From the massively powerful tiger to the tiny black-footed cat,

all cats are highly skilled hunters of live prey. They are
the most carnivorous of the true flesh eaters.
KEY FACTS
SPECIALIST PREDATORS
All cats have large canines-
pointed, conical teeth that
help them catch and kill their
prey. A small cat often bites
the back of its prey's neck,
using its needle-sharp canines
to sever the neck vertebrae of
the victim. A big cat usually
bites the lower neck, perhaps
to avoid injury from the vic-
tim's horns. Cheetahs, which
have the least well developed
teeth, can suffocate their prey
by biting its throat.
Behind the canines lie the
carnassials. These cheek teeth
have sharply angled, pointed
COATS OF MANY COLORS
Right: By tens-
ing a muscle in
the lower leg, a
cat can fold
down its last
toe joint and
extend its
claws.
surfaces that intermesh to cut
cleanly through flesh. These
teeth are a distinguishing fea-
ture of true flesh eaters.
Cats are also equipped with
sharp claws, which they use for
climbing as well as for seizing
and killing prey. To prevent
their claws from being dulled
or damaged when they walk or
climb over rocky ground, cats
retract them into protective
sheaths. Most cats can extend
and retract only the claws on
Left: By clawing a hard surface, a
cat removes the worn outer layer of
its claws and exposes the sharp
layer underneath.
Right: Cats have relatively short
jaws. They cannot use a side-to-
side motion to chew but can bite
downward with tremendous force.
Left: The mar-
gay ranges
from Mexico to
Argentina. It
lives in forests,
where its beau-
tiful coat con-
ceals it among
the foliage.
Once heavily
hunted by fur
and pet traders,
the margay is
now protected.
MCMXCII IMP BVIIMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: A liga-
mentpulls
the claws into
the protective
sheaths when
the cat walks
over rough
ground.
their forelimbs, but some of the
tree-dwelling species, such as
the margay, can also retract
their hind claws. The cheetah,
however, has almost lost the
ability to retract its claws. In-
stead, by having its claws out,
it has the advantage of an extra
grip as it sprints after prey.
The colors and patterns of cats'
coats are diverse, ranging from
the lion's plain, sandy coat to
the tiger's stripes, the wildcat's
tabbylike markings, and the
ocelot's spots. Its markings
help the cat blend in with its
habitat while it hunts, but they
have also caused beautiful
species to be hunted by peo-
ple. Although most cats are
now protected by law, many
still fall victim to hunters.
0160200511 PACKET 51
The family Felidae is represented by some 35 cat species
throughout the world. Cats can be found wherever there
is adequate cover to conceal them and enough prey for
them to hunt. These major predators have excellent
survival skills and few natural enemies. They are often
described as enjoying a lazy life because they can be
found sleeping for long hours between meals.
FELI NE EVOLUTION
The first catlike animals ap-
peared some 50 million years
ago, but another 25 million
years elapsed before the first
modern cats appeared. The
best-known prehistoric cats
may be the sabre-toothed cats.
These fierce-looking hunters
originated some 30 million
years ago, but they died out-
for unknown reasons-about
8,000 years ago. They were
not closely related to today's
cat species.
Front cover:
Rocky outcrops
give the lithe
cheetah an
overview of the
savanna.
Front inset
left: The
European wild-
cat inhabits
forest and
moorland.
Front inset
right: A soli-
tary predator
of North
American
forests, the
Canadian lynx
is adept at
climbing.
There have been relatively few
fossil discoveries with which to
chart the modern cat's evolu-
tion. It seems that the cat family
originated in southern Asia and
then spread to every continent
except Antarctica, reaching
South America most recently.
Despite the visible similarity
between all modern cats, there
is disagreement over their scien-
tific classification. One widely
accepted division is between
"big cats" and "small cats."

Most cats stay in their own terri-
tories except during the breed-
ing season, when the male cat
searches for a neighboring fe-
male. Most species breed once
a year, but some larger cats pro-
duce litters only every two or
three years. After mating, the
male rarely plays any part in
raising the young.
Two to four months after mat-
ing, a litter of one to six young is
born. The newborns are blind
and helpless, but they are usual-
ly covered in spotted fur. The
mother suckles her young and
remains with them until they
can hunt for themselves. Most
cats live to 15 years, but some
may reach twice that age.
BIG CATS &: SMALL CATS
There are seven species of big cat
and 28 species of small cat. Al-
though big cats are usually larg-
er than small cats, size is not a
strict criterion for distinguishing
the two groups. For example,
the puma is considered a small
cat, but it is larger than the
clouded leopard, a big cat.
A key difference between the
two groups is the mouth's bone
structure. Most big cats have
flexible cartilage at the base of
their tongues, but small cats
have the hyoid bone instead.
Because of this difference, most
left: The adaptable leopard has a
vast range, encompassing Asia and
South America.
big cats can roar but cannot
purr, while most small cats can
purr but do not roar. Another
physical difference is that the
skin between the upper lip and
nose is furred among big cats
and bare among small cats.
A behavioral difference is that
big cats tend to eat lying down,
while small cats crouch. Big cats
prefer to rest with their forelegs
outstretched and their tails lying
straight out behind. Small cats
tend to curl up, with their fore-
paws tucked under and their
tails wrapped around them-
selves. Big cats also seem to
groom themselves less meticu-
lously than small cats do.
left: The
African wildcat
is thought to be
the ancestor of
the domestic
cat. The body
stripes of this
kitten resemble
the typical coat
pattern ofa
tabby.
SOLITARY HUNTERS
Except for the lion, cats tend to
be solitary hunters. Hunting
alone, a cat has a better chance
of successfully stalking or am-
bushing its prey, and it can exist
in areas where prey is scarce.
Big cats can be very powerful
for their size. The lion can easily
tackle grazing animals such as
antelope and zebras. The tiger
may prey on the even larger
left: By hunting in packs, lions can
kill prey that is too large to be
taken by an individual.
SIGHT &: SOUND
Whether hunting by day or by
night, cats use their super-sharp
eyesight to spot prey. With their
large, forward-facing eyes, they
are able to judge distances ac-
curately. Cats see in color, which
helps them spot prey, especially
well-camouflaged prey_
By day most cats see about as
moose and may kill elephant
and rhino calves. The leopard
displays its strength by not
only killing large antelope such
as topi, but also hauling its vic-
tims high up into a tree, out of
the reach of scavengers.
Small cats are also very strong
for their size, but they usually
hunt prey much smaller than
themselves. As a result, they
must make many more kills
than most big cats, which may
hunt only once or twice a week.
well as people do, but at night
their sight is about six times
keener. Like the eyes of many
night creatures, cats' eyes con-
tain a mirrorlike lining called a
tapetum. This lining improves
night vision by reflecting light
that has passed through the
retina (the light-sensitive part of
the eye) back onto its surface.
Cats also have excellent hear-
ing. Their often large, mobile
ears can catch and pinpoint the
slightest sound. Small cats can
hear the high-pitched squeaks
of their rodent prey.
left: The serval pauses to catch
faint sounds of prey before pounc-
ing with deadly accuracy.
HOW SNAKES LIVE
Snakes are highly specialized predators that are classed in the
suborder Serpentes. Although simple in form, they are well
equipped for tracking, subduing, and devouring their prey.
KEY FACTS
HOW SNAKES FEED
The teeth of a snake are simple
curved spikes that can grip prey
but are useless for chewing, so
the snake must swallow its meal
whole. Since the victim is often
wider than the snake, swallow-
ing it is quite a feat.
The two halves of a snake's
lower jaw are loosely joined to
each other and loosely attached
to the skull. The snake is able to
stretch its jaw around its prey,
SNAKE DIVERSITY
The two main groups of snakes
are primitive and advanced. Prim-
itive snakes, such as boas and
pythons, kill their prey by con-
striction or by biting hard. Ad-
vanced snakes are more highly
evolved. Most are harmless, but
some use powerful toxins.
Snake venom is used partly in
defense but mainly to immobi-
lize prey. Fish-eating sea snakes
have powerful venoms and use
one quick bite to paralyze or kill
DID YOU KNOW?
Because snakes are cold-
blooded, they use very little
energy and do not need to
eat much. A large python
can live for more than a year
without eating.
Up to 40,000 people die
each year from snakebites.
Snakes normally move very
slowly, but they can sprint if
Left: The very long
fangs of a typical,
highly evolved viper
tuck into the roof of
its mouth when not
in use.
opening its lower jawbones like
a pair of cal ipers.
After gripping its prey, the
snake pulls back on one side of
its jaw and then the other. It fi-
nally forces the victim down its
gullet by muscular contraction
while its skin stretches to accom-
modate it. With very large prey,
this process can take hours, but
the meal may last the snake for
several weeks or even months.
their quarry. Land snakes such
as cobras and mambas usual-
ly have a less concentrated ven-
om, but they have time to inject
more, making it equally lethal.
"Front-fanged snakes" like
cobras and mambas have rela-
tively short, sharp fangs. Other
poisonous snakes, such as vipers
and rattlesnakes, have long
curved fangs that deliver huge
amounts of venom and then
swing out of the way.
necessary. One African black
mamba was timed at seven
miles per hour as it chased a
man who had enraged it.
Not all snakes deserve a fear-
some reputation. Fewer than a
fourth of the world's snake spe-
cies are venomous. Even fewer
are likely to bite a human.
A snake cannot close its eyes
1('. MCMXCIl IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FI LETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Right: When
a viper strikes,
the fangs swing
out and for-
ward to stab
the prey and
inject
venom.
To swallow
large prey, the
snake temporarily
detaches its lower jaw
from the rest of its skull.
Above: The rhinoceros viper of
Africa injects a powerful venom
through its long, hinged fangs.
because its transparent eye-
lids are permanently fused
together, forming a protec-
tive scale over each eye like a
contact lens. When the snake
sheds its skin, it sheds its eye-
lids as well. .
The world's largest snake is
the green anaconda, which
may grow to 33 feet long.
0160200661 PACKET 66
Snakes are a comparatively recent development
in the evolution of reptiles. They have discarded their
ancestors' legs, rearranged their internal organs, and
modified their jaws in order to swallow enormous meals.
In addition, snakes have developed some of the most
virulent poisons in the animal kingdom.
WHAT IS A SNAKE?
Snakes probably evolved from
primitive burrowing lizards 135
million years ago. Over time they
diversified into about 2,400 spe-
cies with a variety of lifestyles
and special adaptations.
Some primitive snakes such
as boas and pythons still have
rudimentary hind limbs, but in
a typical snake all traces of legs
have vanished. The skeleton is
reduced to a skull, jaws, and a
long backbone of more than
200 vertebrae, each with a pair
of curved ribs.
Front cover: The olive sea
preys on reef fish.
Front inset left: A rattlesnake has
heat-sensing holes on its snout.
Front inset right: Egg-eating
snakes spit out the shell after
swallowing the contents.
The vertebrae and ribs form a
long, tapering cylinder of bones
wrapped in powerful muscles.
Because space is limited, most
snakes have only one lung, and
their kidneys lie one behind the
other instead of side by side.
A snake's body is protected by
a mosaic of glossy, dry scales set
in an elastic skin. The skin re-
tains body moisture but allows
heat to penetrate when the
snake basks in the sun. Like all
reptiles, it absorbs heat from
outside to warm its muscles.

All snakes hunt live prey. The
Asian snail-eating snake simply
follows its victim's silvery slime
trail. Pit vipers, pythons, and
most boas locate their warm-
blooded prey with the heat-
sensitive organs on their snouts
or lips. Other snakes use sensi-
tive forked tongues to "taste"
the airborne scent of prey.
Snakes often swallow small
Left: Its green skin and gripping
tail help the emerald tree boa hunt
prey in the branches.
BREEDING
Most snakes live in the tropics,
where mating may be triggered
by humidity or the availability of
prey. These snakes lay eggs that
are incubated by the warm sun.
Many snakes in temperate
zones mate in response to the
warmth of spring. But they can-
not rely on the sun's heat to
INTERNAL ANATOMY
OF A MALE SNAKE
1 Skin (cast off regularly)
2 Trachea (windpipe)
3 Tracheal lung
4 Esophagus (gullet)
5 Heart
6 Left lung (functional only
in a few species)
7 Right lung
8 Liver
9 St omach
10 Gallbladder
11 Intestine
12 Left testicl e
13 Right testicle
14 Left kidney
15 Right kidney
prey alive, but some poisonous
snakes have fangs at the back
of the mouth to paralyze the
prey as it is swallowed. A front-
fanged species such as a cobra
often injects venom into a large
victim and waits for it to die.
A constrictor (a boa or python)
entwines its prey in its coils and
squeezes tighter every time the
victim breathes out, suffocat-
ing it. In this way a large py-
thon can subdue a crocodile
and then slowly eat it.
Left: The
African night
adder's long
fangs and elas-
tic jaw enable
it to swallow
toads.
incubate their eggs. In some
species, such as the European
adder, the eggs hatch in the
mother's body, and the young
are effectively born live. Other
snakes, including many pythons,
incubate their eggs by coiling
around them and twitching
their muscles to generate heat.
Not having legs might seem a
disadvantage, but snakes move
very efficiently. A typical snake
"swims" across the ground. It
loops its body in a series of S-
curves and ripples each curve
toward its tail, pushing against
plant stems and irregularities
in the ground to propel itself. It
is as if the snake were flowing
along an invisible sinuous tun-
nel of its own making.
In the "rectilinear" mode of
movement, the snake holds its
body straight and oozes for-
Left: The tiny
"claws" of boas
and pythons
are vestiges of
their ancestors'
limbs. Useless
formation,
they maybe
employed by a
male to arouse
its mate.
ward like a slug. It pushes its
large belly scales forward, digs
their sharp hind edges into the
ground, and pulls them back,
hauling itself along by almost
invisible means.
The sidewinder rattlesnake
corkscrews across the desert by
slinging its body weight side-
ways between two points in
contact with the sand. It can
travel very fast in this fashion.
Below: The sidewinder keeps clear
of the scorching sand by raising
most of its body as it moves.
MAMMAL TERRITORIES
A mammal is considered te"itorial if it establishes an area for itself
or its family and defends it against rivals of the same species.
Guarding a te"itory brings benefits but may cost a mammal its life.
KEY FACTS
METHODS OF DEFENSE
Instead of fighting to protect
their territories, mammals may
use scent. A mammal's scent
glands release chemicals called
pheromones into the air. These
chemical signals inform nearby
animals of one another's pres-
ence. Because these airborne
signals soon disappear, many
mammals deposit longer-lasting
mixtures of urine and feces com-
MAMMAL HABIT
Badger Social.
Black bear Solitary.
Cheetah Female solitary; male
may live in small
groups.
Civet Solitary or lives in
maternal groups.
Gray wolf Lives in packs.
Jackal Lives in pairs or
packs.
Lion Lives in prides of up
to 20 animals.
Otter Solitary.
Wolverine Solitary.
bined with pheromones secreted
from anal and genital glands.
Most territorial flesh eaters and
rodents scent-mark boundaries
with urine and feces. Many wea-
sel species mark their territories
with scent from their abdomi-
nal glands, while hyenas employ
pastes secreted from their anal
pouches. Mongooses stand on
their forepaws in order to spray
left: The male
lion makes
his presence
known through-
out his vast ter-
ritory. Like other
members of the
cat familYt the
lion scent-marks
its territory.
their scent in a prominent posi-
tion, and some primates urinate
on their feet so they can spread
scent as they travel.
Scent usually keeps the ani-
mal's rivals away from a territo-
ry. Although the territories of
some animals overlap, scent
ensures that the different inhab-
itants rarely meet. When con-
frontations do occur, they are
usually settled by calls and ag-
gressive body displays, with the
intruder backing away. But bat-
tles resulting in injury or death
may occur when rivals are even-
ly matched. Fighting is most
common in the breeding sea-
son, when males compete for
mates. The fittest and largest
mammals win the fights and
retain the best territories.
TERRITORY AND DEFENSE STRATEGY
Groups in small territories defend by scent-marking. large ranges
are not defended.
Solitary females or females with young often establish territories of
1 to 3 ~ square miles.
Some males are nomadic; others live in small groups. The highly
territorial males scent-mark to warn off rivals and will kill any in-
truding males.
Scent-marks territory with secretion from perineal glands.
Uses scent to defend territory of 25 to 115 square miles. Also uses
calls to warn off intruders.
Pairs defend a territory of )4 to 1 square mile. Adults are aggressive
toward intruders of the same sex.
Male is larger than female and defends the territory of 15 to 150
square miles.
Coastal otters may defend a 350-foot stretch of beach. River otters
may occupy 1 to 4 miles of riverbank. Territories are scent-marked
with soft feces called spraint.
Female uses scent and aggression to defend a territory of 20 to
1 30 square miles. Male usually occupies a much larger territory
that is proportionally less well defended.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200561 PACKET 56
Mammal territories may range in size from a few feet
to hundreds of miles. Many factors determine the size
and choice of a territory, but the most obvious are
the animal's size and its mobility. Other important
considerations include the availability of food and
suitable breeding sites as well as competition for mates.
~ W H Y MAMMALS HAVE TERRITORIES
Territories serve different pur-
poses for different mammals.
For many species, the availabili-
ty of food is a key factor in terri-
torial behavior. The black and
white colo bus monkey, for ex-
ample, gets all the foliage it
needs within a small territory.
But its relative, the red colobus,
needs a larger territory in which
to find the widely scattered fruit
and flowers that it eats.
Some species, such as squir-
rels, stop defending their terri-
tories if food is abundant. By
contrast, other animals may
abandon territorial behavior if
food is scarce.
Breeding habits also influ-
Front cover:
The lion wel-
comes grazers
such as spring-
bok into its ter-
ritory because
they provide a
key source of
food.
Front inset
left: The
wolverine
defends its ter-
ritory fiercely.
Front inset
right: Some
male cheetahs
are highly
territorial.
ence territorial behavior. In soli-
tary species the male is often
territorial, while the female is
not. The territory held by a
male may be a determining
factor in how many females
mate with him. Some male
mammals such as antelopes
and bats gather in communal
display territories known as
leks, where they are chosen by
females for mating.
Territorial behavior may also
depend on a combination of
needs. In winter the Arctic wolf
wanders in search of food, but
the pack returns to its home
breeding range in spring in
order to mate.
Left: Like
many tree-
living mam-
mals, the bush
baby inhabits
its home range
in a group but
shares its feed-
ing territory
with just a few
individuals.
~ TERRITORIES &: FOOD SUPPLIES
Tree-dwelling mammals, flesh
eaters, and burrowing mam-
mals often inhabit defined ter-
ritories. Large carnivores like
the lion inhabit sizable territo-
ries where traffic from grazing
animals provides a constant
supply of food.
Solitary animals like leopards
and tigers, and those that live
in pairs like the jackal, occupy
small territories. By constantly
patrolling their territories, the
residents can find food quickly.
Left: Unlike most other grazing
animals, the rhinoceros has a
feeding territory.
This is especially important if
there are young to be fed.
Instead of holding territories,
most grazing animals move
in herds from place to place in
search of food. If the animals
were confined to one area, the
supply of vegetation would be
depleted and new growth jeop-
ardized. This sometimes hap-
pens with the rhino, a territorial
grazer that has been known to
eat itself out of a food supply by
staying in one place.
Right: The solitary tiger stalks
constantly through its small ter-
ritory, alert to intruders.
Left: The bad-
ger lives with
a group in a
small territory.
Its larger feed-
ing range
overlaps with
other ranges,
but the ani-
mals seldom
meet.
~ DEFENDING TERRITORIES
Many different species may in-
habit the same range, but terri-
tories are usually defended only
against individuals of the same
species. If the male is larger than
the female, he defends the terri-
tory. Mammals that live in com-
munities defend their territory
as a group.
Mammals may defend only
a certain area within a large ter-
ritory. Groups, or prides, of 20
or more lions occupy territories
of up to 150 square miles each.
Since defending the entire range
would reduce hunting time, the
Left: The chimp is largely territo-
rial in the part of its range that
contains the family group.
lions form smaller groups to de-
fend their food supplies. Within
the larger range, they also de-
fend an area for the nursery and
general living.
Many tree-dwelling animals
defend feeding territories. At
night bush babies separate into
small family groups and defend
their feeding areas by spraying
urine and calling.
The gibbon inhabits a large
range but defends only about
75 percent of it as a territory.
Chimps defend only a core
area of their range but leave
males to patrol the boundaries
of the entire territory when out
on foraging trips.
HOW BIRDS EAT AND DRINK
All birds must eat, and most need to drink in order to survive.
Some species have specially adapted to local food sources.
But the birds with varied diets are the most successful.
KEY FACTS
~ - - - - ~ ~ - - ~ ~ - -
BILLS
Right: The large bill of the haw-
finch is so strong that it can crack
open cherry pits.
The bills of some bi rds have
evolved into tools for getting at
certain foods. Most seed-eating
birds have large, blunt bills, while
the bills of insect eaters tend to
be thin and pointed.
The fine, downward-curving
bill of the tree creeper enables it
to pick small insects from bark,
and the broad-based bill of the
flycatcher helps it snatch flying
insects. The goldfinch can ex-
tract seeds from thistle heads
with its pointed bill. The night-
jar's bill looks small, but it opens
so wide that the bird can catch
flying insects after dark in its gap-
ing mouth. The wigeon's stub-
by bill is ideal for eating grass.
There is a great range of bill
and leg length among wading
birds. This variation prevents
I them from competing for the
Above right: The shape of the
crossbill's beak enables it to extract
seeds from pinecones.
Right: The wood sandpiper uses its
long, thin bill to probe for insect
larvae in the mud.
Above: The sharp, hooked bill of
the golden eagle is ideal for tearing
at the flesh of prey.
same food. Longer-legged wad-
ers feed in deeper water. Those
with long bills probe deep in
Above: The fine bill of the willow
warbler is suited to picking insects
off branches.
the mud, while those that have
shorter bills pick food from the
surface or just below.
GALAPAGOS FINCHES
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~
Probably the best example of
how birds adapt to exploit a
food supply can be seen in
Darwin's, or Galapagos, finches.
Approximately 14 species have
been identified.
Descended from a common
ancestor, these finches spread
throughout the Galapagos Is-
lands and evolved according to
the local food supply. The varied
shapes of their bills reflect the
different food sources. Some
probe for insects with their
l eft: The
sharp-beaked
ground finch
feeds on the
blood of large
seabirds by
pecking at the
base of their
newly growing
feathers.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
long bills. Others have conical
bills and eat seeds. And those
with delicate beaks feed on
foliage and soft plants.
Below: The woodpecker finch of
the Galapagos Islands uses a twig
to pry grubs out of wood.
0160200511 PACKET 51
Birds eat a variety of foods, including seeds, fruit,
insects, and even other birds. The ways in which
birds eat are as varied as their diets. The shape and
size of the bill determines how well birds can exploit
different sources of food. Drinking is a more uniform
activity. Most birds use similar methods to obtain
the moisture that their bodies need.
~ OPPORTUNIST FEEDERS
Few birds depend on a single
type of food. Those that do
tend to be rare because they
are confined to areas where
their chosen food can be found.
Some South American hum-
mingbirds depend on certain
flowers for their nectar, and
several have developed bills
that fit the shape of the flow-
ers. The snail kite feeds solely
on a specific group of snails,
so populations in the United
States live only in Florida where
these snails are found.
The opportunist feeder with
a wide diet is always the most
successful species. Birds that
Front cover:
The flamingo
filters tiny food
particles from
the water.
Front inset
left: Using its
bill like a drink-
ing straw, the
wood pigeon
sucks up water.
Front inset
right: The
European robin
is surprisingly
good at catch-
ing small fish.
have adapted to the presence
of humans have become espe-
cially numerous. The house
sparrow and the starling easily
adapt to eating foods that hu-
mans make available such as
scraps in garden bird feeders,
flower buds in gardens, cher-
ries in orchards, or grain crops
in fields.
Various gull species, which
normally scavenge on the tide
line, have modified their diet
in recent years. They now eat
insects that are exposed by
plowing, a wide range of edible
items from town dumps, and
the waste thrown off by ships.
~ DIGESTING FOOD & FEEDING YOUNG
Birds that eat a high-fiber diet
swallow grit, which grinds food
in their gizzard (part of the stom-
ach), making it easier to digest.
Some seed eaters, such as pi-
geons and doves, have a pouch
in the gullet called a crop, where
food can be stored for later di-
gestion. When their young
hatch, they feed them pigeon's
milk, a protein-rich substance
produced in the crop.
Vultures as well as many other
birds feed thei r young partially
digested food. They cough up
this food or let the chicks take it
from their throats. Swifts form
balls of insects glued with sali-
va, which they carry to their
young in a throat pouch.
~ FEEDING TECHNIQUES
Birds use a remarkable variety of
methods to penetrate the pro-
tective coverings on different
foods. Tits, ravens, and magpies
break up morsels of food while
holding them with their feet.
Nuthatches wedge nuts into
the cracks in bark before split-
ting the shells open. Herring
gulls drop mussels from the air
to shatter them on the ground.
The thrush has developed the
most ingenious technique. It
left: The European starling eats a
wide variety of foods. As a result, it
is very common.
hammers snail shells on a stone
to break them open. The black-
bird has not learned this meth-
od, but it has learned to watch
the thrush at work. Once the
shell is opened, the blackbird
rushes in and steals the snail.
Blackbirds are not the only
birds that use "pirate" tech-
niques. Skuas chase other sea-
birds until they drop their fish,
and black-headed gulls steal
earthworms from lapwings.
Right: A thrush can tell if a snail
shell is empty by the sound it makes
when struck on a rock.
Left: The sub-
alpine warbler
feeds its chicks
insects. Seed-
eating birds
also feed their
nestlings insects
because they
contain more
moisture and
protein than
partially di-
gested seeds.
DRINKING TECHNIQUES
Some birds, including those
that eat fruit and nectar, ob-
tain the moisture they need
from food. But seed-eating
birds must drink water. Birds
may drink from lakes, rivers,
and the sea. Seabirds have a
gland that removes excess
salt from their bodies. Birds
also get water from rain, dew,
and snow.
The most common method
of drinking is the one used by
garden birds like the robin and
the blackbird. They scoop water
Left: Birds of prey like the African
fish eagle get moisture from food
and rarely need to drink.
into their bills and tilt their heads
back to let it run down their
throats. A pigeon immerses its
bill in water and sucks through
it like a drinking straw. Other
birds use a combination of the
two methods-sucking water
into the throat and tilting the
head back to swallow.
A few birds, including parrots,
have specially adapted tongues
that let them lap up water. Oth-
ers, such as swallows and mar-
tins, can scoop up water as they
fly. The desert-breeding sand
grouse drinks at a water hole,
then carries water to its young
in its breast feathers.
HOW MAMMALS USE SCENT
When a dog sniffs at a tree trunk, it is 1/ reading" a message left
in another d o g ~ urine. Many mammals live in a complex world
-of smells, which they use as a way to communicate.
KEY FACTS
SCENT-MARKING
Mammals secrete and spread
scent in many ways. The most
common carriers are urine,
feces, and body fluids.
Dogs and foxes: Use urine to
mark territories. Scent reveals
individual identity and how
long ago the scent was left.
Skunk and zorilla: Squirt a
smelly secretion from anal
glands to deter attackers.
Hippopotamus and rhino:
Mark their territory with feces
Below: Like many cats, the cheetah,
may spray its territory to leave a
message for others.
spread by tails while defecating.
Badger, polecat, and pine
marten: Drag their rear ends
on the ground to leave secre-
tions from an anal gland.
Mongoose and genet: Do a
handstand while urinating to
place scent marks high up.
Bush baby: Urinates on its
hands, then rubs them on its
feet. This leaves a scent trail as
it forages.
Deer and antelope: Mark ter-
ritory by rubbing grass stalks
with secretions from glands in
front of eyes.
MAMMALS WITH LITTLE SENSE OF SMELL
Most mammals have a well-
developed sense of smell. But
some species rely on other
senses instead. For example,
many bats have acute hearing
that makes scent largely un-
necessary. Although odors trav-
el in water, marine mammals
must close their nostrils when
they dive. Dolphins and sperm
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
Above: The elephant has the
largest nose of all mammals, but
not the best sense of smell.
whales are therefore unable to
interpret scent messages. Seals,
however, have retained their
sense of smell, since they can
use it on land.
0160200461 PACKET 46
For many mammals, smell is a vital sense-so vital
that hearing and sight are comparatively
unimportant. Different mammals distribute
odors in a variety of different ways. But most
of them rely on their noses to detect scents. The size
of a mammal's nose, however, is not directly
related to its ability to detect scent.
~ HOW SCENT ORGANS WORK
The air that an animal breathes
contains molecules of scent.
When an animal sniffs, air
rushes into the nose and onto
the olfactory clefts-nasal cavi-
ties that" catch" smells.
The most important part of
a mammal's smelling mecha-
nism is a moist yellow tissue
found at the back of the olfac-
tory clefts. This "smelling mem-
brane" traps and registers
scent molecules. It transmits
a scent message to the brain,
which interprets this informa-
tion as a particular smell.
The larger the smelling mem-
brane, the keener an animal's
sense of smell. A human smell-
Front cover: A
klipspringer
marks its terri-
tory, using
scent glands
in front of
its eyes.
Front inset
left: The
Tasmanian
devil has anal
scent glands.
Front inset
right: The ele-
phant shrew's
nose is very
sensitive.
ing membrane covers less than
a square inch, a domestic cat's
covers 2 square inches, and
a dog's can cover up to 23
square inches.
Several mammals have an
additional scent detector, which
is known as Jakobson's organ.
This organ is commonly found
in lizards and snakes and is
used to smell food. The golden
hamster has this organ in its
nose, but its function in this
animal is not clear. It is thought
that males use it to receive sex-
ual scent signals from females.
Right: Scent relays messages, such
as when another animal is ready
to breed.
~ SPECIAL SMEllS
Scent provides animals with
information about food, dan-
ger, and other animals. A scent
that is transmitted between
individuals of the same species
is called a pheromone.
Pheromones trigger specific
reactions. There are two kinds
of pheromones. Releaser pher-
omones cause an animal to
change its behavior. If a mam-
Left: The brown hyena receives
scent messages from plants
smeared with an anal paste.
Left: The Cape
buffalo's sense
of smell is far
better than its
sight and a
great deal
more useful.
mal has marked its territory
with such a pheromone, an-
other member of the same
species will change direction
when it picks up the scent.
Primer pheromones alter the
physical state of other animals.
For example, the urine of a
male mouse contains a phero-
mone that brings females into
breeding condition.
Right: During courtship, scent
helps to establish a bond between
individuals.
Left: Like all
members of the
dog family, the
wolf has a keen
sense of smell,
which it uses to
receive mes-
sages about
other individu-
als. Most scent
information is
left in urine.
~ T H E USES OF SCENT
For most mammals, odors pro-
vide vital information that is
used constantly.
Scent is used to form a bond
between parents and young.
Sheep farmers exploit this to
pair an orphaned lamb with a
ewe whose lamb has died. The
orphan is covered with the skin
of the dead lamb. The ewe rec-
ognizes the scent of her own
offspring and accepts the lamb.
Almost all mammals need to
inform others of their presence.
Cat species deposit scent marks
wherever they go, using scent
glands on their faces. Other cats
sniff these marks. If the scent is
old, the cat proceeds. If it is
new, the cat may change direc-
tion to avoid a fight. In a group,
scent helps related animals rec-
ognize one another. Dog packs
may form a "scent cocktail" that
mixes the odors of individuals
into a group scent.
Dominant members of a
group, especially males, scent-
mark most strongly and fre-
quently. A dominant male
rabbit deposits strong-smelling
droppings around its territory.
It also rubs secretions from a
gland under its chin onto grass,
trees, and even its mate and
young. This behavior serves to
mark territory and to demon-
strate the rank of the marker.
HOW ANIMALS DRINK
Every animal needs water to maintain the b a l a n ~ e of its body
chemistry. The wayan animal obtains water and the amount it
needs depend on the species, where it lives, and what it eats.
KEY FACTS
DO FISH NEED TO DRINK?
In lakes and rivers, freshwater
fish never need to drink be-
cause these fish absorb water
through their gills and skin.
The fish's body fluids are a
strong solution of chemicals in
water. The fresh water outside
the fish is a weaker solution
that seeps into the fish to di-
lute its body fluids until they
match the water outside. This
I process, which is known as
osmosis, could cause the fish
to become bloated with water
and explode. So the fish must
constantly pump out water
instead of drinking it.
In seawater, osmosis is re-
versed because salt water is
much more concentrated
than the body fluids of most
Right: The blue shark constantly
drinks seawater and excretes the
unwanted salt in its urine.
DID YOU KNOW?
A camel can lose a third of
its body weight through dehy-
dration without ill effects.
Some Australian desert frogs
avoid dehydration by emerg-
ing from their waterproof mu-
cous cocoons only when it
Left: Fresh
water enters
the trout's rich
body fluids
through its
gills. The fish
regulates the
liquid content
of its body by
releasing any
excess water
in urine.
rains-which is about once every
three years.
A fish that migrates between
the sea and fresh water spends
half its life drinking to replace
lost water and the other half
pumping excess water from its
MCMXCVI IMP BV/IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
sea fish. Pure water seeps out
of the fish, threatening it with
dehydration. The fish replaces
the lost water by drinking sea-
water. Since the salts would
unbalance its body chemistry,
the fish immediately eliminates
them. It may excrete the salts
as concentrated urine or expel
them through special organs.
body. Eels, flounder, and sal-
mon are among the few fish
that can cope with drastic
changes in water salinity.
A cow may drink about 18
gallons of water a day while
supplying milk to her calf.
us P 6001 12054 PACKET 54
Animals may survive for long periods of time without
food. But they soon die if they lose water and cannot
replace it. Some animals get fluid from their food,
while others absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Certain animals soak up so much water from their
surroundings that they spend their lives getting rid
of the surplus. These animals never need to drink at all.
~ WHY ANIMALS DRINK
Water makes up 60 to 80 per-
cent of an animal's body weight
and is the main component of
its bodily fluids. No animal can
survive long without water, but
some animals are more at risk
than others.
Frogs and other amphibians
have porous skins that let mois-
ture seep out. If exposed to the
drying effects of wind and sun,
amphibians quickly lose body
moisture through the skin and
may die of dehydration. For
this reason, they rarely stray
from water.
Lizards and other reptiles,
on the other hand, have wa-
Front cover: A
swallow scoops
up water while
moving at high
speed.
Front inset
left: A gorilla
gets all the
water it needs
from fresh
vegetation.
Front inset
right: The
elephant uses
its trunk to
transfer water
to its mouth in
"gulps" of up to
six gallons.
terproof skins that keep body
moisture from evaporating.
As a result, a reptile can live in
arid places, although it needs
some water to replace mois-
ture that is lost through its
body openings.
Many mammals and birds
also have waterproof skins,
but they lose a lot of water
through respiration. These
warm-blooded animals use
more energy than reptiles and
breathe faster. Every exhaled
breath carries vaporized water
that must be replaced, and
drinking water is often the
easiest way to do that.
left: The
thorny devil is
an ant-eating
lizard of the
Australian
deserts. When
the dawn mist
condenses on
its bodYt tiny
channels on its
spiky skin carry
the water
rapidly to
its mouth.
~ DANGEROUS WATERS
Most mammals in arid habitats
such as the African savanna rely
on water holes. These isolated
sources of water attract grazing
herds as well as the animals
that prey on them. Animals
that make long journeys from
their grazing grounds to a wa-
ter hole arrive hot and thirsty.
With their attention focused
on getting a drink, they are
easy prey for lions and hyenas
waiting nearby.
left: One of the most intelligent of
mammals, the chimp scoops up a
drink with its cupped paw.
Equally deadly dangers may
lurk in the water. A crocodile
may seize an unwary victim,
then drown and eat it. The
streams in Amazon rainfor-
ests conceal the anaconda, a
massive snake that coils itself
around prey and squeezes it
to death. Although it usually
takes large rodents that come
to drink, the anaconda may
even tackle prey as large as
an alligator.
Right: The waterbuck needs so
much fluid in its diet that it never
strays far from water.
left: A sand-
grouse flies
to water holes
in its arid Afri-
can habitat to
moisten its ab-
sorbent feath-
ers. It carries
water back to
its chicks, who
drink from its
feathers.
~ METHODS OF DRINKING
Animals that live in temperate
and moist climates can find
water easily. Amphibians wal-
low in water, soaking it up like
a sponge. Birds, mammals, and
reptiles suck or lap up water.
Not all animals need to drink
in order to obtain water. A go-
rilla gets all of its water from
fresh vegetation. Fish-eating
seabirds get moisture from
their prey, while blood-sucking
insects like the tsetse fly obtain
water from their liquid diets.
In arid regions, water is hard
left: Like most amphibians, a frog
both "drinks" and loses water
through its moist, porous skin.
to obtain. Desert animals have
adapted to the climate and can
conserve body moisture for long
periods. The Arabian oryx stays
in the shade during the heat
of the day to avoid moisture
loss from panting. It feeds at
night when the water content
of vegetation is highest. The
oryx also has an instinctive
ability to track down distant
sources of water.
Like many desert animals,
some darkling beetles expose
themselves to morning mist
and then quickly absorb the
moisture that condenses on
the surface of the body.
CARD 47
HOW ANIMALS BREED
To survive, a species must reproduce in large enough numbers to
make up for losses from predators or disease. When there are
large numbers of animals, it is the fittest animals that survive.
__ ______________________________
THE NUMBERS GAME
Animals that are relatively unso-
phisticated are often very prolific,
finding safety in numbers. Most
insects lay large numbers of eggs
to compensate for the high death
rate of their young, which can-
not flyaway from predators. The
female tsetse fly is an exception.
She develops one egg at a time
and hatches it inside her body.
Gestation takes between one
and two weeks.
Mammals are at a higher level,
but less sophisticated mammal
species that live for only two or
three years have a relatively short
gestation period. They produce
several offspring to combat the
effects of predators, bad weath-
er, and fluctuating food supplies.
Small mammals like the house
mouse have a gestation period
of only 21 days, so they can pro-
Below: Many
I
sea creatures
release thou-
sands of eggs
and sperm into
I
the water, rely-
ing on currents
to bring the
two together.
The blue mus-
sel produces as
many as 25
million eggs qt
a time.
duce several litters each season.
Highly evolved or very large
mammals with a long lifespan
usually produce one offspring
after a long gestation. The off-
spring depends on its mother for
several years forfood and protec-
tion while learning survival skills
from her. The elephant has the
longest gestation period (over 20
months), but it may live for 40 to
60 years in the wild.
Left: Unlike
most insects,
the female
tsetse fly pro-
duces only one
young ata
time. The
female feeds
the larva, so it
is not exposed
to predators.
In some mammals an increase
in the female's body fat signals
the availability of food and water,
triggering ovulation (the release
of the egg from the ovary). Dur-
ing periods of drought or over-
crowding, ovulation may be
suspended and young females
may delay sexual maturity. This
control mechanism increases the
chances of the successful birth
and survival of the young.
Left: A young
elephant re-
mains with its
mother until
she bears an-
other calf
about four
years later.
Family units
are led by one
female, who
fiercely defends
her young from
any intruders.

MAMMAL GESTATION RATES (IN DAYS)

Indian elephant 620 Tiger 103
Black rhinoceros 560 Beaver 90
Giraffe 450 Gray wolf 63
Blue whale 330 Gray squirrel 44
Chimpanzee 240 House mouse 21
Bighorn sheep 180 Hamster 16
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200551 PACKET 55
Animals reproduce in a variety of ways and show
many differences in breeding behavior. Large animals
and those that are highly evolved, such as elephants
and apes, usually give birth to a single offspring and invest
a considerable amount of time raising it. Less sophisticated
animals such as fish may produce thousands of eggs
and then leave the rest of the process to nature.
~ FAMILY RELATIONS
The genetic makeup of a spe-
cies is important in helping it
adapt to changes in its environ-
ment. Inbreeding (breeding be-
tween closely related individuals
such as a father and a daughter)
reduces the genetic variety. To
avoid inbreeding, animals must
recognize close relatives or use
other methods of avoidance.
The mother is fairly easy to rec-
ognize, especially in species
such as chimpanzees and ba-
boons, where she spends long
periods of time looking after her
young. Other close relatives are
more difficult to identify.
Female chimpanzees often
avoid inbreeding by moving to
Front cover:
A pair of king
penguins raises
only two chicks
every three
years.
Front inset
left: Female
chimpanzees
frequently
baby-sit for
other mothers.
Front inset
right: Fish lay
thousands of
eggs to ensure
success.
another group when they are
ready to breed. They return to
their own group once they are
no longer sexually receptive.
Mice rely heavily on their sense
of smell to identify and avoid
mating with relatives, including
half-sisters and half-brothers.
Sometimes the urge to repro-
duce is so strong that mating
with a close relative is preferred
to not reproducing at all. For
example, if a male gibbon has
difficulty finding a mate and es-
tablishing a territory, he may
mate with his mother.
Right: At two to three months the
house mouse is sexually mature
and begins to breed.
Left: The
clownfish lives
among the sea
anemone's ten-
tacles, but its
mucus covering
protects it from
the anemone's
venom. The
anemone pro-
vides a safe
haven for the
clownfish's
eggs.
~ SELECTI NG THE RIGHT MATE
It is important that an animal
find a mate of its own species.
To identify their own kind, ani-
mals use several methods such
as call and body coloring. For
example, the closely related
willow warbler and chiffchaff
share the same woodland hab-
itat, but their different songs
help prevent cross-breeding.
In other species, a suitor dis-
Left: Family groups of sacred
baboons always remain close to
the gray-maned male.
plays bright plumage or body
coloring when courting to aid
identification. Daily rhythms
also help: a night-active male
is unlikely to meet a day-active
female of a different species.
Even if two species are phys-
ically capable of mating, their
offspring may be sterile. When
a donkey and a horse mate, the
resulting mule cannot breed.
Right: Bear cubs stay with their
mother for three winters until she
drives them off.
Left: Most
young insects
are left to fend
for themselves.
But in some
shield bug
species, the
mother protects
her young and
leads them
about like a
hen with her
chicks.
~ ANIMALS IN GROUPS
Animals that live in groups usual-
ly have a clear social order. The
dominant individuals are usually
males. They take the best food
and compete intensely for mates.
The distribution of females af-
fects the extent to which domi-
nant males monopolize them
for breeding. In large groups it
is easier for a male to collect sev-
eral females and defend them
from rival males.
This behavior is noticeable in
many ungulates (hoofed mam-
mals). Grazing deer such as sika
and elk live in large herds, and
in the breeding season males col-
lect large harems (groups of fe-
males ready to breed). If a male
can mate with several females,
he increases the chances of re-
productive success. Males of
some species are much larger
than females, and their size im-
proves their chances of mating.
Deer that live in small groups,
such as the roe and muntjac, be-
have differently. The males do
not have harems. They mate
with fewer females, and com-
petition is less fierce. The males
and females are similar in size.
With the gray wolf and other
social dogs, only the dominant
male and female breed. Other
pack members help feed and
care for the young, increasing
their chances of survival.
HOW BEES MAKE HONEY
Honey is the concentrated nectar of flowers. This fragrant, energy-
rich food is made by worker bees to feed the young and
sustain all the bees through the cold winter.
__________________________
THE FUNCTION OF WORKERS IN THE COLONY
Honeybees build their nests in
hollow trees, rock crevices, holes
in walls, high on tree trunks, or
in hives provided by beekeep-
ers. In summer a colony usually
contains one queen and about
60,000 workers.
The workers are nonreproduc-
ing females. They build the six-
sided wax cells in which honey
and pollen are stored and in
which eggs and larvae develop.
They also feed the larvae, look
after the queen, defend the
nest, collect pollen and nectar,
and make honey.
When worker bees emerge
from their wax cells, they are
fed honey by other workers. Af-
ter about three days they help
themselves to honey and pollen
from the storage cells. At this
age they are already performing
tasks in the nest, such as clean-
DID YOU KNOW?
Foraging worker bees some-
times gather honeydew-a
sugary solution deposited by
aphids and other bugs as they
suck the sap of a host plant.
Worker bees must eat two
ounces of honey to make one-
ing the cells from which other
young bees emerge. These cells
are reused as brood cells for new
eggs laid by the queen or as stor-
age cells for honey or pollen.
Before long, the young work-
ers begin to feed the larvae a
mixture of honey and pollen
called brood food. They also
Left: The new
workers are fed
honey when
they first emerge
from the sealed
brood cells. The
empty cells are
cleaned out so
that they can
be reused for
storage or for
new eggs.
third of an ounce of wax.
If a worker bee finds a rich
source of nectar or pollen, it
informs other bees of its discov-
ery when it returns to the nest.
The bee conveys this informa-
tion by performing a dance,
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: Open honey cells look dark
and shiny on the comb. Cells sealed
with a cap of orange wax may be
for storage or for growing larvae.
Other cells hold white larvae.
build the wax cells that form the
comb, and they receive the nec-
tar and pollen brought back to
the nest by the foraging work-
ers. They store the pollen and
convert the nectar into honey.
At about three weeks old,
each worker begins to take
short flights from the hive to
become familiar with the sur-
roundings. It starts to forage
soon afterward. For the rest of
its six-week life, it gathers pol-
len, nectar, and sometimes wa-
ter, without stopping.
which the other workers mon-
itor with their antennae. They
learn the location of the food
and how much there is.
A foraging worker bee may
visit as many as 1,000 flowers
before its honey sac is full.
0160200641 PACKET 64
A honeybee lives in a society that is made up of larvae,
drones, workers, and a queen. These bees have developed
the ability to provide all the members of their society
with a supply of high-energy food throughout the year.
They do this by collecting nectar from flowers and
bringing it to the hive. There it is converted into honey,
which is stored in special wax cells inside the nest.
~ WHY BEES MAKE HONEY
In the societies of most social in-
sects, such as ants, wasps, and
bumblebees, all the worker in-
sects die at the start of winter.
Each spring the surviving queen
starts a new colony alone. But
the honeybee queen cannot
survive alone. She needs her
workers to feed and clean her
and to care for her eggs and lar-
vae. For this reason, several hun-
dred workers must survive the
winter along with the queen.
To make this possible, worker
Front inset
left: The bee
gathers pollen
and carries it in
"leg baskets."
Front inset
right: The
honeycomb is
made up of
many six-sided
wax cells.
bees collect nectar during the
summer, when the flowers that
produce it are abundant. Then
they turn the nectar into honey
and store it in wax cells, where
they can easily feed on it during
the winter.
Honey is also important to the
bee colony during the rest of
the year. It provides nourishment
for developing larvae and for all
the bees whose duties inside the
nest prevent them going out
and foraging for themselves.
left: Although
the combs in a
natural nest do
not form a neat
geometric pat-
tern like the
combs in an
artificial hive,
they are still
constructed
in a vertical
position.
~ BEEKEEPING
People have been raising bees
for about 4,000 years. Today
most beekeepers use hives that
open at the top and contain
vertical sheets of beeswax. The
bees enter the hive at the bot-
tom and build wax cells on the
beeswax to form a comb.
The queen is kept in a sepa-
rate box at the bottom of the
hive, called the brood chamber.
This prevents her from laying
eggs in the main combs, which
are reserved for storing honey.
left: An extremely energy-rich
food, honey contains traces of
aromatic flower oils.
Right: A natural nest is built in a
sheltered spot or high on a tree
trunk, safe from disturbance.
left: The work-
erbee builds
the comb out
of wax secreted
from special
glands on the
underside of its
abdomen. In
an artificial
hive, it builds
the wax cells
on the beeswax
frame provided.
For beekeepers, the two most
important honeybee species are
the western species, Apis mel/if-
era, and the eastern species, A.
cera no. Beekeepers have devel-
oped many races of honeybee
in an attempt to produce docile
bees and good honey producers.
Right: In an artificial hive, honey
is stored in the combs above the
brood chamber.
~ HOW HONEY IS MADE
Nectar is a fragrant sugar solu-
tion secreted by flowers. It oozes
from special organs called nec-
tories, which are usually near the
base of each petal. Plants pro-
duce nectar to attract insects,
which assist with pollination.
Foraging worker bees suck
nectar from flowers with their
long tongues and store it in their
stomach like crops, or "honey
sacs." Then they return to the
nest and pass the nectar to the
younger worker bees.
The young worker bee rolls
the nectar around in its mouth
for about 20 minutes, adding
enzymes to it in the process.
The enzymes break down the
sucrose (a complex sugar) in the
nectar into glucose and fructose,
simpler forms of sugar. The nec-
tar is then left in a cell to thicken
left: All the bees feed on honey,
unsealing the wax cells to take
what they need.
as the water in it evaporates.
When the nectar has thick-
ened enough, the worker bee
chews it again until it turns into
true honey. The worker then
spits the honey into a storage
cell, which is sealed with a cap
of wax that is not removed until
the honey is needed. A collection
of storage cells forms a comb.
The comb is always built verti-
cally, with the cells protruding
sideways at a slight angle. There
are traces of aromatic oils from
the nectar in the honey, giving
it the fragrance of the flowers
from which the nectar was orig-
inally gathered.
Foraging workers also bring
pollen back to the nest, and it is
stored in wax cells. The protein-
rich pollen is eaten mainly by the
young, growing workers. But all
the bees help themselves from
the storage cells, taking honey
for energy and pollen for protein.
Gibbons, chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans show similarities
in behavior and appearance to humans. These members of the ape
family are the animals most closely related to us.
KEY FACTS
MOVEMENT
Apes have long arms and short-
er legs. On the ground the great
I
apes move on all fours. Gorillas
and chimpanzees walk with their
I
knuckles on the ground, while
the orangutan supports itself on
bunched fists.
Gibbons are the lightest apes
and the most agile in the trees.
They can swing across gaps of
50 feet, moving at 10 miles per
hour. They grip branches with
their hands and swing from one
arm to the other in a form of
CALLS
The siamang, the largest gib-
bon, has an air sac of hairless
skin on its throat. It inflates this
sac to produce a booming call.
At other times its call is a high-
pitched bark. The female leads
the territorial calling, starting
slowly and rapidly accelerating
her booms and barks. The male
Right: Gibbons move through the
branches of the forest with amaz-
ing ease and agility.
movement called brachiation. A
gibbon's limbs are flexible. It can
hang by one arm from a branch
and rotate its body 360 degrees.
The heavier great apes move
more slowly in the trees, select-
ing only the strongest branches.
The orangutan spreads its weight
on all four limbs, and it does not
jump. But the small pygmy chim-
panzee can leap from tree to tree.
Left: The orang-
utan uses all its
limbs to move in
the trees.
Right: The
heavy adult
male gorilla can
charge with
great force.
adds low booms and, at the cli-
max, emits a chilling scream.
The adult male orangutan
also has a throat sac. He fills it
with air to add resonance to his
territorial calls, which can be
heard a mile away.
The male gorilla utters a rap-
id, hollow call during his threat
displays. When he cries out, he
rises to full height and beats his
cupped hands on his chest.
Chimpanzees are very vocal,
maintaining contact with oth-
er members of their group by
Left: The male gorilla hoots and
growls during its threat display.
Above: The siamang inflates its
throat sac before calling out in
defense of its territory.
pant-hooting-interspersing a
series of hoots with noisy intakes
of breath. When threatened by
danger, they give a long, high-
pitched bark as an alarm call.
The ape "family" is really composed of two families: the
great apes and the lesser apes. The four species of great
ape are the gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee, and pygmy
chimpanzee. The lesser apes include nine gibbon species.
All the great apes and over half the gibbons are seriously

The apes are our closest living
relatives. Like us, they all have 32
teeth and no tail. Apes' limbs re-
semble our arms and legs, but
their feet are not as well suited
to walking upright. Apes rarely
walk on two legs, although they
can if necessary.
threatened by habitat loss and excessive hunting.
Humans and the African apes
LESSER APES &: GREAT APES
The lesser apes-the gibbons-
are the smallest apes and occur
only in Asia, from northeastern
India south to Indonesia. In sev-
eral species the male and female
differ in color: the male crested,
pileated, and hoolock gibbons
are black, while the females are
light brown or gray.
Among the great apes, the
orangutan is found only in the
Front cover:
Theyoung
gorilla is
for by its moth-
erforabout
three years.
Front inset
left: The silvery
gibbon of Java
is seriously
endangered.
Front inset
right: The
youngchim-
panzee has an
almost human
expression.
rainforests of Sumatra and Bor-
neo. The chimpanzee, pygmy
chimpanzee, and gorilla live in
western and central Africa.
All the great apes make nests
of twigs and branches for sleep-
ing. They usually build the nests
in a tree fork, although male
gorillas sleep on the ground.
Gibbons sleep in a sitting posi-
tion in trees, so they have hard-
ened pads on their rumps. The
great apes lie down to sleep, so
they do not usually have pads.
Apes are long-lived. Gibbons
live 30 to 40 years, and great
apes may live 50 years. Since
male great apes are larger than
females, they take longer to ma-
ture. Male orangutans are adult
size at 10, gorillas at 11 to 13,
and chimps at 15 years of age.
Chimpanzee: Lives in a large, complex social
group that roams over a wide area. Spends a lot
of time on the ground but is a good climber.
Communicates with facial expressions and a
wide variety of calls. Its closest relative, the
pygmy chimp, is more agile and also lives in
large social groups.
Orangutan: Usually solitary but may
live in a male-female pair or a mother-
young group. Bonding between the
mother and her young is close and
affectionate. Spends most of its time
in the trees and is the largest truly
tree-dwelling animal.
probably had a common prehis-
toric ancestor. It is thought that
humans began to evolve differ-
ently between 6 and 15 million
years ago.
The great apes are among the
few animals, other than humans,
that use tools. For example, apes
may use sticks to reach food.

Apes take several years to be-
come sexually mature. Female
and male gibbons begin breed-
ing at age seven or eight. Male
chimpanzees can also breed at
this age, but females are 11 or
12 years old before they breed.
Female chimpanzees may
mate with several males in their
social group, but in a gorilla
group a dominant male mates
-
FOOD &: FEEDING
Gorillas feed on leaves, shoots,
fruit, bark, and buds. One sub-
species, the lowland gorilla, also
eats grubs and insects. The gib-
bons and orangutan feed on
plants and insects. The orang-
utan also eats eggs.
The chimpanzee is mainly a
plant eater, but it also eats ants,
with all the females. Orangutans
tend to be solitary, and females
mate with any available male.
Gestation varies from seven
months in gibbons to over eight
months in orangutans. Female
apes usually produce just one
young, but twins may occur.
Gibbons nurse their young for
several months, but great apes
nurse much longer. A young
grubs, eggs, and nestlings and
raids bees' nests for honey. It
may eat monkeys and young
bush pigs, bush bucks, and ba-
boons. To catch termites, the
chimp pokes a twig into a nest
and licks off insects that cling to
it. It may use a leaf sponge to
soak up water to drink.
chimp nurses until it is five years
old. It remains in its mother's
care for several more years and
is often carried on her back.
Because of the time spent rais-
ing the young, female apes do
not give birth every year. Gib-
bons produce young about
every two years, gorillas every
three or four years, and chim-
panzees every five or six years.
Gorilla: The largest of the apes. Lives in
a family group with no fixed territory.
The group is led and defended by one
dominant male, or silverback. Lives
almost entirely on the ground. The
large, heavy males in particular rarely
venture into trees.
Gibbons: All nine species are acrobatic
tree dwellers, descending to the ground
only occasionally. The male and female
pair and establish a territory, which they
defend against other adults.
HOW INSECTS SEE
Like many insects, a fly has thousands of light-sensitive units
in two large eye clusters on the sides of its head. Together,
these units form a mosaic image of the world.
KEY FACTS
ORIENTATION
I Because it has many lenses, an
insect immediately detects any
movement within its field of
vision. As the object moves, its
image flicks from one lens to
the next, drawing attention to
itself. To a hunter like the drag-
onfly, this is a huge asset.
An insect can orient itself by
fixing one part of its eye on an
object. A moth is attracted to
light. It orients itself by always
keeping the moon's light at an
angle of less than 90 degrees
to its compound eye. If there is
a nearer source of light, such as
a light bulb, the moth cannot
COLOR SENSE
Color is created by light waves
of different lengths. To see a par-
ticular color, an animal's eyes
must be sensitive to that color's
wavelength. In a spectrum, the
violet end has the shortest wave-
length and the red end has the
longest, with all the colors in be-
DID YOU KNOW?
Some beetles' larvae have
highly developed simple eyes.
They use their good eyesight
to avoid predators. As adults,
they have compound eyes
that are only slightly better.
Because the properties of air
orient itself correctly. It flies in a
spiral, getting closer and closer
to the light, until it is fluttering
tween. We can see all of these
colors. But we cannot see ultra-
violet light, which has a shorter
wavelength than violet, or infra-
red light, which has a longer
wavelength than red.
An insect can see colors be-
yond the violet end of the spec-
trum. But it cannot see colors at
the red end as well as humans
can. To an insect, a poppy looks
drab, while other flowers glow
with ultraviolet patterns that help
guide the insect to nectar. Many
Left: A bee navigates by the sun-
even on a cloudy day.
and water are different, some
surface-living aquatic insects,
like the water boatman, have
"split-level" eyes. The top sec-
tion is adapted to seeing in air.
The lower section is used for
seeing in water.
MCMXCVI IMP BV/IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: Compound
eyes are ideal for
the dragonfly be-
cause they are
very sensitive to
movement. The
image of darting
prey moves from
lens to lens, en-
abling the drag-
onfly to pinpoint
the animal's ex-
act position.
around the bulb. This does not
happen when it orients itself by
the moon, which is distant.
butterflies have ultraviolet mark-
ings on their wings that humans
cannot see.
Insects are also sensitive to the
way light waves are polarized (al-
tered in the way they vibrate) by
the earth's atmosphere. Polar-
ization varies according to the
angle of light from the sun. On
a cloudy day, an insect can find
out where it is by the pattern of
polarized light in the sky. Bees
use this pattern as a navigation
aid to find their way back to the
hive even if they cannot see the
sun through the clouds.
Insects are not the only an-
imals with compound eyes.
Crustaceans, such as crabs
and lobsters, have them too.
But instead of lenses, their
compound eyes contain tiny
mirrors that focus the light.
US P 6001 12073 PACKET 73
Insects may have simple eyes, compound eyes, or both. But
some adult insects have compound eyes only. Because they
cannot perceive fine details, compound eyes are generally
much less efficient than the single-chambered cameralike
eyes of mammals or birds. However, compound eyes are
extremely sensitive to movement and direction. They can
also perceive some colors that are invisible to humans.
Front insets: Widely spread com-
pound eyes give the stalk-eyed fly
(left) all-around vision. The com-
pound eyes of the lesser boatman
(right) are split for seeing in and
out of water.
THE OMMATIDIUM
A compound eye has thousands of
these cone-shaped units.
Overhead view
Lens
Cross section
Cornea
Lens
Lens-
secreting cell
~ SIMPLE EYES
Insects have two types of eyes:
compound and simple. Com-
pound eyes are usually found in
adults, and simple eyes are typi-
cal of larvae.
A simple eye has one fixed lens
that focuses light onto sensory
cells. The cells convert the light
into signals that are passed to
~ COMPOUND EYES
The highly developed eye of a
mammal or bird consists of one
big lens that focuses light onto
a large sheet of sensory cells to
form a crisp image.
The compound eye of an in-
sect is different. It is made up of
many simple cone-shaped units
called ommatidia. Each unit has
a tiny lens that focuses light onto
a rod of light-sensitive cells called
a rhabdom. The ommatidia are
arranged in a honeycomb for-
~ VISION &: LIFESTYLE
Some insects rely on sight more A fast, aerial hunter such as a
than others. Some adult insects dragonfly needs keen sight to
such as the glowworm use visu- locate and capture prey. But a
al signals to attract mates. But burrowing, plant-eating grub
their larvae have no such need. has little use for sight. All that
A flying insect like a wasp needs it needs is the ability to detect
good sight to maneuver in the light so that it can burrow back
air. But a crawling ant can sur- into the dark if it is exposed. The
vive with inefficient eyes, relying eyes of such a creature can be
more on smell and touch. very simple.
the brain, where the information
is processed.
A simple eye sees only vague
outlines. The sawfly larva has two
simple eyes, which may do little
more than sense the difference
between light and dark. A but-
terfly caterpillar has six simple
eyes on each side of its head
mation, with each lens creating
one tiny image. There are thou-
sands of lenses. So even though
the quality of each image is very
poor, there are so many of them
that they add up to a mosaiclike
"compound image." Since the
array of lenses is curved, each
lens "looks" at a different part
of the insect's surroundings. A
dragonfly's eyes take up most
of its head and give almost all-
around vision. For a compound
and can detect both the direc-
tion and wavelength of light.
In many species, such as bees
and wasps, the winged adult
has three simple eyes arranged
in a triangle on top of its head.
Their purpose is a mystery since
the insect also has a much more
efficient pair of compound eyes.
eye to be as efficient as a human
eye, it would have to be more
than three feet wide.
Compound eyes do have ad-
vantages. Our eyes bring only a
small area into sharp focus. But
a compound eye gives uniform
clarity to its whole field of vision.
Also, fast-moving insects with
compound eyes see five times
as many images per second as
we do, so they have a sharper
perception of rapid movements.
Pigment cell
~ WHAT DO THEY SEE?
Light-sensitive
retina cell
Lig ht -sensitive
rhabdom
(closely packed
projections of
the retina cell)
Sensory nerves
If you look at a picture on this
page with a strong magnifying
glass, you will see that it contains
thousands of tiny colored dots.
Added together, these individu-
al dots make up the image.
The compound eye of an in-
sect creates a picture in much
the same way. Each lens pro-
duces a dotlike image, and to-
gether the dots make up the
total picture. But the image that
is formed by an insect's eye is
made up of relatively few dots,
so it is very coarse-grained and
may look more like the picture
you saw through the magnify-
ing glass than the picture as you
would normally see it.
The insect's brain may blur the
distinction between the dots so
that the entire picture looks con-
tinuous. But the detail it can per-
ceive is limited by the relatively
large size of each dot. The only
way to improve the image is to
have more dots, which means
increasing the number of lenses.
A large dragonfly may have up
to 30,000 lenses in each of its
compound eyes. These give it
the keen sight that is needed for
catching prey in flight.
HUMAN VISION
The single lens in a human eye pro-
duces a sharp, detailed image. But
ou r eyes are sensitive only to light
INSECT VISION
Each lens in an insect's compound
eye points at a slightly different part
of the flower and forms an image of
what it sees. Together, these images
form a rough overall picture of the
between red and violet in the spec-
trum. As a result, we can see only
some of the colors in a flower.
flower. Because an insect's eye is
sensitive to ultraviolet light-colors
that are beyond the violet end of the
spectrum-it is able to see the "true"
colors of some flowers.