The reading is taken on the scale to the
left of the zero mark in mm or inches.
Fillet weld leg length size & profile gauge:
Excess weld metal can be easily calculated by measuring the Leg Length, and
multiplying it by 0.7 This value is then subtracted from the measured Throat
Thickness =Excess Weld Metal.
Example: For a measured Leg Length of 10mm and Throat Thickness of 8 mm
:. 10 x 0.7 = 7 :. 8 - 7 =1 mm of Excess Weld Metal.
23.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VflDI. - THE WELDING INSTITUTE
....
..;--
'/f- 7):;-/ /' 7< /;
For Training Purposes Only I
WIS 5 Acceptance Levels for Plate & Macro Inspection Practice
Specification Number TWI 09-09-02
All dimensions are given in millimetres
Key: 0 = diameter. t = plate thickness. d = depth. h = height
No Imperfection Comments Allowance
1 Cracks
..
Not permitted
2 Porosity
_.-_..-.--"
Individual pore 0 1 mmMaximum
3 Solid Inclusions
1/
Non metallic
\/
2mmMaximum
4 Solid Inclusions
----
Metallic Not permitted
5 Lack ofFusion
II"
Side wall/root/inter-run Not permitted
6 Lack of Root Penetration /
,
Not permitted
7 Overlap/Cold lap
-'
Weld face/Root Not permitted
,
8 Incompletely filled
Vi
Not permitted
groove
9 Linear Misalignment
V
----- 0.2t Maximum 4mm?
10 Angular Misalignment _. 10 Maximum
11 Undercut
\ /
Smoothly blended 10%t up tolmm d
. 1'-';
Maximum -Sz/l;'//C/
12 Arc Strikes
\,./
Seek advice
\J
-.
13 Laminations

Not permitted
14 Mechanical Damage
\//
Not permitted
15 Cap Height
-
Shall not be less than Imm 1 -3mm h Maximum
16 Penetration Bead ,((ve \ 2mm hMaximum
17 Toe Blend \./
/
Smooth
18 Spatter
\ --'
Clean & Re-inspect Not permitted \/
19 Weld Appearance
!
All runs shall blend smoothly Smooth
20 Root concavity
'.
10%tMaximum ? ','
rCt,! ce.
T .> / 0
T
./ //,./if.;; It !i'

23.5
Rev 09-09-02
c
Joint type: Single V Butt
Date 1st January 2003
Test piece ident: 001
Undercut
smooth
1.5 max
~ 30 I
Gas pore
1.5 ()
~
IWELD FACE I
Welding process: MMAISMAW
Length & thickness of plate: 300mm. x 10 mm
EXAMPLE PLATE REPORT
22
flIt' 2, Lack of sidewall fusion
87 .... r-_----,
--.
Page 1 of3
A
Name: [Block capitals] Mr. I CPlenty Signature: I CPlenty
Code/Specification used: TWI09-09-02
Welding position: Flat IPA
a::
~
>
00
o
"
~
-+
~
=c
o
a:: I-------- --&..__....L- -I- -'--__..l-- --j
t-3
=
~
8
~
Itlp.40 mr;,
Arc Stril{e I-(
-l
00 ::I:
m
-+
Slag inclusion Centreline crack
:?:
241.
m
~
30
r
>
25
0
t-3
z
0
G>
~
a::
Cap height: 4mm.
Z
<
~ 0 Weld width: 12-14mm
\0
Toe blend: Poor
=i I
0
~
C
\0
I
HilLo: 2mm
-I
0
~
m
IV
Spatter along weld length**
~
~
\.l::E:
Page 2 of3 EXAMPLE PLATE REPORT
~ ~
o C1>
'a_
~ . S -
~ ~
l.f1Q
@[
N'g
on
o ::to
NO
....,1:1
IWELD ROOT I
;:51
cl
~
A C
Q. ::to
n
e. ~
~
>
til
r::: 00
e.
c::
S'
til
~
'a
C1>
~ n
::to
0
Root concavity I:S
~
Lack of root fusion
~
2 deep
~
23
247 ...
0
-+/
to/
IV ..
20 w
~
~
__. ~ 1--__---1
128
50
Penetration height: 4mm max
~ Penetration width: 3 - 6mm
t:::' Root toe blend: smooth
~ Linear misalignment: 2mm
~
Lack of penetration
-I
:J:
m
~
m
r
o
Z
G)
z
en
-I
=i
c
-I
m
TWI
Vllfll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Weld Report Sheet: Page 3 of 3
EXAMPLE WELD INSPECTION REPORT/SENTENCE SHEET
PRINT FULL NAME I C Plenty
SPECIMEN NUMBER 001
EXTERNAL DEFECTS Defects Noted Code or Specification Reference
Defect Type Maximum Section! AcceptlReject
Section Total/'" Allowance Table N
1 2
<
3 4 5
Excess weld meta(height ) A-C 4mm 3mm 15 Reject
Excess weld appearance') A-C Poor blend SMOOTH 19 Reject
Incomplete A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
Inadequate weld width A-C NQNE ------------- ------------ Accept
Inclusions
A-C Ix 8mmlong. 2mm 3 Reject
Undercut A-C 1.5mm depth Imm 11 Reject
Surface Porosity A-C 1.5mm0 Imm 2 Reject
Cracks/Crack-like defects A-C 40mm NONE 1 Reject
Lack of fusion A-C 22mm NONE 5 Reject
Arc strikes A-C 30x25 ------------- 12 Seek advise***
Mechanical damage A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
LapslLaminations A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
Misalignment (Linear) A-C 2mm 2mm 9 Accept
seams A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
ROOT DEFECTS
Misalignment A-C 2mm 2mm 9 Accept
Excessive Root Penetration A-C 4mm 2mm 16 Reject
, Lack of Root Penetration A-C 50mm
NONE
6 Reject
Lack ofRoot Fusion A-C 20mm NONE 5 Reject
Root Concavity A-C 2mm depth Imm 20 Reject
Root Undercut A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
Cracks/Crack-like defects A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
Slag inclusions A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
Porosity A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
LapslLaminations A-C NONE ------------- ------------ Accept
Thi
I h b . d th f d / 'fi' TWI 09-09-02
s '"'P7""p ate as een examme to e reqUIrements 0 co e speCl lcatlOn .
and is accordingly.
Signature ..
*Delete which is not applicable.
1
st
January 2003
Date .
Use the other side for any comments.
23.8
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
Weld Report Sheet: Page 3 of 3 Reverse Side
Comments:
*Request NDT testing to confirm crack and true length.
**Large amount of spatter on weld face.
Recommend this is removed and re inspected
***Recommend arc strikes are ground flush prior to MPI testing for crack detection.
Seek advice
23.9
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
rzlOI. _
Effect of a Poor Toe Blend:
A very poor weld toe blend angle
6mm
An improved weld toe blend angle
Generally speaking, most specifications tend to quote that "The weld toes shall blend
smoothly"
This statement can cause problems as it is not a quantitative statement, and therefore
very much open to individual interpretation. To help in your assessment of the
acceptance of the toe blend it should be remembered that the higher the angle at the toe
then the higher is the concentration of stresses, which between 20 - 30 is almost at a
ratio of2:1
A poor toe blend will be present when the excess weld metal height is excessive,
however it may be possible that the height is within the given limits, yet the toe blend is
not smooth, and is therefore a defect, and unacceptable.
It should be remembered, that a poor toe blend in the root of the weld has the same
effect.
1.16
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VIlfll. _
Summary of Weld and Joint Terms and Definitions:
A Weld:
A Joint:
A weld preparation:
Types of weld:
Types of joint:
Types of preparation:
Preparation terms:
Weldment terms:
Weld sizing (Butts):
Weld sizing (Fillets):
A Union of materials, produced by heat and/or pressure.
A Configuration of members.
Preparing a joint to allow access & fusion through the joint
faces.
Butt. Fillet. Spot. Seam. Edge.
Butt. T. Lap. Open Comer. Closed Comer.
Bevel's. V's. J's. U's. (Single & Double).
Bevel angle. Included angle. Root face. Root gap.
Weld face. Weld root. Fusion Zone. Fusion boundary.
HAZ. Weld toes. Weld width.
Design throat thickness. Actual throat thickness. Excess
weld metal. Excess root penetration.
Design throat thickness. Actual throat thickness.
Excess weld metal. Leg length.
1.17
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V/lDI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
Welding Imperfections:
What are welding imperfections?
Welding imperfections are material discontinuities caused by, or during, the process of
welding.
All things contain imperfections, but it is only when they fall outside of a "level of
acceptance" that they should be termed defects, as they may render the product
defective, or unfit for its purpose.
As welds can be considered as castings they may contain all kinds of imperfections
associated with the casting of metals, plus any other particular imperfections associated
with the specific welding process being used.
We can classify welding imperfections into the following groups:
1)
3)
5)
7)
1) Cracks:
Cracks
Solid inclusions
Surface and profile
Misalignment
2)
4)
6)
Gas pores and porosity
Lack of fusion
Mechanical damage
Cracks sometimes occur in welded materials, and may be caused by a great number of
factors. Generally, we can say that for any crack like imperfection to occur in a material,
. there are 3 criteria that must be present:
a) Aforce b) Restraint c) A weakened structure
Typical types ofcracks that will be discussed later in the course are:
1) H2 Cracks 2) Solidification Cracks 3) Lamellar Tears
A Material's likelihood to crack during welding can be evaluated under the term
Weldability. 1bis may be defined as:
"The ease with which materials may be welded by the common welding processes"
All cracks have sharp edges, which produce high stress concentrations. This generally
results in rapid progression, however this also depends on the properties of the metal.
Cracks are classed as planar imperfections as they generally have only 2 visible, or
measurable dimensions Le. length and depth. Most fall into the defects category, though
some standards allow crater cracks.
Welding Inspection - Welding Imperfections
3.1
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VIlDI. _
2) Gas pores, porosity and cavities: Ii i
, _I
J
t'J I pI'" (l -1-14
',"V\.// - / v Il&""'j let '
Gas pores: '
Gas pores are defined as internal gas filled cavities smaller than 1.6mm diameter, which
are created during solidification by the expulsion of gases from solution in the solidifying
weld metal.
Porosity:
These are gas pores < 1.6mm diameter which are generally grouped together, and may be
classified by their number, size and grouping. (Le. Fine, or coarse cluster porosity) A
singular gas filled cavity = or > 1.6mm diameter is termed a "blow hole" Porosity is
mainly produced when welding improperly cleaned plate, or when using damp welding
consumables. Gases may also be formed by the breakdown of paints, oil based products,
corrosion or anti corrosion products that have been left on the plates to be welded.
Porosity can be frequently formed during the MIG or TIG process by the temporary loss
of gas shield, and ingress of air into the arc column, which is caused by movement of the
surrounding atmosphere, or wind. Porosity may also be caused by improper settings of
shielding gas flow rate.
Porosity may also found in deep Sub Arc welds due to the distance that trapped gases
formed in the root area need to travel to escape from the surface, and may also occur
when using damp MMA welding electrodes, or damp Sub Arc Fluxes.
Porosity may be prevented by correct cleaning of materials, correct setting and shielding
when using the TIG or MIG welding processes, and using dry welding consumables.
Porosity may be identified on a radiograph as a spherical imperfection that has varying
density shades, from highest in the centre, decreasing to its outer edges Le.
Shrinkage cavities:
These are voids created during solidification ofwelds ofhigh depth: width ratio.
This may occur when the d:w ratio is> 2:1 and is often associated with SAW and can be
defined as a hot plastic tear, which has sharp edges and is treated as a crack.
, wr 0 urface breaking porosity
Shrinkage cavity IffJS Coarse cluster porosity
Fine cluster porosity
Blowhole> 1.6 mm 0
An isolated internal pore
3.2
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lD#. _
4) Solid inclusions:
Solid inclusions include metallic and non-metallic inclusions that may be trapped in the
weld during the process of welding. The type of solid inclusion that may be expected is
really dependant on the welding process being used. In welding processes that use fluxes
to form all the required functions of shielding and chemical cleaning, such as MMA and
Submerged Arc welding, slag inclusions may occur. Other welding processes such as
MIG and TIG use silicon, aluminium and other elements to de-oxidise the weld. These
may form silica, or alumina inclusions. Any of these non-metallic compounds may be
trapped inside a weld during welding. This often happens after slag traps, such as
undercut have been formed. Slag traps are mostly caused by incorrect welding technique.
Metallic inclusions include tungsten inclusions that may be produced during TIG
welding by a poor welding technique, an incorrect tungsten vertex angle, or too high
amperage for the diameter of tungsten being used. Copper inclusions may be caused
during MIGIMAG welding by a lack of welding skill, or incorrect settings in
mechanised, or automated MIG welding. (Mainly welding Aluminium alloys)
Other welding phenomena such "arc blow" or the deviation of the electric arc by
magnetic forces, can cause solid inclusions to be trapped in welds. The locations ofthese
inclusions may be within the centre of a deposited weld, or between welds where the
result causes "Lack of inter-run fusion", or at the sidewall of the weld preparation
causing "Lack of side wall fusion" Generally solid internal inclusions may be caused by:
1) Lack of welder skill. (Incorrect welding technique)
2) Poor manipulation of the welding process, or electrode.
3) Incorrect parameter settings, i.e. voltage, amperage, speed of travel.
4) Magnetic arc blow.
S) Incorrect positional use of the process, or consumable.
6) Incorrect inter-run cleaning.
Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of sidewall fusion
Solid inclusions caused by undercut
in the previous weld run
}ht(ck.. '
Surface breaking solid inclusion
Internal solid \
d'b'f"y@uJ 0 C!
'Z, 0
Internal solid inclusion causing
a lack of inter-run fusion
3.3
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
VIlOI. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
3) Lack of fusion:
Lack of fusion imperfections, are defined as a lack of union between two adjacent areas
of material. This may be accompanied, or caused by other imperfections as explained in
the last section. Lack of fusion can be considered a serious imperfection, as like cracks,
they produce areas of high stress concentration. Lack of fusion, or overlap (a form of
lack of fusion) may occur in the weld face area during positional welding caused by the
action of gravity and incorrect use ofthe process.
Arc blow is a prime cause of lack of fusion imperfections, particularly when using high
current processes, such as Sub Arc using high direct electric currents. (DC+ or DC -)
Lack of fusion may also be formed in the root area of the weld where it may be found on
one, or both plate edges. It may also be accompanied by incomplete root penetration.
Lack of fusion is also a common imperfection in "Dip transfer MIG welding" of metals
over 3mm thickness, especially when welding vertically down. This is caused by the
inherent coldness of this form ofmetal transfer, and the action of gravity.
Like solid inclusions, lack of fusion imperfections may be caused by:
1) Lack of welder skill. (Incorrect welding technique)
2) Poor manipulation of the welding process, or electrode.
3) Incorrect parameter settings, i.e. voltage, amperage, speed of travel.
4) Magnetic arc blow.
5) Incorrect positional use of the process, or consumable.
6) Incorrect inter-run cleaning.
Mi)
Overlap
!. Lack of sidewall fusion
Lack of root fusion
Lack of sidewall fusion (J_ wr/Ie-
(Incompletely idled groove fll
in some standards)
Lack of inter-run fusion
3.4
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!7fll. THE WELDING INSTITUTE
4) Surface and profile:
Surface and profile imperfections are generally caused by poor welding techniques. This
includes the use of incorrect welding parameters, electrode/blowpipe sizes and/or
manipulation and joint set up.
1bis category may be split into two further groups of weld face and weld root.
Surface and profile imperfections are shown pictorially in A & B below:
A:
Spatter is not a major factor in lowering the weldment strength, though it may mask
other imperfections, and should therefore be cleaned ofIbefore inspection.
Spatter may also hinder NDT and be detrimental to coatings
It can also cause micro cracking or hard spots in some materials due to the localised
heating/quenching effect.
An incompletely filled groove may bring the weld below its DIT. It is a major stress
concentration when accompanied by lack of sidewall fusion.
Lack of root fusion causes a serious stress concentration to occur in the root.
It may also render the root area more susceptible to corrosion in service
Spatter
Lack of root fusion
An Incompletely f'illed groove
L
3.5
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lOI. _
B:
A bulbous contour is an imperfection as it causes sharp stress concentrations at the toes
of individual passes and may also contribute to overall poor toe blend
Arc strikes, Stray-arcing, or Stray flash may cause many problems including several
types of cracks to occur. They can also cause depressions in the plate bringing it below
its DTT. Arc strikes would normally be NOT inspected and then repaired.
Incomplete root penetration may be caused by too small a root gap, insufficient
amperage, or poor welding technique. It also causes high stress concentrations to occur.
It also generally produces a weld with less throat thickness than the DTT of the joint.
An irregular bead width is a surface imperfection, which is often referenced in
application standards as. "The weld bead should be regular along its linear length"
Arc Strikes
Incomplete root penetration/
Bulbous, or irregular contour
Poor toe blend
Undercut:
Undercut can be defined as a depression at the toe of a weld in a previous deposited
weld, or base metal, caused by welding. Undercut is generally caused by incorrect
welding technique, including the use of too high a current for the electrode being used,
and the welding position. It is often caused in the top toe of fillet welds when attempting
to produce a large leg length fillet weld in one run. Undercut can also be considered a
serious imperfection particularly if it is sharp, as again it causes high stress
concentrations. It is g a u g ~ d in severity by its length, depth and sharpness. Fillet welded
structures intended for fatigue loaded applications often require the toes to be lightly
ground, or flushed in with a TIG run to remove any toe undercut.
Shrinkage grooves:
Shrinkage grooves may occur in the root area and are caused by contractional forces
pulling on the hot plastic base metal in the root area It is often mistaken as root undercut.
3.6
Rev 09-09-02
Weld metal, surface undercut
Parent metal, "top toe?
Parent metal, surface undercut
Weld metal, surface undercut
TWI
Vflfll. I!IIII THE WELDING INSTITUTE
<; 10{Lt-ef_
.'
Root Run or "Hot undercut
Root concavity: (suck back)
This may be caused when using too high a gas backing pressure in purging. It may also
be produced when welding with too large a root gap and depositing too thin a root bead,
when the hot pass may pull back the root bead through contractional strains.
Root concavity
3.7
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
Vfl!ll. _
Excess penetration:
Often caused by using too high a welding current, and/or, slow travel speed, coupled
with a large root gap, and/or a small root face for the current or process being used. It is
often accompanied by bum through, which can be defmed as a local collapse of the weld
puddle causing a hole, or depression in the fmal weld root bead.
Root oxidation:
Root oxidation may take place when welding re-active metals such as stainless steels
with contaminated, or inadequate purging gas flow.
Root oxidation in Stainless Steel
Excess penetration, and burn through /
Crater pipes:
Often occurs during TIG welding, at the end of the weld run, on [mal solidification. It is
caused by insufficient filler material to meet the solidification process. It can be
eliminated by careful application ofthe filler metal, or using a slope out control.
Crater pipe r,' ,r-/e- )
"---- ", /' ,
'c: .. c-:; ( :
!, /1/) I),,., '7 ,'7
I .... ' f '-
it'
I
Incomplete root penetration.
Bulbous or irregular contour.
Poor toe blend.
Irregular bead width.
Undercut.
Root concavity.
Excess penetrationlBurn through.
Root oxidation.
Incompletely filled grove.
Spatter.
Arc strikes. (Stray arcs)
To summarize, we can list surface or profile welding imperfections as follows:
rn
p0-t'h ;/ It
J ;
f
f,
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
3.8
Rev 09-09-02
TWI
V!lfll. _
5) Mechanical damage:
Mechanical damage:
This can be defmed as any surface material damage caused during the manufacturing
process. This can include damage caused by:
1) Grinding.
3) Hammering.
5) Chiselling.
2)
4)
6)
Chipping.
Braking off welded attachments by hammering.
Using needle guns to compress weld capping runs.
As with the stray arcing, the above imperfections can be detrimental as they reduce the
through thickness dimension of the plate in that area. They can cause local stress
concentrations and should be repaired prior to completing the job.
7) Misalignment:
There are 2 forms of misalignment, which are termed:
1) Linear misalignment 2) Angular misalignment.
Linear misalignment: can be controlled during weld set up by the correct use/control of
the weld set up technique Le. tacking, bridging, clamping etc. Excess weld metal height
is always measured from the lowest plate to the highest point of the weld cap.
Linear misalignment measured in:: - - - - - - - - - - f
3mm
Angular misalignment: may be controlled by the correct application of distortion
control techniques, Le. balanced welding, offsetting, or use ofjigs, clamps, etc.

__ :::::t 15
0
i/
r
::
Angular misalignment measured in degrees 0
Good working practices and correct welder training will minimise the occurrence of
unacceptable welding imperfections, or welding defects.
3.9
Rev 09-09-02
124
MULTICHOICE PAPER FIVE
1. Generally the most suitable method of detecting lack of sidewall fusion would be:
a. Ultrasonics.
b. MPI.
c. Radiography.
d. Penetrant inspection.
2. Hot shortness is a term used to indicate:
a. Lamellar tearing.
b. Solidification cracking.
c. Hydrogen cracking.
d. None of the above.
3. Cobalt as an isotope would generally be used on:
a. Thin material.
b. Tee joints.
c. Plate thicknesses greater than 25 mm.
d. All the above.
4. In welding procedure terms, a change in essential variable means:
a. Re-qualification of the weld procedure.
b. Possible changes in the weld's microstructure.
c. Possible changes in the mechanical properties.
d. All the above.
5. Weld symbols placed on a dotted line in accordance with ISO requirements means:
a. Weld on 'arrow' side.
b. Weld on 'other' side.
c. Weld on site.
d. Full penetration required.
6. A welding inspector's main attributes include:
a. Knowledge and experience.
b. Literacy.
c. Honesty and integrity.
d. All th,e above.
7. Technically, a code ofpractice is:
a. A standard.
b. A 'set of rules' for the manufacture of a product.
c. Related to welder and weld procedure approval.
d. All the above.
8. The correct term for 'cap height' is:
a. Reinforcement.
b. Cap profile height.
c. Excess weld metal.
d. All the above.
124
125
9. A tensile test will assess:
a. Impact values.
b. Stress.
c. Strain.
d. Both band c.
10. The important point of high temperature steels is that:
a. They can withstand creep failure.
b. They may suffer re-heat cracking problems.
c. They may suffer loss of toughness.
d. All the above.
11. An austenitic stainless steel may suffer:
a. Weld decay.
b. Sensitisation.
c. Solidification cracking.
d. All the above.
12. Carbon equivalent values are useful to determine:
a. Weldability aspects.
b. Crack sensitivity aspects.
c. Typical mechanical properties.
d. All the above.
13. A basic electrode would normally:
a. Have superior mechanical properties.
b. Require baking before use.
c. Not be used on low carbon steels.
d. Both a and b.
14. When referring to TIG welding, the shielding gas could be:
a. Argon and hydrogen.
b. Argon and helium.
c. Argon and nitrogen.
d. All the above.
15. When referring to MIG welding, the shielding gas would be:
a. Argon.
b. Argon + 1% oxygen.
c. Argon + 20% carbon dioxide.
16. Submerged arc utilises:
a. Deep penetration characteristic.
b. High deposition rates on DC+.
c. Flat (PA) welding only.
125
126
17. Ultrasonics would be preferred over radiography due to:
a. Ability to find most defects.
b. Lower skill requirement.
c. Ability to detect laminations.
d. Both a and c.
18. The most serious defect types are:
a. Planar.
b. Cracks.
c. Lack of fusion.
d. All the above.
19. MMA welding of low alloy steels is more likely to be performed with:
a. Rutile electrodes.
b. Cellulosic electrodes.
c. Iron powder electrodes.
d. Basic hydrogen controlled electrodes.
20. Which of the following defects is more common to welds deposited by C02 welding than
welds deposited by MMA?
a. Slag inclusions.
b. Excess penetration.
c. Lack of sidewall fusion.
d. Tungsten inclusions.
21. Which defect would you expect to get in TIG welds in non-deoxidised steel?
a. Undercut.
b. Porosity.
c. Tungsten inclusions.
d. Linear misalignment.
22. Which of the following can arise from copper inclusions in a ferritic steel weld?
a. Weld metal cracks.
b. HAZ cracks.
c. Lamellar tearing.
d. Porosity.
23. Which of the following is likely to give the highest impact strength in ferritic weld metal?
a. Cellulosic electrodes.
b. Submerged arc with acid flux.
c. Spray transfer C02 welding.
d. Basic coated MMA electrodes.
24. You suspect that ferritic steel plates contain cracks in the prepared edges. What NDT
method would you use to check this?
a. Radiography.
b. Magnetic particle inspection.
c. Penetrant inspection.
d. Ultrasonic flaw detection.
126
127
25. Which of the following defects would you not expect to find by visual inspection of welds?
a. Linear slag inclusions.
b. Undercut.
c. Overlap.
d. Linear misalignment.
26. Stress relieving is not helpful in which of the following cases?
a. Improving resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
b. Improving dimensional stability after machining.
c. Lowering the peak residual stress.
d. Softening the steel.
27. What is the maximum hardness usually recommended for the heat-affected zone of a
medium strength ferritic steel weld?
a. 100 DP Hv.
b. 350 DP Hv.
c. 500 DP Hv.
d. 750 DP Hv.
28. What effect does mid thickness laminations in steel plate normally have when they are
located within a weld heat affected zone?
a. Cause lamellar tearing.
b. Fuse together to form a bond.
c. Affect the weld metal composition.
d. Cause internal tearing on a micro scale.
29. The permanent backing material for MMA welding of low carbon steel should be made
from:
a. Copper.
b. Low carbon steel.
c. QT steel.
d. Cast iron.
30. The overall length of a pipeline can be affected by:
a. Transverse shrinkage.
b. Longitudinal shrinkage.
c. Angular shrinkage.
d. Circumferential shrinkage.
127
128
MULTICHOICE PAPER SIX
1. The weld dimension used to indicate the minimum strength of a fillet weld is:
a. Leg length.
b. Throat thickness.
c. Width of bead.
d. Length of weld element.
2. An electroslag weld requires what heat treatment to improve the grain structure?
a. Annealing.
b. Stress relieving.
c. Normalising.
d. Quench and tempering.
3. The most cornmon type of failure associated with sharp fillets, notches and undercut is:
a. Crystallisation.
b. Fatigue.
c. Corrosion.
d. Brittle fracture.
4. Weld decay in stainless steels can be avoided by:
a. Stress relieving.
b. Slow cooling after welding.
c. Addition of more manganese to the steel.
d. Addition of titanium to the steel.
5. An eutectoid mixture in steel is:
a. A mixture of ferrite and austenite.
b. A mixture comprising a substitutinal solid solution.
c. Called pearlite.
d. Called ledeburite.
6. Low alloy steels having a high carbon equivalent before welding will require:
a. A reduction in carbon content.
b. High pre-heat temperatures.
c. Low pre-heat temperatures.
d. No pre-heating.
7. The electrodes for welding low alloy steels should be:
a. Used with a low current value.
b. One size larger than for general purpose electrodes.
c. Used for welding in the flat position only.
d. Heated in a drying oven before use.
8. The purpose of pre-heating low alloy steel pipes before electric arc welding is to:
a. Refine grain structure.
b. Relieve internal stress.
c. Retard rapid cooling.
128
129
d. Regulate excessive expansion.
9. Welder qualification tests are designed to:
a. Test the correctness of the welding procedure.
b. Test the welder's skill.
c. Prove the weldability of the parent material.
d. All the above.
10. In positional MMA welding on pipework, welders are having difficulty in obtaining good
capping profiles when welding in the overhead position. Would you:
a. Advise them to increase the current.
b. Advise them to increase the voltage.
c. Ask for a new welding team.
d. Suggest the use of a smaller diameter electrode.
11. You have a macro section of a 'T' butt joint that shows a step-like defect lying outside the
visible HAZ. What would this defect possibly signify?
a. HAZ cracking.
b. Toe cracking.
c. Lamination.
d. Lamellar tearing.
12. Which electrode deposits weld metal with the greatest ductility and resistance to cracking?
a. Rutile.
b. Cellulosic.
c. Basic.
d. Oxidising.
13. Which one of the following is not helpful in minimising angular distortion during welding?
a. Use of double 'V' weld prep using balanced welding technique.
b. Pre-setting of work piece.
c. Applying post weld heat soak.
d. Changing from a single 'V' prep for thick material.
14. Argon purging on the root side is necessary in the TIG welding of stainless steel to:
a. Obtain full penetration.
b. Obtain full fusion.
c. Avoid porosity in the root.
d. Obtain a satisfactory weld surface finish.
15. Which of the following can arise from copper inclusions in a mild steel weld?
a. Weld metal cracks.
b. HAZ cracks.
c. Lack of fusion.
d. Porosity.
16. Stress relief is not helpful in which of the following cases?
a. In improving resistance to stress corrosion.
b. In improving dimensional stability after machining.
c. In lowering the peak residual stresses.
129
130
d. In softening the metal.
17. Stray arc strikes are undesirable since they:
a. Leave a poor surface finish.
b. Cause weld metal cracking.
c. Reduce corrosion resistance.
d. Cause local hardening and cracking in the parent material.
18. Cold cracking is most likely to occur in a weldment if:
a. The rate of cooling is too fast.
b. The rate of cooling is too slow.
c. It lacks ductility at high temperatures.
d. Impurities are present at its grain boundaries.
19. Chromium, when added to steel as an alloying element, has the effect of making the alloy
more:
a. Ductile.
b. Plastic.
c. Hardenable.
d. Malleable.
20. When depositing weld metal, fusion will take place at the sides of the joint resulting in an
admixture between weld metal and parent metal. This alloying effect is known as:
a. Diffusion.
b. Absorption.
c. Dilution.
d. Migration.
21. Percentage elongation of a metal undergoing a tensile test is a measure of:
a. Elasticity.
b. Plasticity.
c. Ductility.
d. Malleability.
22. When a longitudinal load is put on a lap joint, the stress set up is normally:
a. Shear stress.
b. Tensile stress.
c. Compressive stress.
d. Residual stress.
23. When a metal is subjected to a fluctuating load, a condition of cyclic stressing can be set up,
which eventually can result in structural breakdown known as:
a. Tensile failure.
b. Fatigue failure.
c. ):ield failure.
d. Shear failure.
130
131
24. What happens to the mechanical properties of steel if the carbon content is increased to
0.5%?
a. The material becomes softer.
b. Malleability is increased.
c. The tensile strength is increased.
d. Ductility is increased.
25. Columnar growth takes place when a metal is:
a. Cold.
b. Losing heat.
c. Being heated.
d. Being rolled.
26. If a low carbon steel pipe has to carry a liquid, care must be taken when making the butt
welds to ensure penetration is not excessive because it:
a. Reduces the flow rate of the liquid.
b. May increase the rate of corrosion.
c. Can contaminate the liquid.
d. May cause excessive pipe wear.
27. When a steel suffers hot shortness, it is mostly due to the presence of:
a. Sulphur.
b. Phosphorous.
c. Silicon.
d. Manganese.
28. When a steel is heated to above its upper critical temperature, the structure produced is:
a. Martensite.
b. Austenite.
c. Pearlite.
d. Sorbite.
29. The type of crystal normally found in a single run arc weld in the as welded condition is:
a. Equi-axed.
b. Polycrystalline.
c. Dendritic.
d. Columnar.
30. The first sub-zone in the heat affected zone of the parent metal nearest the weld deposit will
consist of:
a. Large crystal grains.
b. Small crystal grains.
c. Elongated crystal grains.
d. Distorted crystal grains.
131
132
MULTICHOICE PAPER SEVEN
1. Pipe welding codes are set up by:
a. Welding operators.
b. State governments.
c. Associations, societies, insurance companies, manufacturers and the military.
d. Construction unions.
2. The different grain structure between the weld deposit and the base metal can be determined
by:
a. A face bend test.
b. A root bend test.
c. A hardness test.
d. An etching test.
3. A root bend test is used to test the amount of weld:
a. Ductility.
b. Elongation.
c. Hardness.
d. Penetration.
4. What would be observed if a fillet weld were sectioned and macro-etched?
a. The grain of the other beads is coarser than the [mal bead.
b. The penetration and fusion into the root is very deep.
c. Each bead appears to be distinctly separated from the adjoining beads.
d. The grain structure remains the same in all passes.
5. What is the most common cause of failure in root bend tests?
a. Too high a current setting.
b. Too long a pause in the down cycle of the weave.
c. Lack of fusion and penetration.
d. Too high a travel speed.
6. The purpose of a nick break specimen is to provide a test for:
a. Tensile strength an9 fracture appearance.
b. Ductility and fracture appearance.
c. Elongation and fracture appearance.
d. Soundness and fracture appearance.
7. Which organisation publishes the most commonly used code for boiler and pressure vessel
welding?
a. American Welding Society.
b. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
c. American Petroleum Institute.
d. American National Standards Institute.
132
8. A low hydrogen electrode, according to BS 639, would contain:
a. No hydrogen.
b. Less than 15 ml of hydrogen per 100 grams of deposited weld metal.
c. Between 15 ml and 25 ml of hydrogen per 100 grams of deposited weld metal.
d. Less than 25 ml of hydrogen per 100 grams of deposited weld metal.
9. The second run in a three run butt weld using the stovepipe technique is known as the:
a. Filling run.
b. Hot pass.
c. Intermediate run.
d. Sealing run.
10. You could determine that an electrode is cellulosic by its:
a. BS 639 coding.
b. Colour.
c. Trade name.
d. BS 499 coding.
11. Which type of electrode coating gives the most voluminous gas shield?
a. Rutile.
b. Basic.
c. Oxidising.
d. Cellulosic.
12. Which of the following steels is likely to be more susceptible to hydrogen cracking?
a. Carbon equivalent of less than 0.25 %.
b. Carbon equivalent of 0.35%.
c. Carbon equivalent of 0.38%.
d. Carbon equivalent of 0.43%.
13. Preheating and interpass heating are used primarily for:
a. Aiding fusion.
b. Reducing hydrogen content of weld preparation prior to welding.
c. Ensure a fine grain size.
d. Slow down the cooling rate after welding.
14. Submerged arc welds made with re-cycled flux are liable to:
a. Porosity.
b. Course grain size.
c. Undercut.
d. Incomplete penetration.
15. Incomplete penetration in a single 'V' butt joint could be caused by:
a. Too large a root gap.
b. Too small a root gap.
c. Too high a heat input.
d. Too small a root face.
133
133
134
16. In submerged arc welding, which of the following width to depth ratios would be likely to
result in solidification cracking?
a. 1 : 3.
b. 3 : 1.
c. 2: 1.
d. 1 : 1.
17. You are responsible for controlling welding on site. A large incidence of porosity has been
reported in recent welding. Would you investigate?
a. The electrode type.
b. Power source.
c. Electrode storage.
d. Day temperature.
18. The main reason why all adhering scale should be removed when the pipe end preparation is
made by oxy-gas cutting is?
a. Oxidisation of the weld metal is minimised.
b. The speed of welding is increased.
c. Pipe bore alignment is made easier.
d. Reduction of the weld deposit is prevented.
19. When manual metal arc welding low carbon steel, which electrode covering will give the
greatest degree of penetration?
a. Iron powder.
b. Rutile.
c. Cellulosic.
d. Low hydrogen.
20. When tungsten arc gas shielded welding stainless steel, which one of the following should
be used?
a. Alternator.
b. A. C. transformer.
c. D. C. generator.
d. Constant potential rectifier.
21. Which gas shroud should be used when tungsten arc gas shielded welding aluminium alloys?
a. Nitrogen.
b. Carbon dioxide.
c. Argon/carbon dioxide mixture.
d. Argon.
22. The most common type of defect found in a structure when it is undergoing service is:
a. Fatigue cracking.
b. Crystallisation.
c. Weld decay.
d. Stress fracture.
134
135
23. In the examination of a welded aluminiumj oint, macro etching may reveal:
a. Lack of inter-run penetration.
b. Carbon pick-up.
c. Weld decay.
d. Micro cracks.
24. MMA welds made with damaged electrode coatings are subject to:
a. Porosity.
b. Undercut.
c. Excessive penetration.
d. Excessive bead height.
25. Which physical test is more likely to reveal HAZ embrittlement?
a. Transverse tensile.
b. All weld tensile.
c. Root bend.
d. Charpy impact.
26. Which of the following destructive tests is not normally required for welder approval?
a. Bend tests.
b. Macro examination.
c. Impact tests.
d. Fracture tests.
27. Too large a diameter offiller rod should not be used to make a welded joint because:
a. Excess reinforcement profile will be difficult to obtain.
b. The included bevel angle will have to be reduced.
c. Root fusion may be difficult to obtain.
d. The gap setting will have to be changed.
28. If pipe bores are not matched correctly it can result in:
a. Lack of root penetration.
b. Incorrect gap setting.
c. Excessive root faces.
d. Overheating during welding.
29. A correctly made tack weld should slope from the middle to the ends in order to:
a. Aid better penetration at the join-up.
b. Prevent porosity at the join-up.
c. Reduce the electrode size required.
d. Reduce the overall consumable consumption.
30. Two low carbon steel pipes, 150mm diameter and 6mm wall thickness, are to be butt welded
using the TIG process. To ensure a full strength joint, which of the following preps is most
suitable?
a. Open single bevel.
b. Open single Vee.
c. Open square preparation.
d. Closed square preparation.
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136
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. The ability of a material to withstand a load pulling it apart is called its _ __
2. The ability of a material to be stretched out without breaking is called _
3. An Izod impact machine is used to give indication of the of a material.
4. The ability to withstand indentation is called _
5. Lack of ductility is called _
6. The property of a metal to return to its original shape is called _
7. Increase in carbon content causes an in strength and hardness.
8. When carbon percentage increases, there is a decrease in _
9. Low carbon steel contains less than carbon.
---
10. Low ductility in a weld metal could result in _
11. Alloying is used to mechanical and physical properties of a steel.
12. Sulphur and phosphorus are not alloying elements; they are _
13. Alloying allows designers to use sections and still have the same strength.
14. An alloy that contains a high percentage of chromium and nickel would have resistance
to _
15. Quenching a carbon or low alloy steel will result in an in hardness and a
--- ---
in ductility.
16. The hard constituent that results when steel is quenched is called _
17. The tough laminated structure that is formed on slow cooling of ferrite and iron carbide
(cementite) is called
---
18. The amount of martensite formed depends on the speed of and the percentage
of
---
19. After quenching, the structure may be improved by reheating to 200-300C. This is called
20. Small percentages of chromium will increase the strength and "while a small
percentage of nickel will increase _
136
137
ANSWERS
PAPER ONE
1. d 2. d 3. b 4. c 5. c 6. b 7. c
8. a 9. c 10. a 11. d 12. a 13. b 14. b
15. c 16. a 17. a 18. b 19. a 20. d 21. c
22. a 23. d 24. c 25. d 26. d 27. c 28. b
29. b 30. b
PAPER TWO
1. b 2. a 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. c 7. d
8. d 9. d 10. d 11. b 12. b 13. c 14. b
15. c 16. b 17. b 18. c 19. b 20. c 21. b
22. d 23. c 24. b 25. c 26. c 27. b 28. b
29. d 30. b
PAPER THREE
1. d 2. a 3. d 4. d 5. d 6. c 7. b
8. d 9. d 10. d 11. d 12. d 13. b 14. d
15. d 16. d 17. b 18. d 19. a 20. d 21. d
22. d 23. d 24. c 25. d 26. d 27. d 28. b
29. c 30. b
PAPER FOUR
1. c 2. b 3. c 4. b 5. a 6. a 7. b
8. b 9. a 10. a 11. b 12. d 13. d 14. c
15. c 16. b 17. c 18. a 19. c 20. a 21. c
22. c 23. d 24. b 25. c 26. c 27. a 28. d
29. a 30. b
PAPERFNE
1. a 2. b 3. c 4. d 5. b 6. d 7. b
8. c 9. d 10. d 11. d 12. d 13. d 14. d
15. a 16. a 17. d 18. d 19. d 20. c 21. b
22. a 23. b 24. b 25. a 26. b 27. b
28. a 29. b 30. b
PAPER SIX
1. b 2. c 3. b 4. d 5. c 6. b 7. d
8. c 9. b 10. d 11. d 12. c 13. c 14. c
15. a 16. b 17. d 18. a 19. c 20. c 21. c
22. a 23. b 24. c 25. b 26. a 27. a 28.' b
29. d 30. a
PAPER SEVEN
137
138
1. c 2. d 3. a 4. c 5. c 6. d 7. b
8. b 9. b 10. a 11. d 12. d 13. b 14. a
15. b 16. a 17. c 18. a 19. c 20. c 21. d
22. a 23. a 24. a 25. d 26. c 27. c 28. a
29. a 30. b
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. Tensile Strength.
5.Brittleness.
9.0.2%
13. Smaller/Thinner.
16.Martensite.
19.Tempering.
2. Ductility. 3. Toughness.
6. Elasticity. 7. Increase.
10. Cracking. 11. Increase.
14. Corrosion. 15.Increase Decrease
17.Pearlite. 18. Cooling Carbon.
20. Hardness....Toughness.
4. Hardness.
8. Ductility.
12. Impurities.
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