Basic Mechanical Engineering By Rajesh Sir

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The properties of materials which are associated with the ability of material to resist mechanical forces and loads are known as mechanical properties. When a material is subjected to load its behavior depends upon its mechanical properties. This behavior includes deformation as well as rupture. Following are the important mechanical properties of materialsStrength: The property of a material by virtue of which it can withstand various external forces or loads without breaking or yielding. It is usually defined as tensile strength, proof strength, compressive strength, shear strength, etc. strength of material is a general expression for the measure of capacity of resistance possessed by the material to any cause producing permanent deformation in them. Elasticity: Whenever a material is subjected to external forces certain deformation in its dimensions take place due to internal resistance forces material opposes change in its dimensions. As soon as the external forces are removed the body tries to regain its shape. This property of material to regain its original shape after deformation when the external forces are removed is called as elasticity. This property is desirable for materials used in tools. Plasticity: Whenever a material is stressed beyond its elastic limit it is permanently deformed i.e. it does not regain its original shape on unloading. The property of material by virtue of which it retains the deformation permanently is known as plasticity. This property of material is necessary for forgings, rolling, in stamping images on coins and in ornamental work etc. Ductility: Ductility is the ability of a material to undergo deformation under tension without rupture. It is the property of material by virtue of which it can be drawn into thin wires with the application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility of a material depends upon the grain size of the crystal. It is usually measured as percentage elongation and % reduction in area. Gold and silver are the most ductile metals. Other materials used in engineering purpose are M.S., copper, Al, Ni, zinc, tin and lead etc. Malleability: Malleability is the ability of material to withstand deformation under compression without rupture. It is the property of material by virtue of which it can be extended permanently in all direction by hammering or rolling into thin sheets. It depends upon the crystal structure of the material and it increase with increase of temperature. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not necessary to be very strong. The malleable materials used in engineering purpose are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, Al, Cu etc. Toughness or Tenacity: Toughness is the strength with which the material opposes rupture. It is measured by the amount of energy which can be absorbed by the material to deform plastically before fracture. The energy absorbed by the material is usually expressed as modulus of toughness. The toughness of material decreased when it is heated. This property is desirable in machine parts subjected to shock and impact loads. Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel etc are tough materials. Brittleness: It is defined as the tendency to fracture without applicable deformation. In other words lack of ductility in brittleness. When a body breaks easily when subjected shocks it is said to be brittle. Cast iron, glass, concrete are brittle materials. Hardness: Hardness is usually defined as resistance of materials to penetration. It is the property of material by virtue of which it is able to resist wear scratching and plastic deformation usually by indentation. It also means the ability of material to cut another material. Hardness of material depends upon the type of bonding forces between atoms ions or molecules. Diamond is the hardest substance known; other hard substances are topaz, quartz, high carbon iron etc. Hardness of a material can be measured by the following tests Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness test. The hardness of a material can be increased by alloying, cold working and precipitation hardening. Stiffness/Rigidity: It is the ability of a material to resist deformation or deflection under stress. In other words it is the load per unit deflection. The stiffness of a material is measured by the Youngs modulus. The higher the value of Y.M. the stiffer is the material. In case of tensile and compressive strength, it is indicated by modulus of rigidity and in case of volumetric deformation it is indicated by bulk modulus. Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy stored per unit

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Basic Mechanical Engineering By Rajesh Sir

volume within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials. The maximum energy which can be stored in a body up to the elastic limit is called the proof resilience and the proof resilience per unit volume is called the modulus of resilience. Creep Resistance: At higher temperatures, metallic materials have a tendency to undergo continuous deformation even the applied load is maintained constant. This phenomenon is called creep. Those materials which resist the tendency of creep are said to have high creep resistance. The external force or load is applied on the body while the stress is induced in the material of the body. A loaded member or body remains in equilibrium when the resistance offered by the body against deformation is equal to the applied load. Mathematically,

Units:
( ( ( ) ( ) ) ) ( ( ) )

FORCES
Force acting on a body is called load. If a structure as a whole is in equilibrium, the resultant of all the forces acting on its member must be zero. Forces acting on a body tend to deform or tear to pull it apart. Pulling force is known as tension or tensile force. A tensile force tends to increase the length & decreases the cross-section of the body. Similarly, a force tending to push or compress a body is known as compression or compressive force which tends to shorten the length. Forces acting on a body along the longitudinal axis are known as direct or axial forces while the forces acting normal to the longitudinal axis of a body are known as transverse or normal forces. SIMPLE STRESS & COMPOUND STRESS The stresses which are developed under the direct loading conditions are called simple stresses or direct stresses. Such stresses are developed in a body when it is subjected to external force in one direction only. In some of the loading conditions the stresses developed are not simple. When a body is subjected to load, which develop all type of stresses in the material of body such as tension, compression and shear. Such types of stresses are known as complex or indirect stresses because they were not caused by the direct loading. When a body is subjected to an external force in more than one direction, the stress developed in the body is called compound stress.

TYPE OF STRESS
Stress Simple Stress Normal Stress Shear Stress Indirect Stress Bending Stress Torsional Stress Compound Stress

The nature and type of stress depends upon the direction of the deforming force, relative to the area on which it acts. Based upon this criterion, stresses can be classified into Normal stress and Tangential stress. Normal stress can be tensile or compressive. Tangential stress is also called shear stress. Normal stress: Stress is called normal stress, when the external force acts perpendicular to the area on which stress is being considered. Normal Stress Tensile Stress When the effect of the external force is to increase the length of body (body gets elongate or lengthen), then the stress induced in the body is called tensile stress. Compressive Stress When the effect of the external force is to decrease the length of body (body gets shorten or compressed), then the stress induced in the body is called compressive stress.

STRESS
When an external load is applied to an object, its molecules generate an internal resistive force, which opposes the externally applied force. This resistive force per unit area is called stress or intensity of stress. Thus, stress is the result of reaction of the molecules of the object, to the external force.

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Basic Mechanical Engineering By Rajesh Sir

Longitudinal strains are of two types: Tensile Strain Compressive Strain When a member is subjected to axial tensile force at its ends, it elongates in its length. The ratio of this elongation in length (change in length) to the original length of member is called tensile strain When a member is subjected to axial compressive force at its ends, it contracts (shorts) in its length. The ratio of this contraction in length (change in length) to the original length of member is called compressive strain.

Tangential Stress: Stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal & opposite forces which are acting tangentially across the resisting section is known as tangential or shear stress.

The shear stress is the stress which acts tangential to the cross-sectional area.

Shear Strain: Change in angle between two line segments that were perpendicular to one another refers to shear strain. A rectangular element of a body is distorted by shear stresses. If the lower part is assumed to be fixed, the upper surfaces slides relative to the lower surface and the corner angles are altered by angle . Shear strain is defined as the change in the right angles of the element measured in radians and it is dimensionless.

STRAIN
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change in the dimension of the body. The ratio of change in dimension of the body to its original dimension is called strain. Mathematically, Volumetric strain: Whenever a member is subjected to a single force, it changes in its dimensions in all direction and consequently the volume to the original volume is called volumetric strain.

Unit: It is dimensionless quantity.

Longitudinal Strain Lateral Strain

If longitudinal strain is tensile then lateral strain is compressive & vice-versa.

TYPE OF STRAIN
Strain may be of following types: Longitudinal strain: When a body is subjected to an axial tensile or compressive load, there is an axial deformation in the length of the body. The ratio of axial deformation to the original length of the body is known as longitudinal strain.

Lateral strain: The strain at the right angle to the direction of applied load is known as lateral strain.

HOOKES LAW
When a material is loaded, within its elastic limit the stress is proportional to the strain produced by the stress.

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Basic Mechanical Engineering By Rajesh Sir

This means the ratio of the stress to the corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as Elastic moduli or elastic constant. Units of Elastic Constant:( ) ( ) proportional limit. In design, the stress of the material is to be used in the range OA. AB: In this portion Hookes law is not obeyed, although the material may still be elastic. The point B indicates the elastic limit. BC: In this portion, the metal shows an appreciable strain even without further increase in load (i.e. stress) and the strain is not fully recoverable when the load is removed. The point C is called upper yield point. CD: Yielding commences in this portion and there is a drop of load at the point D immediately after yielding commences at C. The point D is termed as lower yield point. DE: After yielding has taken place at D, further straining takes place at this portion by increasing the load and the stress-strain curve continues to rise up to the load E. Strain in this portion is about 100 times than that of the portion O to C. At the point E the bar begins to form a local neck. The point E is termed as ultimate tensile stress point. Ultimate stress is calculated at this point. EF: In this portion, the load falling off from the maximum until fracture at F takes place. The point F is termed as fracture or breaking point and the corresponding stress is called breaking stress. Ultimate load: The maximum axial load that can be applied on a member without causing its rupture or failure is called the ultimate load. Ultimate Stress: The ratio of the ultimate load to the initial cross-section area of the member is called ultimate stress of the material of the member.

TYPE OF ELASTIC CONSTANT

Youngs Modulus or Modulus of Elasticity: The ratio of tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding strain within the elastic limit is a constant. This ratio is called Youngs modulus.

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity: The ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain within the elastic limit is known as modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

Bulk Modulus: When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stress of equal intensity, then the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk modulus.

POISSONS RATIO
When the material is stressed within the elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is a constant for a given material, this ratio is called Poissons ratio.

Value of varies in between 0.25 to 0.33 for different materials. Value of m varies in between 3 & 4 for different materials.

STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR M.S

If a mild steel bar of uniform cross sectional area is subjected to a gradually increasing axial tensile force till failure of the bar occurs, and we plot the graph for stress and strain, the following curve may be obtained: The curve may be divided into the following parts: OA: This portion is absolutely straight, where the strain is proportional to the stress and the material obeys Hookes law. This is limited up to point A as shown in figure. The value of stress at point A is called

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