Stability Analysis of Boiling Water Nuclear

Reactors Using Parallel Computing

Paradigms
A Report submitted for
evaluation of work done during PBI, 7
th
semester
by
Manu Rakesh
(2008065)
under the guidance of
Dr. G. Dutta
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Design and
Manufacturing, Jabalpur
14 November, 2011
Contents
List of Figures vii
Acknowledgement viii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Motivation and Objective of Project Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Outline of the report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 TH Model: A Brief Overview 3
2.1 Non-dimensionalised version of TH model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Analysis of out-of-phase instabilities 8
3.1 Model description and boundary conditions for out-of-phase instability
analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.1.1 Boundary conditions to model out-of-phase instability . . . . . . 8
3.1.2 Solution technique to model out-of-phase instability . . . . . . . 9
4 Numerical Treatments 12
4.1 Generic Methods for Dense Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1.1 Sherman-Morrison Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1.2 LU Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.1.3 Cholesky Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2 Generic Methods for Sparse Matrix Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.1 Frontal Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.2 Biconjugate Gradient Stabilised Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3 Sparse Matrix Storage Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.4 Justication of Parallelization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.5 Finalized Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.6 Matrix Inversion based SS Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.6.1 The Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.6.2 The Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.6.3 Reducing The Condition Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5 Nuclear Coupled TH Model Integration 21
5.1 Neutronic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.2 Fuel Heat Conduction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.3 Coupling Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3.1 Steady State Coupling Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
i
CONTENTS ii
5.3.2 Transient Coupling Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.3.3 Algorithm to satisfy steady state TH boundary conditions . . . 27
6 Results 29
6.1 In-phase Oscillations with neutronic feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1.1 Time Savings Achieved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7 Further Scope of Work 35
Bibliography 36
Nomenclature
English symbols
A Area (m
2
)
a Acoustic speed (m/s)
C
i
Precursor concentration of i
th
delayed group (atoms/cm
3
)
c
pf
Specic heat of fuel rod (kJ/(kg.K))
D Diusion coecient (cm)
e Total specic internal energy (J/kg)
e
f
Total specic ow energy (J/kg)
f
lo
Single-phase liquid friction factor (dimensionless)
G Number of energy groups (dimensionless)
g Acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
)
H Vertical height (m)
h Specic enthalpy (J/kg)
h
f
Specic enthalpy of saturated liquid (kJ/kg)
h
fg
Specic enthalpy dierence between saturated vapour and liquid (J/kg)
h
G
Gap conductance (W/m
2
K)
h

Heat transfer coecient of the coolant (W/m

2
K)
J Ratio of time step sizes for thermal-hydraulic and shape function
solvers [ J Natural number ] (dimensionless)
K Isentropic bulk modulus (N/m
2
)
k Thermal conductivity (W/(m.K))
k
i
Inlet orice coecient (dimensionless)
k
e
Exit orice coecient (dimensionless)
k
eff
Multiplication factor (dimensionless)
k
hr
Orice coecient between heater and riser (dimensionless)
L Length of channel; L = L
H
+ L
R
(m)
m Number of delayed neutron families (dimensionless)
m Mass ow rate (kg/s)
N Amplitude function (dimensionless)
N
pch
Phase change number
__

Q
T
m
T
h
fg
_ _
v
fg
v
f
__
(dimensionless)
N
sub
Subcooling number
__
h
f
h
in
h
fg
_ _
v
fg
v
f
__
(dimensionless)
P
H
Heated perimeter (m)
P
w
Wetted perimeter (m)
p Pressure (Pa)
p Pressure drop (N/m
2
)

Q Total power (W)

iii
CONTENTS iv
q

Heat ux (W/m
2
)
q

w
Heat ux at wall (W/m
2
)
q

Volumetric heat generation rate (W/m

3
)
Re Reynolds number (dimensionless)
r Radius (m)
r At any pont r in reactor core
S Heater and riser area ratio; S =
_
A
H
A
R
_
(dimensionless)
s Specic entropy (J/(kg.K))
T Temperature (K)
t Time (s)
u Fluid velocity in axial direction (m/s)
u
s
Characteristic uid velocity (m/s)
V

Volume of reactor (cm

3
)
v Neutron velocity (cm/s)
v
f
Specic volume of saturated liquid (m
3
/kg)
v
fg
Specic volume dierence between saturated vapour and liquid (m
3
/kg)
W Unknown variable as mass ow rate (kg/s)
x Vapour quality (dimensionless)
z Distance in axial direction (m)
Greek letters
Azimuthal angle (degree or radian)
Neutron ux (cm
2
/s)
Void fraction (dimensionless)
( r , t ) Void fraction at 3-D space r in BWR and time t (dimensionless)

r
( z , t ) Void fraction of r
th
channel at axial location z and time t (dimensionless)

t
Total macroscopic cross section (cm
1
)

R
Macroscopic removal cross section (cm
1
)

sg

g
Macroscopic scattering cross section from g

to g (cm
1
)

f
Macroscopic ssion cross section (cm
1
)

a
Macroscopic absorption cross section (cm
1
)
Total delayed fraction (dimensionless)

s
Fraction of delayed ssion neutrons appear in the s
th
group (dimensionless)
Kinematic viscosity (m
2
/s)
(g

) Average number of neutrons released per ssion in group g

(dimensionless)

P
g
Fraction of prompt ssion neutrons emitted into group g (dimensionless)

D
sg
Fraction of delayed neutrons emitted into group g from decay of precursors
in family s (dimensionless)

s
Decay constant of delayed neutron precursor family s (s
1
)
Density (kg/m
3
)
Reactivity
_
k
eff
k
eff
_
(dimensionless)
Shear stress (N/m
2
)

Two-phase multiplier (dimensionless)

Dierence operator (Dimensionless)
CONTENTS v
Time step used for amplitude function calculation (s)
t Time step used for shape function calculation (s)
t Time step used for thermal-hydraulic calculation (s)
Matrix
Vector
Superscript
r r
th
radial channel
T Transpose

Per unit length (m

1
)
n n
th
time step
Subscript
c Heat conduction related quantity
H Heater
g Energy group g
k k
th
axial node
in Inlet
ic Innerer clad
nc Number of radial nodes for clad (dimensionless)
nf Number of radial nodes for fuel pellet (dimensionless)
oc Outer clad
R Riser
s Delayed neutron precursor family s
T Total
w Wall
Coolant
2 Two-Phase
1 Single phase
Acronyms
BC Boundary condition
BWR Boiling water reactor
CFD Computational uid dynamics
CR Control rod
CRDA Control rod drop accident
DWO Density wave oscillation
DNS Direct Numeric Simulations
EV ET Equal-velocity and equal-temperature
EV UT Equal-velocity and unequal-temperature
FA Fuel assembly
CONTENTS vi
FC Forced circulation
FCN Fuel composition
FHC Fuel heat conduction
HZP Hot zero power (condition)
IC Initial condition
IQS Improved quasistatic
LES Large Eddy Simulations
LOCA Loss of coolant accident
LV Laguna Verde (BWR)
LWR Light water reactor
ME Macroelement
MECA Method of characteristics analysis
MSB Marginal stability boundary
NC Natural circulation
NPP Nuclear power plant
RP Relative power
TH Thermal-hydraulic
List of Figures
2.1 Schematic diagram of a FC system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Schematic diagram of parallel channels lying between two plena . . . . 4
4.1 General Structure of Matrix to be solved for Single Channel Steady
State Solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1 Schematic Diagram of typical BWR loop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2 Schematic diagram of a fuel rod containing fuel pellet, gap and clad. . . 24
5.3 Three level time step structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.4 Solution technique for nuclear coupled TH system during steady state. 26
5.5 Solution technique for nuclear coupled TH system during transient anal-
ysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.1 Variation of Power with Node Location for various channels during
Steady State Calculations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. . . . . . . 29
6.2 Variation of inlet mass ow rate with time for various channels during
core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. . . . 30
6.3 Time evolution of inlet and exit mass ow rates in phase plane diagram
at marginal stability boundary in presence of neutronic feedback eects
during core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. 30
6.4 Variation of Relative Power with time during core-wide mode of oscil-
lations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.5 Temporal variation of relative power and core average void fraction
during core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. 31
6.6 Temporal variation of relative power and core average Fuel Temperature
during core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. 32
6.7 Temporal variation of relative power and core average inlet and exit
mass ow rates per channel during core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.8 Instataneous 3-D power distribution at a particular axial fuel plane
during core-wide mode of oscillations when the BWR is operating at
rated mass ow rate. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. Power is
depicted on a scale of 0 to 12 10
5
Watts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.9 Instataneous 3-D power distribution at various axial fuel planes during
core-wide mode of oscillations when the BWR is operating at rated mass
ow rate. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268; time t = 14.10 secs. Power
is depicted on a scale of 0 to 12 10
5
Watts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
vii
Acknowledgements
I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude towards my guide,
Dr. Goutam Dutta for his invaluable guidance, interest, encouragement throughout
the course of the project work. Without his support and patience in guiding me, the
realization of this project would not have been possible. The freedom he lended to me
while working on the project enabled me to bring the most out all circumstances.
I would also like to thank my fellow batchmate Sachin Kumar. Discussions with
him were always fruitful.
It would be wrong not to thank the sta members of the Computer Center. The
help provided by them with the computational resources at hand time and time again,
helped making the completion of the project much easier.
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my mother for being the source of
inspiration to bring the best out of my potential.
Date: Manu Rakesh
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation and Objective of Project Work
Two-phase ow boiling systems are inherently susceptible to TH instabilities, which
may cause ow oscillations of constant or diverging amplitude. Sustained ow os-
cillations may lead to mechanical forced vibration on components or system control
problems in water cooled reactors where coolant water is used as moderator. These
oscillations could induce boiling crisis, disturb control systems, or cause mechanical
damage. It can lead to tube failure due to wall temperature increase and thermal
fatigue of the tubes due to continuous cycling of wall temperature. This can cause the
break down of fuel elements in nuclear reactors, leading to more serious accidents such
as release of radioactive materials.
Among the dierent types of ow instabilities, the density wave oscillations (DWOs)
are of primary concern in water-cooled nuclear reactors where limited boiling is allowed
in the core. Therefore, the investigation is required to be focused on nding out the
limiting values of parameters such as, average channel pressure, the power density,
maximum void fraction, etc., within which one must operate the reactor to preclude
such instabilities.
The designers job is to predict the threshold of ow instability so that one can
design around it and compensate for that. It is also required to nd out the possible
remedies in avoiding such instabilities in the operational regime.
Now-a-days, designers rely heavily on computational models to aid them in the
design process for Nuclear Reactors. Such computational models must be fairly accu-
rate and at the same time robust enough to parametrically evaluate the stability and
response characteristics for a number of cases. But systems that follow the physics of
the problem at micro-level accuracy, like LES and DNS face the constraints of taking
a very long time to generate results for a set of input parameters such as a pair of
Sub-cooling Number and Phase change number. To accurately distinguish the stable
zone from the unstable zone in a phase-plane diagram using MSBs, literally hundreds
of simlulations must be carried out.
Thus arose the need for the present project, which strives to introduce a layer of
parallelization in the model so as to reduce the time taken during computation. With
a model capable of utilizing the power of the new generation of computers equipped
with multiple processors, it can be expected that ultimately, the design process of
Nuclear Reactors will benet signicantly.
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 Outline of the report
The report has been organized as follows:
Chapter 2 is devoted to the introduction of the problem and TH model devel-
opment, with minor improvements done in the model proposed by Dutta and Doshi
[1].
Chapter 3 details the method used by Dutta, G. for simulating out-of-phase Oscil-
lations using the TH model developed.
Chapter 4 deals with the mathematical model development for matrix inversion.
Firstly, it contains literature review of relevant techiniques and research work in the
eld of matrix inversion and parallelization of the same. It also includes a study of
various storage schemes adopted for matrices.
Further, it includes a case study of an attempt made to perform the steady state
calculations using Matrix Inverson Method.
In Chapter 5, the model is integrated with a well validated 3D Nuclear Dynamics
model. This is done to simulate the heat generation in the reactor core closely. Here,
the model parameters are made to conrm with the Laguna Verde Nuclear Power
Plant, Veracruze, Mexico.
Chapter 6, recounts the results of the simulations that were carried out over the
course of the project work. It also attempts to explain the observations.
Chapter 2
TH Model: A Brief Overview
Carrying forward the thermohydraulic model designed by Dutta, G. and Doshi, J. B.
[1], the project aims to parallelise the computation involved in solving the model for
parallel channels assuming two-phase homogeneous medium.
Presented below is a brief recapitulation of the said model.

t
[U] + A(U)

z
[U] = [D(U)] (2.1)
where U is a vector composed of three variables, A is a matrix which depends on the
vector U and D is a vector containing allowances for mass, momentum and energy
transfer across the system boundaries and between phases. For EVET model, the
A matrix and D vector corresponding to the unknown variables in the vector U are
shown below.
U =
_

_
W
h
p
_

_ (2.2)
A =
_

_
2W
A

_
W
2

2
A
_

h

p
A
_
W
2

2
A
_

p

h
a
2
A
_
Wa
2
A
_

p

_
Wa
2

2
A
_

p

h
a
2
A

_
Wa
2
A
_

h

p
_
Wa
2

2
A
_

h

p
_

_
D =
_

_
A
_
F + g
dH
dz
_
+
_
W
2
A
2
_
dA
dZ
a
2
_
Q +
WF
A
_

p

h
a
2
_
Q +
WF
A
_

h

p
_

_
where a is the acoustic speed.
a =
_
_

h
+
1

p
_
_
1/2
(2.3)
This model requires the use of the following relationships for heat and momentum
transfer across the boundaries and phases.
Q =
_
q

w
P
H
A
_
=
_
h

P
H
A
_
(T
w
T

) (2.4)
3
CHAPTER 2. TH MODEL: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 4
Reactor
core
(more details
in next figure)
Steam
Water
seperator
Steam
exit
Forced circulation
flow direction
Natural circulation
flow direction
Exit
Cold water Inlet
Makeup
water
Direction
controller
Pump
Heat exchanger
Flow adjuster
Unidirectional
valve
Reservoir
Steam
water exit
Saturated
Pressure
relief valve
Filter
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of a FC system
H
e
a
t
i
n
g

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
H
e
a
t
i
n
g

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
Inlet throttle
valve
L
a
r
g
e

b
y
p
a
s
s

l
i
n
e
Inlet plenum
Outlet plenum
(a) (b)
Exit throttle
valve
Flow in
Flow out
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of parallel channels lying between two plena
CHAPTER 2. TH MODEL: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 5
F =
_

w
P
w
A
_
=
_
4f
lo
D
h

+
K
l
_
W|W|
2
2
a
2
(2.5)
where f
lo
is the friction factor, is the appropriate two-phase multiplier and K/l is
the distributed loss coecient. The choice of appropriate empirical equations for h

, and K/l is dependent on the particular problem under consideration. Equation of

state, = (p, h) is used and it is to be noted that all the thermodynamic properties
of our model are subjected to changes as the pressure drops along the axial direction
of the channels.
On analysis of the eigenvalues of the matrix A (u, u+a, ua, all of which are real)
it is found that the system is infact a group of hyperbolic equations. The PDEs are
then transformed into ODEs to ultimately obtain the compatibility equations along the
corresponding characteristics using substantial derivatives (i.e. d/dt /t +V ).
The equations can be used in a Lagrangian frame of reference as well as in a
Eulerian frame of reference. A Eulerian frame of reference is chosen where a nite
dierence solution procedure can used, which is considerably faster than situations in
which the Lagrangian frame is used, such as the method of characteristics analysis
(MECA) method, which is accepted as a benchmark solution.
The compatibility equations are represented below in a compact form below.
B

t
[U] + B

z
[U] = [C] (2.6)
where the columns of B
1
are the eigenvectors of A, is a diagonal matrix of eigen-
values of A and C = B D. For EVET model, B, and C are as follows
B =
_

_
1
W

p
_
A
a

W

p
_
0 1
1

1
W

_
A
a

W

h
_
_

_
=
_

_
W
a
+ a
W
a
W
a
a
_

_
u + a
u
u a
_

_
C =
_

_
D
1

p
D
2
+
_
A
a

W

p
_
D
3

D
3

+ D
2
D
1

p
D
2

_
A
a
+
W

p
_
D
3
_

_
C
1
C
2
C
3
_

_
The equation represented above in (1.6) is discretized into the following left and right
dierence equations:
B
n
k
U
n+1
k
U
n
k
t
+
n
k
B
n
k
U
n+1
k
U
n+1
k1
z
k1
= C
n
k
(2.7)
B
n
k
U
n+1
k
U
n
k
t
+
n
k
B
n
k
U
n+1
k+1
U
n+1
k
z
k1
= C
n
k
(2.8)
CHAPTER 2. TH MODEL: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 6
The use of the above quoted equations depends upon the ow characteristics at the
point of interest, i.e. at a specic mesh point. Spatial derivatives are always ap-
proximated by backward dierences when the characteristic is positive and forward
dierences when the characteristic is negative. For the present case of subsonic ow
(u < a), the spatial derivatives for C
+
(i.e.,
11
= u + a) and C
0
(i.e.,
22
= u) char-
acteristic equations, are approximated by backward dierence equations, whereas the
C

(i.e.,
33
= ua) characteristic equations, are approximated by forward dierence
equations. A matrix is now dened such that its diagonal elements are equal to 1
if slope of characteristics is positive and 0 if slope of corresponding characteristic is
negative. Thus, in the case of subsonic ow,
=
_

_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
_

_
Premultiplying the Eqs. (1.7) and (1.8) with and I respectively, and then adding
the both we get the following set of dierence equations for the k
th
mesh point:
M
n
k,k1
U
n+1
k
+ M
n
k,k
U
n+1
k
+ M
n
k,k+1
U
n+1
k+1
= N
n
k
(2.9)
2.1 Non-dimensionalised version of TH model
After arriving at the previous form of representing the model, we have now made a
non-dimensionalised version of the same, presented below.
M

n
k,k1
U

n+1
k
+ M

n
k,k
U

n+1
k
+ M

n
k,k+1
U

n+1
k+1
= N
n
k
(2.10)
where
M

n
k,k1
=
k
B
k
=
_

+k
W
ref

+k
h
ref
W

+k
p
ref
A
a

W

p
0
0k
h
ref
+
0k

k
p
ref
0 0 0
_

_
M

n
k,k
=
__
I
_

k
+
k1

_
I 2
_

k
_
B
k
=
_

_
(
k1
+
+k
) (
k
+
+k
)
W

p
(
k1
+
+k
)
A
a

W

p
0 (
k1
+
0k
)
(
k1
+
0k
)

k
(
k
+ 2
k
) (
k
+ 2
k
)
_
W

h
_
(
k
+ 2
k
)
_
A
a
+
W

h
_
_

_
_

_
W
ref
h
ref
p
ref
_

_
M

n
k,k+1
= (I )
k
B
k
=
_

_
0 0 0
0 0 0

k
W
ref

k
h
ref
W

k
p
ref
_
A
a
+
W

h
_
_

_
CHAPTER 2. TH MODEL: A BRIEF OVERVIEW 7
N
n
k
=
__
(I )z
k
+ z
k1
_
D
k
+
_
(I )
k
+
k1
_
B
k
U
n
k
_
where
k
= z
k
/t.
The terms shown below are obtained from the steady state solution, with the
purpose of bringing the order of the terms in the coecient matrix to near similar
values, so that absolute disparities are avoided in the coecient matrix.
W
ref
= |W
inlet
|
t=0
h
ref
= |h
inlet
|
t=0
p
ref
= |p
inlet
|
t=0
With the application of this new system, the vector containing the unknowns is also
changed as follows
U

=
_

_
W

_ =
_

_
W/W
ref
h/h
ref
p/p
ref
_

_
Chapter 3
Analysis of out-of-phase
instabilities
The BWRs are subjected to in-phase (core-wide) and out-of-phase (regional) modes of
oscillations. Dominance of one mode of oscillation over the other depends on various
operating and boundary conditions. To safeguard the BWRs from both these types of
instabilities, one needs to be more careful and conservative from safety point of view.
Every eort is required to be made to detect which one of the two occurs rst and
then, to suppress it. Recirculation loop has been modeled with the assumption of no
pressure drop across the loop due to friction, inertia and the presence of various ex-
core components except the pressure drop due to hydrostatic head dierence which
ensures that the parallel channels lying in the reactor core are subjected to constant
pressure drop boundary condotions. Now, the focus is shifted to the analysis of out-of-
phase mode of oscillations when limited boiling is allowed in FC systems. The present
chapter deals with the methodology and the boundary conditions to be maintained to
simulate the out-of-phase instabilities in parallel channels of the reactor core.
3.1 Model description and boundary conditions for
out-of-phase instability analysis
The numerical model, characteristics based implicit nite dierence scheme developed
in the previous chapter, is used for the present case also, but with a little modica-
tions in the boundary conditions. In the literature, the out-of-phase DWOs has been
generally described as a result of constant pressure drop boundary conditions for all
parallel channels lying in the reactor core while maintaining the total core inlet mass
ow rate constant. This kind of instability is characterized by self sustained out-of-
phase oscillations in which the inlet mass ow rate increases in half of the reactor core,
while it decreases in the remaining half.
3.1.1 Boundary conditions to model out-of-phase instability
Consider a case of two identical parallel channels, each representing a half of the core
with 180
o
phase dierence, which are subjected to (i) xed and common pressure drop
boundary conditions across the channels and (ii) constant total inlet mass ow rate.
8
CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF OUT-OF-PHASE INSTABILITIES 9
A question arises how an asymmetric inlet ow distribution (indicated by 180
o
phase
dierence) can take place for the two similar channels of same geometrical shape and
size under identical heat and other input conditions. It is to be noticed that one cant
specify velocity and pressure together as inlet boundary conditions for problem under
consideration since the governing equations are of hyperbolic in nature and it is a case
of subsonic ow condition. It implies the system of PDEs, representing the TH ow
elds, are overspecied in terms of boundary conditions and the problem, as a result,
becomes ill-posed for out-of-phase mode of oscillations. The problem, with these hypo-
thetical boundary conditions, is solved and it is observed that (i) it allows only small
variations in inlet mass ow rates for individual channels, and (ii) no convergence is
obtained since the sum of the inlet mass ow rates of all individual channels is not
equal to the specied total inlet mass ow rate. These results conrm the previous
studies made by Munoz-Cobo et al.[24]. Therefore, with these observations, it can be
concluded that the two parallel channels with identical input conditions, essentially,
are undergoing in-phase oscillations (rather than out-of-phase oscillations) with an
overspecied total inlet mass ow rate boundary condition when a constant and com-
mon pressure drop boundary condition is strictly maintained for both the channels.
It is also to be noted that as far as in-phase instabilities are concerned, there is no
restriction on the incoming mass ow rate at the entrance of each channel and it has
been described in previous chapter. In fact, parallel channels with in-phase instabili-
ties will lead to oscillations for all individual channels separately and eventually, will
result in global oscillations in the total mass ow rate entering into the reactor core,
and therefore, the total inlet mass ow rate for the parallet channels cant be held
constant during the transients. Similar observations are found in studies by Lee et
al. [25].
3.1.2 Solution technique to model out-of-phase instability
Next, to overcome the above mentioned diculty in developing the model for out-of-
phase mode of instability for two parallel channels, the following algorithm is adopted:
The problem has been converted into a case where an approximate constant
pressure drop boundary condition is imposed with constant total inlet mass ow
rate.
At every time step, the following boundary conditions are maintained for the
rst channel:
Pressure inlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
p
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=1
= p
inlet
(3.1a)
Enthalpy inlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
h
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=1
= h
inlet
(3.1b)
Pressure outlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
p
out
(t = t + t)
_
r=1
= p
outlet
(3.1c)
CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF OUT-OF-PHASE INSTABILITIES 10
Now, the transient channel equations are solved and one can nd out the inlet
mass ow rate of rst channel i.e.,
_
m
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=1
.
Since the total inlet mass ow rate is constant and specied ( m
T
), one can
calculate the mass ow rate at the entrance of the second channel and then, the
following boundary conditions are imposed for it:
Mass inlet is specied, i.e.
_
m
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= m
T

_
m
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=1
(3.2a)
Enthalpy inlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
h
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= h
inlet
(3.2b)
Pressure outlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
p
out
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= p
outlet
(3.2c)
Now, the transient channel equations are solved and one can nd out the inlet
pressure of the second channel i.e.,
_
p
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= p
inlet
.
It is to be noted that pressure drop for the second channel, at present time step,
is not constant.
Now, for the next time step, the conditions are reversed, and therefore, the
following boundary conditions are maintained for the second channel:
Pressure inlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
p
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= p
inlet
(3.3a)
Enthalpy inlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
h
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= h
inlet
(3.3b)
Pressure outlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
p
out
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
= p
outlet
(3.3c)
Now, the transient channel equations are solved and one can nd out the inlet
mass ow rate of the second channel i.e.,
_
m
in
(t = t + t)
_
r=2
.
Since the total inlet mass ow rate is constant and specied ( m
T
), one can
calculate the mass ow rate at the entrance of the rst channel and then, the
following boundary conditions are imposed for it:
Mass inlet is specied, i.e.
_
m
in
(t = t + 2t)
_
r=1
= m
T

_
m
in
(t = t + 2t)
_
r=2
(3.4a)
CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF OUT-OF-PHASE INSTABILITIES 11
Enthalpy inlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
h
in
(t = t + 2t)
_
r=1
= h
inlet
(3.4b)
Pressure outlet is specied and constant, i.e.
_
p
out
(t = t + 2t)
_
r=1
= p
outlet
(3.4c)
Now, the transient channel equations are solved and one can nd out the inlet
pressure of the rst channel i.e.,
_
p
in
(t = t + 2t)
_
r=1
= p
inlet
.
It is to be noted that pressure drop for the rst channel, at present time being,
is not constant.
Next, at time step t = t + 3t, rst and second channels again will be subjected
to boundary conditions dened by Eqs. (3.1a) to (3.1c) and Eqs. (3.2a) to (3.2c)
respectively. In the similar way, one can proceed for new time steps.
The procedure outlined above guarantees that the pressure drop is kept approx-
imately constant throughout the full core.
Chapter 4
Numerical Treatments
After the current thermo-hydraulic model is obtained in a suitably discretized form,
for n number of nodes, we are left with a system of 3(n 1) linear equations [two
variables are known at the inlet, whereas one variable is known at the outlet]. This
system is rst solved under steady state conditions to get a steady state solution. This
solution is then used to perform transient analysis of the same problem.
For the current problem, obtaining a solution for the system is one of the compu-
tationally intensive tasks that must be performed. Thus, the need is to reduce the
time spent on computation here so that the model may arrive at results in a quicker
fashion.
Under brute force applications of calculating solutions to this problem by matrix
inversion techniques, the computational complexity becomes (2/3)n
3
. This measure
is almost universally derided. Under other schemes of obtaining solutions, the best
matrix inversion techniques give a complexity of 3n
2
. But there have been other
methods wherein reduced orders of computational complexity have been achieved.
Some general methods are discussed below which briey explain the concept adopted
in the most generic methods employed for obtaining solutions. After this, we will
come to discuss the solution methdology to be adopted for obtaining the solution to
the actual system that will be obtained from the discretization, which is a sparse
matrix. The techiniques and methodologies to be used for our case will be discussed
rstly for serial application and then for parallel application.
4.1 Generic Methods for Dense Matrix Inversion
4.1.1 Sherman-Morrison Formula
The Sherman-Morrison formula [as shown below] [2] that is highly regarded amongst
mathematicians as an ecient way to reduce computational complexity is a way by
which the inverse of a matrix is not calculated each time from scratch; by treating
changes in the original matrix as perturbations, updates the previously calculated
inverse by perturbations. This formula is a special case of the Sherman-Morrison-
Woodbury formula [5] that makes rank-1 updates on the previously inverted matrix.
(A + uv
T
)
1
= A
1

A
1
uv
T
A
1
1 + v
T
A
1
u
(4.1)
12
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 13
For the changes encapsulated by the column vectors u & v, the changes can be ac-
counted for to obtain the inverse of the new changed matrix, provided that the inverse
to the original unperturbed matrix is known.
So although this method does not give a quicker method for directly calculating the
inverse of the matrix, it does give reduce the computational eorts required to nd
a solution to a suitable system of equations. The criteria of suitability and their
shortcomings are discussed below.
While this method can obtain complexities of 2n
2
or n
2
, this is severely limited
by the assumption that the changes must be expressable in the form of the dyadic
product u v

. In the present problem scenario, this is highly unlikely to happen: the

problem is based on physical principles, and as such all the terms in the coecient
matrix may change considerably at each time step. Also, given that the formula
is based on dierences expressed in the column vectors u and v, which admittedly
might be composed of very small values for very small time steps, the formula, though
mathematically correct, may fail after considering how computers deal with numbers
: precision may be lost, data values may get rounded-o, thus beating the purpose of
considering very small time steps.
On the other hand, literature has been presented by Kentaro, Linjie and Takashi,
where they claim that implementations of the Sherman-Morrison formula may be par-
allelized, albiet partially [3]. This makes the Sherman-Morrison formula a peculiarly
intriguing option for use in our application in the future, if the need and conditions
be.
Also to be kept in handy for future reference is the Matrix Determinant Lemma
shown below
det(A + uv
T
) = (1 + v
T
A
1
u) det(A) (4.2)
4.1.2 LU Decomposition
LU decomposition (also called LU factorization), the mathematical representation of
which is presented below, is a matrix decomposition which writes a matrix as the
product of a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix. This decompo-
sition is used in numerical analysis to solve systems of linear equations or calculate
the determinant of a matrix.
_

_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_

_ =
_

_
l
11
0 0
l
21
l
22
0
l
31
l
32
l
33
_

_
_

_
u
11
u
12
u
13
0 u
22
u
23
0 0 u
33
_

_ (4.3)
An invertible matrix admits an LU factorization if and only if all its leading principal
minors are non-zero. The factorization is unique if we require that the diagonal of
L(or U) consist of ones. If the matrix is singular, then an LU factorization may still
exist. In fact, a square matrix of rank k has an LU factorization if the rst k leading
principal minors are non-zero, although the converse is not true. [6]
LU decomposition is generally considered as a modied form of Gaussian Elimina-
tion.
LU decomposition frequently arrives at underdetermined systems of equations,
wherein irrelevant factors can be set to arbitrary values. As such, it is often nec-
essary to put some restrictions on the L and U matrices, like making either matrix a
lower/upper unit matrix.
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 14
The LU decomposition method has been widely studied and many ecient algo-
rithms have been developed for this purpose. The LU decomposition method has also
been improvised to act eciently on sparse matrices, which in our case is the nature of
the coeent matrix. These algorithms attempt to nd sparse factors L and U. Ideally,
the cost of computation is determined by the number of nonzero entries, rather than
by the size of the matrix.
__
L
11
L
21
0
L
22
__
U
11
U
12
0 U
22
__
=
_
U
1
11
L
1
11
+ U
1
11
U
12
U
1
22
L
1
22
L
12
L
1
11
U
1
11
U
12
U
1
22
L
1
22
U
1
22
L
1
22
L
12
L
1
11
U
1
22
L
1
22
_
Calculating the inverse of a decomposition by blockwise recursive method.
These algorithms use the freedom to exchange rows and columns to minimize ll-in
(entries which change from an initial zero to a non-zero value during the execution of
an algorithm).
4.1.3 Cholesky Decomposition
Cholesky decomposition, along with LU decomposition, is one of the most popular tri-
angular factorizations. Cholesky decomposition of a symmetric positive denite (SPD)
matrix (or Hermitian positive denite, HPD) is quite similar to LU decomposition: A
is represented as A = LL

(or, essentially the same, as A = U

U), where L is a lower

triangular matrix with strictly positive diagonal entries, and L

denotes the conjugate

transpose of L. This is the Cholesky decomposition. However there are dierences
too. First, there is no pivoting (but factorization is stable). Second, instead of two
matrices (L and U) we have only one matrix multiplied by itself. Finally, Cholesky
decomposition require two times less operation than LU decomposition of SPD/HPD
matrix of the same size.
4.2 Generic Methods for Sparse Matrix Inversion
4.2.1 Frontal Solvers
A frontal solver, due to Irons [8] is an approach to solving sparse linear systems which
is used extensively in nite element analysis. It is a variant of Gauss elimination
that automatically avoids a large number of operations involving zero terms. [9][10]
A frontal solver builds a LU or LDL
T
of a sparse matrix given as the assembly of
element matrices by assembling the matrix and eliminating equations only on a subset
of elements at a time. This subset is called the front and it is essentially the transition
region between the part of the system already nished and the part not touched
yet. The whole sparse matrix is never created explicitly. Only parts of the matrix
are assembled as they enter the front. Processing the front involves dense matrix
operations, which use the CPU eciently. In a typical implementation, only the front
is in memory, while the factors in the decomposition are written into les. This is
meant to reduce the chances of access collisions in the workspace memory. The element
matrices are read from les or created as needed and discarded. A multifrontal solver of
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 15
Du and Reid [11] is an improvement of the frontal solver that uses several independent
fronts at the same time. The fronts can be worked on by dierent processors, which
enables parallel computing.
4.2.2 Biconjugate Gradient Stabilised Method
The Biconjugate gradient stabilized method, often abbreviated as BiCGSTAB, is an
iterative method by H.A. Van der Vorst[13] which can be applied to unsymmetric
sparse systems that are too large to be handled by direct methods such as the Cholesky
decomposition, LU decomposition or Gaussian Elimination. It is a variant of the
biconjugate gradient method (BiCG) and has faster and smoother convergence than
its parent algorithm, the original BiCG as well as other variants such as the conjugate
gradient squared method.
Out of the methods introduced above, the BiCGSTAB has been shown to achieve
better rates of convergence than a number of methods[14] that also exist in scien-
tic papers. But it is to be noted that implementation of the algorithms involved
in BiCGSTAB is complex and requires extensive knowlegde of the Krylov Subspace
Mathematics. As such, we will strive to implement a frontal solver that can eciently
make use of multiple processors and the fact that the stiness matrix at hand is a
sparse matrix. From here onwards, this chapter will discuss the various data struc-
tures, algorithms and processing methods that will be used to make ecient use of
computational resources.
4.3 Sparse Matrix Storage Schemes
We now introduce the Yale sparse matrix format that will help us to exploit the
advantages of large scale sparse matrices.
We consider a large-scale engineering system of sparse, linear equations, which can
be represented in the matrix notation as
A x = b (4.4)
Now, we consider the stiness matrix to be a NR NC (= 5 5) unsymmetrical
sparse matrix as shown in eq (2.4):
_
A
_
=
1 2 3 4 5
1 d
1
a
1
a
2
2 b
1
d
2
3 d
3
a
3
4 b
2
d
4
5 d
5
(4.5)
where NR and NC represent Number of Rows and Number of columns of matrix
A respectively.
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 16
The sparse matrix in eq (2.5) is represented in compact row storage as
IA
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
4
5
NR + 1 = 6
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
4
6
8
10
11
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= starting locations of the
rst non-zero term for each row
JA
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
NCOEF1 = 10
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
3
4
1
2
3
4
2
4
5
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= column number associated
with non-zero terms of each row
AN(1, 2, 3, 4, . . . , NCOEF1)
T
= d
1
, a
1
, a
2
, . . . , d
5
T
(4.6)
where NCOEF1 represents the number of non-zero terms in the matrix and can be
calculated as
NCOEF1 = IA(NR + 1) 1 = 11 1 = 10 (4.7)
Further simplications are possible in the representations given above for IA, JA
and NCOEF1 if the stiness matrix presents itself as a symmetric matrix. But that
is a luxury that we cannot aord to assume.
Here, it is only fair to note that this format only saves memory for NNZ <
(NR(NC 1) 1)/2, where NNZ denotes the number of nonzero entries of A.
As is obvious from the proposed storage paradigms, we have been enabled to store
all the relevant data at the cost of substantially reduced memory requirements. This
will allow us to make better use of processor cache during message passing between
processors.
4.4 Justication of Parallelization
In this section, we will try to justify this need of parallelization of the problem by
using Amdahls Law[16]. The speedup of a program using multiple processors in
parallel computing is limited by the time needed for the sequential fraction of the
program. Assuming program takes time T on one core, fraction P of time is spent by
parallelisable code. Then the theoretical minimum time on N cores is
T (1 P (N 1)/N) (4.8)
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 17
It is evident from the relation that parallelization can never reduce the time below
T(1 P). It has also been shown that gain drops o fast above 1/(1 P) cores.
For the computation, we will be using a computer with 4 cores. The time spent by
parallelizable code on a single core was found out to be 0.73, excluding I/O functions.
Thus, the minimum time should be
T (1 0.73 3/4) = T (1 0.5475) = 0.4525 T
which is considerable improvement (more than twice).
It is to be considered that these savings are more relevant than not only when the
sample size of the problem is such that it suites the algorithm.
4.5 Finalized Approach
The inverse will be calculated column by column, wherein the column is obtained as
the solution of the system
A y = i (4.9)
where i is the m
th
column of the identity matrix, A is the stiness matrix, and y is
the unknown vector representing the m
th
column of the inverted matrix. This approach
allows us to calculate the inverted matrix in a piecewise fashion and independently of
the other columns of the result. Also, since the form presented in eq (2.9) is much
simpler now due to the nature of the data storage scheme adopted, and the vector i,
much of the techniques discussed like frontal solvers and LU decomposition can be put
to use while the problem remains distributed over a number of processors.
The parallelised matrix inversion process had been implemented in C++ to get a
basic understanding of what challenge the programming entails. Now a FORTRAN
version of the same has been built using an assortment of modules that are attributed
to various open source libraries like OpenMPI, BLAC, BLACS, LAPACK and ScaLA-
PACK. This approach was adopted to save time and future computational costs as the
module written in these library functions are written with greater anity to hardware
and data abstraction is kept to a minimum.
4.6 Matrix Inversion based SS Solution
Presented in this section is a case study of an attempt to carry out the steady state
solution using matrix inversion techniques.
4.6.1 The Methodology
Since the Matrix Inversion Technique is now implemented, a new phase was picked up
before we moved onto coupling the thermohydraulic model with the neutronic model
for power generation.
Here we wanted to rene the programs capabilities to let it handle problems with
multiple channels within a single computational model. That is, we wanted to solve
a problem that deals with multiple channels with a single matrix system for all the
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 18
channels. This called for developing a methodology that took into account how one
channel eects the other.
Till now, the methodology being used for solving the multiple channel problem
with forced circulation was one of using a guess of one initial unknown variable to
initiate forward marching in one channel to arrive at some values of W, h and p at
the outlet of one channel. This set of values at the outlet of one channel would be
used to arrive at the inlet conditions of the other channels. One such approach would
involve assuming the inlet pressure in one channel, considering inlet enthalpy to be
known. This would enable us to calculate all other thermodynamic properties at the
inlet. With this information at the inlet, we initiate forward marching to arrive at the
exit values of mass ow rate, enthalpy and pressure. The exit pressure of this channel
would be the same for all the channels. This set of results is used to arrive at the values
of the unknown variables at the inlet of the remaining channels. These results would
then be compared to the actual inlet conditions enforced and the dierence would then
be used to correct the assumptions made at the inlet of the rst channel. The whole
process is repeated till convergence is achieved in accordance with the actual boundary
conditions specied.
As is clear, this methodology can be cumbersome. Also, the forward marching was
implemented using a bracketing technique, which may not always converge to a result
for the next node.
An intermediate phase was started, wherein instead of the forward marching and
bracketing approach used in the Steady State Solution, the solution is now to be
obtained using Matrix inversion technique.
The model initially was studied for simulation of a single ow channel. Thereafter
we progressed to developing an understanding of a multi-channel ow model. The
basic path taken here was to rstly adapt the forward marching technique that was
being used then to obtain the steady solution for a multi-channel problem. Here, our
study was focused to the forced circulation model. Such a model contains an array of
channels coupled in a loop with a downcomer section. From eq. (1.1)

t
[U] + A(U)

z
[U] = [D(U)] (4.10)
For the steady state case, the time derivative is reduced to zero. Thus, we are left
with the following steady state equation
A(U)

z
[U] = [D(U)] (4.11)
where A, U and D are the same matrices they represent in equation set (1.2).
The equation shows that both the A and D matrices are functions of the unknown
vector U. To evaluate the equation using computational methods, an initial guess is
made for U. This guess is used to calculate the matrix A and the vector D. Thus, a
system is dened for eq (2.11) in the following form
A(U
k
)

z
_
U
k+1
_
=
_
D(U
k
)
_
(4.12)
where k and k + 1 denote iteration levels. Thus, from each iteration, a solution is
obtained for the system, and this solution in used to evaluate the matrix A and the
vector D. This is done till convergence is achieved for the unknown vector U.
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 19
Figure 4.1: General Structure of Matrix to be solved for Single Channel Steady State
Solution.
It is to be noted that the system in eq (2.12) is for just one node in one chan-
nel. The system is rstly extended to a number of nodes in a single channel using a
nite dierencing scheme. Considering the case of operation in which the boundary
conditions are that the pressures at the inlet and exit plana are given, as is given the
enthalpy at the inlet of the channel(s).
With this in mind, a global system of equations is constructed. It is then modied
to take the boundary conditions into account. This is done by adjusting the terms
corresponding to the known variables in the coecient matrix and the source vector.
The global matrix for this specic set boundary conditions applied toa single channel
is shown in gure (2.1).
4.6.2 The Results
The obtained matrix system was attempted to be solved for using a number of tech-
niques like Gauss Jordan Elimination, Conjugate Gradient Method, LU decomposition
and LDU decomposition, but a consistent solution was never achieved. Since these
methods had been successfully implemented in the Transient Analysis, we came to
conclude that the problem lay not in the inversion technique, but in the formulation
of the matrix itself. This took us to an overview of Linear Mathmatics, wherein we
learned that forming a matrix system is simply not enough and that for achieving a
solution using computational methods, the system of equations should have the proper
polynomial form. This leads to obtaining a well conditioned matrix. The condition
CHAPTER 4. NUMERICAL TREATMENTS 20
number of a function with respect to an argument measures the asymptotically worst
case of how much the function can change in proportion to small changes in the argu-
ment. The function is the solution of a problem and the arguments are the data
in the problem.
The condition number associated with the linear equation A x = b gives a bound
on how inaccurate the solution x will be after approximate solution. In particular, one
should think of the condition number as being (very roughly) the rate at which the
solution, x, will change with respect to a change in b. Thus, if the condition number
is large, even a small error in b may cause a large error in x. On the other hand, if the
condition number is small then the error in x will not be much bigger than the error
in b. The condition number is dened more precisely to be the maximum ratio of the
relative error in x divided by the relative error in b. Let e be the error in b. Assuming
that A is a square matrix, the error in the solution A
1
b is A
1
e. The ratio of the
relative error in the solution to the relative error in b is
A
1
e/A
1
b
e/b
(4.13)
Upon calculating the condition number of the matrix using MATLAB for a a test case
generated from the program, it was found that the condition number was of the order
of a few hundereds, meaning that even if provided with an exceptionally good solution
algorithm, the matrix will not yeild a reliable solution.
4.6.3 Reducing The Condition Number
Since the condition number is a property of the matrix, the analysis used to generate
the matrix must be adapted using dierent polynomials in order to decrease the con-
dition number of the resultant matrix. Such a tast is currently beyond the scope of
this project, but can be pursued further, with reasonable probabilty of success as is
observed in various sources of literature.[18][19][20]
Chapter 5
Nuclear Coupled TH Model
Integration
The thermohydraulic solver is now coupled with a well validated 3-D space-time ki-
netics neutronic model . The details of the neutronic model development and the
its validation are shown in Ref.[21]. At present, the emphasis is given to develop an
integrated model in order to have accurate and realistic analysis of BWR core while
performing real life simulations in desktop environment with a view to imitate various
normal and accidental situations. Figure 3.1 shows a typical BWR and its various
components. Reactor core is the most important part of any BWRs and it is basically
a pressure vessel where several fuel assemblies (FAs) are radially distributed. Light
water H
2
O which is used as coolant as well as moderator in BWRs ows through the
pressure vessels in vertically upward direction and takes the neutronically generated
heat away from the FAs. BWRs allow a limited boiling in the core. Vapour generated
in the core is separated and then, used in the turbine for electrical power generation.
To reduce the neutron and power leakage, the reactor core is surrounded by reector
materials.
5.1 Neutronic Model
The neutronic model, to simulate 3-D spatial and time dependent power variations of
a reactor core, which is to be integrated with the TH model, is based on multigroup
diusion equation. The details of the mathematical formulations and its associated
derivations are given by Doshi [22] and Meneley et al.[23] . The main few steps and the
corresponding equations are repeated below. The time dependent multigroup neutron
diusion equation without any external source is as follows
1
v
g

t
[
g
(r, t)] = . [D
g

g
(r, t)]
tg

g
(r, t) +
G

=1

sg

g
(r, t) +
(1 )
P
g
G

=1
(g

)
fg

g
(r, t) +
m

s=1

D
sg

s
C
s
(r, t) where g=1,2,...,G (5.1)
21
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 22
Figure 5.1: Schematic Diagram of typical BWR loop.
Now, one needs to solve Eq. (3.1) along with a set of corresponding precursor Eqs.
(3.2).

t
[C
s
(r, t)] =
s
C
s
(r, t) +
D
s
G

=1
(g

)
fg

g
(r, t) (5.2)
where s = 1, 2, . . . , m.
Eq (3.1) is satised for g = 1, 2, . . . , G and Eq (3.2) for s = 1, 2, . . . , m, where G is
the total number of neutron energy groups (g = 1 and g = G correspond to highest and
lowest energy groups respectively) and m is the number of delayed neutron families.
Scattering term of the Eq. (3.1) can be simplied with an assumption that the
neutron could never gain energy in a scattering collision, i.e.,
sg

g
= 0 for g

> g and
the Eq. (3.1) can be rewritten as
1
v
g

t
[
g
(r, t)] = . [D
g

g
(r, t)]
Rg

g
(r, t) +
g1

=1

sg

g
(r, t) +
(1 )
P
g
G

=1
(g

)
fg

g
(r, t) +
m

s=1

D
sg

s
C
s
(r, t) where g=1,2,...,G (5.3)
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 23
To solve Eq. (3.3), zero ux boundary condition is used at the free surface of the
reactor core. The above equations can be written in more compact form using matrix
notation as follows
V
1

t
[] =
_
M + F
P
_
[] +
m

s=1

D
s

s
C
s
(r, t) (5.4)
C
s
t
=
_
F
D
s
_
[]
s
C
s
where (1 s m) (5.5)
where
= [
1
(r, t) ,
2
(r, t) , . . . ,
G
(r, t)]
T
(5.6)
V =
_

_
v
1
0 . . . 0
0 v
2
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . . v
G
_

_
(5.7)
F
D
s
=
_

D
s

1

f1
,
D
s

2

f2
, . . . ,
D
s

G

fG
_
(5.8)

D
s
=
_

D
s1
,
D
s2
, . . . ,
D
sG
_
(5.9)
M =
_

_
(. D
1
+
R1
) 0 . . . 0

s12
(. D
2
+
R2
) . . . 0

s13

s23
. . . 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

s1G

s2G
. . . (. D
G
+
RG
)
_

_
(5.10)
F
P
=
_

p
1

f1

p
1

f2
. . .
p
1

fG

p
2

f1

p
2

f2
. . .
p
2

fG
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

p
G

f1

p
G

f2
. . .
p
G

fG
_

_
(5.11)
The neutronic model used is based on ux factorization approach and IQS method-
ology.
The ux vector (r, t) is factorized as
= (r, t) N(t) (5.12)
where
(r, t) = [
1
(r, t),
2
(r, t), . . . ,
G
(r, t)]
T
(5.13)
is called the shape function vector and N(t) is the amplitude function.
The purpose of factoring the total ux (r, t) = (r, t) N(t) is to achieve the
economy of the detailed time integration of the rapidly varying part N(t) of the ux,
while treating the slowly varying part (r, t) in larger time intervals. Splitting of total
ux into two functions naturally implies that subsequent changes are to be made in
the governing equations which will actually be discretized in time-domain.
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 24
Figure 5.2: Schematic diagram of a fuel rod containing fuel pellet, gap and clad.
5.2 Fuel Heat Conduction Model
The general heat conduction equation for the fuel pin and clad is given below:

t
[
c
(T
c
) h
c
(r, t)] = . [k
c
(T
c
)T
c
(r, t)] + q

(r, t) (5.14)
which can be reduced to the following form with the assumption that the axial tem-
perature diusion is neglected.

c
(T
c
) c
pc
(T
c
)

t
[T
c
(r, t)] =
1
r

t
_
k
c
(T
c
) r
T
c
(r, t)
r
_
+ q

(r, t) (5.15)
FHC equation is solved when initial condition is provided for the whole domain and
boundary conditions are prescribed at the required places as below:
_

r
[T
c
(r, t)]
_
r=0
= (5.16)

_
k
c
(T
c
)

r
[T
c
(r, t)]
_
r=r
nf
= h
G
[T
nf1
(t) T
nf
(t)] (5.17)

_
k
c
(T
c
)

r
[T
c
(r, t)]
_
r=r
nf+1
= h
G
[T
nf1
(t) T
nf
(t)] (5.18)

_
k
c
(T
c
)

r
[T
c
(r, t)]
_
r=r
oc
=r
nf+nc
= h

[T
w
(t) T

(t)] (5.19)
where n
f
is the number of radial fuel nodes, n
c
is the number of clad nodes and a
single node is used for the gap between fuel and clad. To specify connective boundary
condition between the wall and the coolant, Dittus-Boelters heat transfer correlation
is used for single-phase region and Chens correlation for the boiling region.
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 25
Figure 5.3: Three level time step structure.
5.3 Coupling Methodology
The coupled model is a combination of three modules and these are: TH, neutronic and
FHC solvers. These modules are combined together to calculate the reactor dynamics
for steady state and transient situations. The description of the steady state (Fig. 3.4)
and transient (Fig. 3.5) coupling algorithms is as follows:
5.3.1 Steady State Coupling Algorithm
1. Steady state versions of all these three modules are used during the present
calculation.
2. At rst, the TH properties for all the channels are assumed. Using these, the
spatial distribution of void fraction and temperature throughout the reactor core
are obtained.
3. Cross section look-up tables are used and neutronic properties are updated ac-
cordingly depending on the void fraction and temperature of the locations, and
control rod (CR) positions.
4. Neutronic solver is then used and power generated in each mesh is calculated.
5. Next, the temperatures of fuel elements are obtained using the FHC solver. Using
appropriate heat transfer coecient, the convective heat ux passing to the TH
channels is obtained.
6. TH solver is then used and it provides updated TH properties for all the channels.
7. Next, steps 2 to 6 are repeated until the convergence is achieved.
5.3.2 Transient Coupling Algorithm
1. It is to be noted that all TH and neutronic properties are known at previous
time step (time : t) throughout the reactor.
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 26
Figure 5.4: Solution technique for nuclear coupled TH system during steady state.
2. Transient initiator can be in the form of reactivity driven incidents like CR
motions or it can be through perturbations given in the TH channels or in the
neutronic properties.
3. To start the iterations, the TH properties at new time step are assumed rst.
Using these, the spatial distribution of void fraction and temperature throughout
the reactor core for that time step are obtained.
4. Cross section look-up tables are used and neutronic properties are updated ac-
cordingly throughout the reactor core.
5. Neutronic transient solver is used and shape function (r, t + t) and power

Q(r, t + t) are calculated where t is the time step used for shape and power
calculations.
6. Neutronic solver also calculates reactivities (t +
i
) and amplitude functions
N(t +
i
) at smaller time levels where
i
=
i
t,
i
1.0 (
i
O[10
3
]).
7. Next, the amplitude functions with the help of linear interpolations are evaluated
at every xed time intervals measured by t. Then, power is linearly interpolated
at all smaller and xed time intervals t with respect to amplitude functions
of corresponding time levels. It helps in calculating the power

Q(r, t + j(t))
for all j (j = 1, 2, ..., J). It is to be noted that t is the time step used for
TH calculations. Three level time step structure used in the transient coupling
calculations is shown in Fig. 3.4
8. Next, FHC solver is used and temperatures of fuel elements are obtained for all
time levels t + j(t) where j = 1, 2, ..., J.
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 27
Figure 5.5: Solution technique for nuclear coupled TH system during transient analysis.
9. Next, the convective heat uxes are calculated and then, the TH solver is used
to update TH properties for all channels and intermediate time levels t + j(t)
where j = 1, 2, ..., J.
10. TH properties calculated at time step t +J(t) t + t helps us in going back
to step (4) and then the following steps are repeated until the convergence is
achieved.
11. If the convergence is achieved, it allows us to go for next time step t + 2t and
then, all the previous steps are to be performed.
5.3.3 Algorithm to satisfy steady state TH boundary condi-
tions
The solution methodology adopted to satisfy the steady state boundary conditions for
the TH boundary channels is as follows:
1. At rst, m
r=1
k=0
is assumed. It is to be noted that, p
r
k=0
and h
r
k=0
are already
specied for all radial channels, i.e., (r = 1, 2, . . . , R).
2. Steady state TH solver is then used and all unknowns are calculated. It helps in
calculating
_
p
_
r=1
.
CHAPTER 5. NUCLEAR COUPLED TH MODEL INTEGRATION 28
3. Now, m
r=2
k=0
is assumed and then
_
p
_
r=2
is calculated using the TH solver. It
is observed that the
_
p
_
r=1
=
_
p
_
r=2
= p. Then, several iterations are
made to search m
r=2
k=0
for which
_
p
_
r=1
=
_
p
_
r=2
= p.
At the end of the convergence, m
r=2
k=0
is calculated which ensures common pressure
drop between the rst and second channels.
4. Step 3 is followed for all other radial channels and then, we calculate the error
in total mass ow rate distribution, i.e., we observe m
T


R
r=1
m
r
k=0
= 0.
5. Next, a better guess of m
r=1
k=0
is made and steps 2 4 are performed repeatedly
until it is observed that

m
T


R
r=1
m
r
k=0

.
6. The procedure adopted ensures distribution of total mass ow rate among the
channels keeping the same pressure drop across them.
Chapter 6
Results
6.1 In-phase Oscillations with neutronic feedback
During core-wide mode of oscillations, the entire reactor core is in phase, oscillating
the mass ow rates for the channels and power for all fuel bundles together. Steady
state axial power prole for various fuel pins are shown in Fig. 6.1 when the BWR
is working at a particular operation point denoted by rated mass ow rate, inlet
subcooling (N
sub
= 0.603547) and reactor power (N
pch
= 1.839268) at steady state
condition indicating a bottom peaked power shape for all channels. An estimate of
radial power distribution also can be obtained from the power prole for 10 dierent
fuel pins.
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
450000
500000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
P
o
w
e
r

(
W
)

Axial Nodes (Dimensionless)
Variation of Power with Node Location during Steady State
Channel 1
Channel 2
Channel 3
Channel 4
Channel 5
Channel 6
Channel 7
Channel 8
Channel 9
Channel 10
Figure 6.1: Variation of Power with Node Location for various channels during Steady
State Calculations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268.
29
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS 30
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
M
a
s
s

f
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

(

k
g
/
s

)
Time ( s )
Variation of Inlet Mass Flow Rates with time
Ch1
Ch2
Ch6
Figure 6.2: Variation of inlet mass ow rate with time for various channels during
core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268.
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
E
x
it

M
a
s
s

f
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(

k
g
/
s

)
Inlet Mass flow rate ( kg/s )
Channel 6
(a) State at 10.75 seconds
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
E
x
it

M
a
s
s

f
lo
w

r
a
t
e

(

k
g
/
s

)
Inlet Mass flow rate ( kg/s )
Channel 6
(b) State at 48.63 seconds
Figure 6.3: Time evolution of inlet and exit mass ow rates in phase plane diagram at
marginal stability boundary in presence of neutronic feedback eects during core-wide
mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268.
Figure 6.2 shows the temporal variation of inlet mass ow rates for three dierent
channels at the same operating point. The Fig. 6.2 also illustrates that the frequency
of oscillations for all the channels is same and the inlet mass ow rate variation of each
of them is undergoing limit cycle oscillations after a few initial periods at the operating
condition mentioned. The development of limit cycle oscillations for the channel 6 is
conrmed in a phase plane diagram shown in Fig. 6.3.
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS 31
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

(

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

)
Time ( s )
Sub-Cooling Number = 0.603547; Phase Change Number = 1.839268.
Relative power
Figure 6.4: Variation of Relative Power with time during core-wide mode of oscilla-
tions. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 5 10 15 20
0.36
0.38
0.4
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.5
0.52
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

(

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

)
V
o
i
d

(

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

)
Time ( s )
Relative power
Core average void
Figure 6.5: Temporal variation of relative power and core average void fraction during
core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268.
Global average core power oscillation with time is shown in Fig. 6.4 and the
careful observation of the gure indicates that the average relative power of the core
shifts slightly to higher side from initial value 1.0. Overall inuence of void-Doppler
feedback eects on the average power of the reactor core is observed in Figs. 6.5 and
6.6. Figure 6.5 establishes the negative void feedback eects on reactor power, while
Fig. 6.6 indicates the delayed eect of fuel temperature on core power.
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS 32
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 5 10 15 20
650
651
652
653
654
655
656
657
658
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

(

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(

K

)
Time ( s )
Relative power
Core average temperature
Figure 6.6: Temporal variation of relative power and core average Fuel Temperature
during core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268.
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 5 10 15 20
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

p
o
w
e
r

(

d
i
m
e
n
s
i
o
n
l
e
s
s

)
M
a
s
s

f
l
o
w

r
a
t
e

(

k
g
/
s

)
Time ( s )
Relative power
Inlet mass flow rate
Exit mass flow rate
Figure 6.7: Temporal variation of relative power and core average inlet and exit mass
ow rates per channel during core-wide mode of oscillations. n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
=
1.839268.
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS 33
(a) t = 32.0 secs (b) t = 33.1 secs
Figure 6.8: Instataneous 3-D power distribution at a particular axial fuel plane during
core-wide mode of oscillations when the BWR is operating at rated mass ow rate.
n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268. Power is depicted on a scale of 0 to 12 10
5
Watts.
Figure 6.7 links the time variation of relative power and also the inlet and exit
mass ow rates per channel and it shows the transportation delays associated with the
processes involved.
3-D power distribution in a particular axial plane at two dierent time instances is
shown in Fig. 6.8. Figures 6.8a and 6.8b also reveal that the total decrease or increase
of BWR power is taking place apparently at uniform rate throughout the reactor core
during the present mode of oscillations.
3-D power distribution in various axial planes at the same time instance t =
14.1 secs is shown in Fig. 6.9. Figures 6.9a, 6.9b, 6.9c, 6.9d and 6.9e reveal that
the total decrease or increase of BWR power is consistent with the power states de-
picted in the steady state results shown in Fig. 6.1, thus supporting our hypothesis
that An estimate of radial power distribution also can be obtained from the power
prole for 10 dierent fuel pins.
6.1.1 Time Savings Achieved
Considering the fact that the problem size itself does not lend much weight to the
computational workload, time savings achieved were signicantly lesser than what a
large problem size would allow. Reasons for this were discussed in section 4.4.
Still we were able to observe time savings upto the tune of approximately 12 to
13% on a consistent basis for 62 test cases with dierent values of n
sub
and n
pch
. It
was generally observably that the parallized code could simultaneously utilize upto 3
processors on a Quad-Core desktop computer. The computational particulars related
to the Core-wide oscillation study are listed below.
Neutronic Core Grid Size 28 28 62
TH Core Grid Size 10 31
Number of TH Variables 3 per node
CHAPTER 6. RESULTS 34
(a) Axial Plane 1 (b) Axial Plane 2
(c) Axial Plane 3 (d) Axial Plane 4
(e) Axial Plane 5
Figure 6.9: Instataneous 3-D power distribution at various axial fuel planes during
core-wide mode of oscillations when the BWR is operating at rated mass ow rate.
n
sub
= 0.603547; n
pch
= 1.839268; time t = 14.10 secs. Power is depicted on a scale of
0 to 12 10
5
Watts.
Chapter 7
Further Scope of Work
The new software developed has been made to conrm to the previous results obtained
after the modications were introduced. We can now include into the model the eects
of ex-core components such as the downcomer, the lower horizontal section and the
upper horizontal section (steam delivery pipeline, turbine etc.) in both core wide and
core-regional modes of oscillations. This will give us a thorough understanding of
events that can occur during the operation of a forced ciirculation nuclear reactor.
Various parametric studies can be done to study the eects of dierent factors such
as fuel burn-up level, etc.
With a sound foundation of a model supported by theory, one can now proceed in
various directions as per requirements and interests.
35
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Dierence Scheme for the Analysis of Instability in Water Cooled Reactors . Nu-
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[2] Sherman, Jack and Morrison, Winifred J. Adjustment of an Inverse Matrix Cor-
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