Basic of Engine Operating Characteristics

2103471 Internal Combustion Engine

Background on IC Engines
An internal combustion is defined as a heat engine in which the chemical energy of the fuel is released inside the engine and converted directly into mechanical work on a rotating output shaft, as opposed to an external combustion engine in which a separate combustor is used to burn the fuel.

Background on IC Engines
Internal combustion engines are so called because the heat required to drive them is released by oxidizing a fuel inside the engine itself. This approach has advantages and disadvantages, but is still the most popular for transport and small power generation plant. We will be looking at some common types of engine, examining some ways of analysing their performance parameters, and some of the problems encountered in improving efficiency and output.

Background on IC Engines
Internal combustion engines include systems which function like "closed" systems (e.g. petrol engines) or as "open" systems (e.g. gas turbines). All the engines we will examine contain the same basic activities: invest some work to compress a working fluid, inject heat into the fluid, recover a greater amount of work, return to initial conditions by removal of some heat.

Typical Processes for an Internal Combustion Engine

Background on the Otto Cycle

The Otto Cycle has four basic steps or strokes:
F-A : An intake stroke that draws a combustible mixture of fuel and air into the cylinder A-B : A compression stroke with the valves closed which raises the temperature of the mixture. A spark ignites the mixture towards the end of this stroke. C-D : An expansion or power stroke. Resulting from combustion. E-F : An Exhaust stroke the pushes the burned contents out of the cylinder.

Figure idealized representation of the Otto cycle on a PV diagram.

Otto (SI Engine) Operating Cycle

Spark plug for SI engine Fuel injector for CI engine Valves

Top Center (TC) Stroke Bottom Center (BC)

Clearance volume Cylinder wall

Piston

TC 0o 270o 90o

Crank shaft

180o BC

Pressure-Volume digram of a 4-stroke SI engine

One power stroke for every two crank shaft revolutions

Pressure

Spark Exhaust valve closes Exhaust valve opens

1 atm

Intake valve closes

TC

BC Cylinder volume

Engine Geometric Parameters

VC B L

TC

For an engine with bore B; crank offset a, stroke length L, turning at an engine speed of N:

s = 2a
BC

An average piston speed is:

U p = 2 LN
s l

Average piston speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 15 m/sec with large diesel engines on the low end and highperformance automobile engines on the high Compression ratio: end.

Engine Geometric Parameters

VC B L

TC

The distance s between crank axis and wrist pin axis is given by:

s = a cos + l 2 a 2 sin 2
BC

1/ 2

Cylinder volume when piston at TC (s=l+a) defined as the clearance volume Vc The cylinder volume at any crank angle is:

V = Vc +

B 2
4

(l + a s )

Maximum displacement, or swept, volume:

a

Vd =

B 2
4

Compression ratio:

rc =

VBC Vc + Vd = VTC Vc

Engine Geometric Parameters

Cylinder volume at any crank angle can also be written in a non-dimensional form as:
VC B L BC TC
2 l V 1 l = 1 + (rc 1) + 1 cos sin 2 Vc 2 a a

The cross-sectional area of a cylinder and the surface area of a flat-topped piston are given by:

Ap =

B 2
4

The combustion chamber surface area is:

A = Ach + Ap + B(l + a s )
a

The combustion chamber surface area at any crank angle is:

2 BS l l + 1 cos sin 2 A = Ach + Ap + 2 a a

For most engines B ~ L (square engine)

Geometric Properties
s = a cos + l 2 a 2 sin 2

VC B

TC

1/ 2

Average and instantaneous piston velocity are:

L BC

U p = 2 LN Up = ds dt

Where N is the rotational speed of the crank shaft in units revolutions per second

cos = sin 1 + Up 2 (l / a )2 sin 2 Up

1/ 2

Average piston speed for standard high performance auto engine is about 15 m/s. Ultimately limited by material strength. Therefore engines with large strokes run at lower speeds those with small strokes run at higher speeds.

Piston Velocity vs Crank Angle

R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank offset and usually has values of 3 to 4 for small engines, increasing to 5 to 10 for the largest engine. The effect of R on piston speed are shown below.

R = l/a

Engine Torque and Power Output Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
b Stator Rotor N Load cell Force F

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T = F b units : Nm = J

Engine Torque and Power Output Torque is measured off the output shaft using a dynamometer.
b Stator Rotor N Load cell Force F

The torque exerted by the engine is T:

T = F b units : J

& The power W delivered by the engine turning at a speed N and absorbed by the dynamometer is:
& W = T = (2 N ) T rad rev units : ( J ) = Watt rev s

Note: is the shaft angular velocity in units rad/s

Engine Torque and Power Output

Torque is a measure of an engines ability to do work and power is the rate at which work is done

& The term brake power, Wb , is used to specify that the power is measured at the output shaft, this is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load.
The brake power is less than the power generated by the gas in the cylinders due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil pump, air conditioner compressor, etc

& The power produced in the cylinder is termed the indicated power,Wi .

Indicated Work per Cycle Given the cylinder pressure data over the operating cycle of the engine one can calculate the work done by the gas on the piston. This data is typically given as P vs V diagram. The indicated work per cycle is given by Wi = PdV

WA > 0

WB < 0

Compression W<0

Power W>0

Exhaust W<0

Intake W>0

Work per Cycle Gross indicated work per cycle net work delivered to the piston over the compression and expansion strokes only: Wi,g =area A + area C (>0)

Pump work net work delivered to the gas over the intake and exhaust strokes: Wp =area B + area C (<0)

Net indicated work per cycle work delivered over all strokes:
Wi,n = Wi,g Wp = (area A + area C) (area B area C) = area A area B

Indicated Power Indicated power:

& WN Wi = i nR

(kJ cycle)(rev s ) rev cycle

where N crankshaft speed in rev/s nR number of crank revolutions per cycle = 2 for 4-stroke = 1 for 2-stroke Power can be increased by increasing: the engine size, Vd compression ratio, rc engine speed, N

Indicated Work at Part Throttle At WOT the pressure at the intake valve is just below atmospheric pressure, However at part throttle the pressure is much lower than atmospheric

Pint

Therefore at part throttle the pump work (area B+C) can be significant compared to gross indicated work (area A+C)

Indicated Work with Supercharging Engines with superchargers or turbochargers can have intake pressures greater than the exhaust pressure, giving a positive pump work

Pint

Wi,n = area A + area B Supercharges increase the net indicated work but is a parasitic load since they are driven by the crankshaft

Mechanical Efficiency Some of the power generated in the cylinder is used to overcome engine friction and to pump gas into and out of the engine.

& The term friction power, W f , is used to collectively describe these power losses, such that: & & & W f = Wi , g Wb
Friction power can be measured by motoring the engine. The mechanical efficiency is defined as: & & Wf Wb m = = 1 & & Wi , g Wi , g

Mechanical Efficiency (2) Mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position, engine design and engine speed. Typical values for car engines at WOT are: 90% @2000 RPM and 75% @ max speed. Throttling increases pumping work and thus decreases the brake power so the mechanical efficiency drops and approaches zero at idle. Power varies with speed but torque is independent of engine speed

& recall W N Wcycle

& and W N T

so T Wcycle

Power and Torque versus Engine Speed

& W N Wcycle
Rated brake power

T Wcycle
There is a maximum in the brake power versus engine speed called the rated brake power (RBP). At higher speeds brake power decreases as friction power becomes significant compared & & & to the indicated power Wb = Wi , g W f

1 kW = 1.341 hp

Max brake torque

There is a maximum in the torque versus speed called maximum brake torque (MBT). Brake torque drops off: at lower speeds do to heat losses at higher speeds it becomes more difficult to ingest a full charge of air.

Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (IMEP) imep is a fictitious constant pressure that would produce the same work per cycle if it acted on the piston during the power stroke.

& Wi Wi nR imep = = Vd Vd N

& imep Vd N Wi = nR

imep Ap U p

2 nR

imep does not depend on engine speed, just like torque

recall T Wcycle

so imep T

imep is a better parameter than torque to compare engines for design and output because it is independent of engine speed, N, and engine size, Vd. Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is defined as:

bmep =

Wb 2 T nR = Vd Vd

T=

bmep Vd 2 nR

The maximum bmep of good engine designs is well established:

Four stroke engines: SI engines: 800-1000 kPa* CI engines: 500 -900 kPa Turbocharged SI engines: 1200 -1700 kPa Turbocharged CI engines: 1000 - 1400 kPa Two stroke engines: Standard CI engines comparable bmep to four stroke Large slow CI engines: 500 - 1600 kPa (with supercharging) *Values are at maximum brake torque at WOT Note, at the rated (maximum) brake power the bmep is 10 - 15% less

Can use above maximum bmep in design calculations to estimate engine displacement required to provide a given torque or power at a specified speed.

Maximum BMEP
bmep = Wb 2 T nR = Vd Vd

The maximum bmep is obtained at WOT at a particular engine speed Closing the throttle decreases the bmep For a given displacement, a higher maximum bmep means more torque For a given torque, a higher maximum bmep means smaller engine Higher maximum bmep means higher stresses and temperatures in the engine hence shorter engine life, or bulkier engine. For the same bmep 2-strokes have almost twice the power of 4-stroke

Typical 1998 Passenger Car Engine Characteristics

Vehicle Engine type L4 L4 L4 Turbo L6 V8 V12 V12 Displ. (L) 1.839 2.254 2.255 2.793 3.496 5.474 5.707 Max Power (HP@rpm) 122@6000 150@5700 210@5300 190@5300 375@8250 436@6250 492@7000 Max Torque (lb-ft@rpm) 117@4000 152@4900 210@3500 206@3950 268@6000 398@4500 427@5200 BMEP at Max BT (bar) 10.8 11.4 15.9 12.6 13.1 12.4 12.7 BMEP at Rated BP (bar) 9.9 10.4 15.7 11.5 11.6 11.4 11.0

Mazda Protg LX Honda Accord EX Mazda Millenia S BMW 328i Ferrari F355 GTS Ferrari 456 GT Lamborghini Diablo VT

Road-Load Power A part-load power level useful for testing car engines is the power required to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed. The road-load power, Pr, is the engine power needed to overcome rolling resistance and the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle.
2 Pr = (C R M v g + 1 a C D Av Sv ) S v 2

Where CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 - 0.015) Mv = mass of vehicle g = gravitational acceleration a = ambient air density CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 - 0.5) Av = frontal area of the vehicle Sv = vehicle speed

Specific Fuel Consumption For transportation vehicles fuel economy is generally given as mpg, or L/100 km. In engine testing the fuel consumption is measured in terms of the fuel & mass flow rate m f . The specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how efficiently the fuel supplied to the engine is used to produce power,

mf & bsfc = & Wb

mf & isfc = & Wi

units :

g kW hr

Clearly a low value for sfc is desirable since for a given power level less fuel is consumed

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Size Bsfc decreases with engine size due to reduced heat losses from gas to cylinder wall.

Note cylinder surface to volume ratio increases with bore diameter.

cylinder surface area 2rL 1 = 2 cylinder volume r L r

Brake Specific Fuel Consumption vs Engine Speed There is a minimum in the bsfc versus engine speed curve

& At high speeds the bsfc increases due to increased friction i.e. smaller Wb
At lower speeds the bsfc increases due to increased time for heat & losses from the gas to the cylinder and piston wall, and thus a smaller Wi Bsfc increases with compression ratio due to higher thermal efficiency

Performance Maps Performance map is used to display the bsfc over the engines full load and speed range. Using a dynamometer to measure the torque and fuel mass flow rate you can calculate: mf & 2 T nR &b = (2 N ) T bmep = W bsfc = & Vd Wb

bmep@WOT

Constant bsfc contours from a two-liter four cylinder SI engine

Engine Thermodynamic Efficiencies

While bsfc is commonly used because it is a fairly direct measurement, it is also possible to work out the engine's thermodynamic efficiency if you know the heating value of the fuel. Typical hydrocarbon fuel heating values are: Fuel Methane LPG Gasoline Diesel Methanol Heating Value
(lower heating value, fuel is liquid if that is its normal state at STP)

50 46 44.5 43 20

MJ/kg MJ/kg MJ/kg MJ/kg MJ/kg

Engine Efficiencies The time for combustion in the cylinder is very short so not all the fuel may be consumed or local temperatures may no favour combustion A small fraction of the fuel may not react and exits with the exhaust gas The combustion efficiency is defined as:

& Qin Qin actual heat input = = c = theoretical heat input m f QHV m f QHV &
Where Qin = heat added by combustion per cycle mf = mass of fuel added to cylinder per cycle QHV = heating value of the fuel (chemical energy per unit mass)

Engine Efficiencies (2) The thermal efficiency is defined as:

th =

work per cycle W W = = heat input per cycle Qin c m f QHV

or in terms of rates

& & power out W W = = th = & in c m f QHV rate of heat input Q &
Thermal efficiencies can be given in terms of brake or indicated values Indicated thermal efficiencies are typically 50% to 60% and brake thermal efficiencies are usually about 30%

Engine Efficiencies (3) Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as:

& W W = f = m f QHV m f QHV &

Note: f is very similar to th, difference is th takes into account actual fuel combusted. Recall:

mf & sfc = & W

Therefore, the fuel conversion efficiency can also be obtained from:

f =

1 ( sfc ) QHV

Volumetric Efficiency Due to the short cycle time and flow restrictions less than ideal amount of air enters the cylinder. The effectiveness of an engine to induct air into the cylinders is measured by the volumetric efficiency:

v =

ma n m & actual air inducted = = R a theor. air a Vd a Vd N

where a is the density of air at atmospheric conditions Po, To and for an ideal gas a =Po / RaTo and Ra = 0.287 kJ/kg-K (at standard conditions a= 1.181 kg/m3) Typical values for WOT are in the range 75%-90%, and lower when the throttle is closed. If an engine is throttled, the volumetric efficiency will be much less than 1, (eg 25-30%), and If it is running at full torque, volumetric efficiency can be about 1. Supercharged engines will have a volumetric efficiency greater than 1.

Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is used in two ways. Some engineers want to measure the tuning effectiveness of the intake manifold and valve system . They use volumetric efficiency as their indicator. For this purpose, the "i" conditions would refer to the density at intake manifold temperature and pressure. The ideal volumetric efficiency would be around 1 (ie 100%). Actual V would be reduced by flow losses at the valve but could also be increased by pulsation tuning. The more common use of volumetric efficiency is to indicate how much mixture is flowing through the engine, (without worrying whether it ought to be 100%). For this purpose, the calculation is usually done including fuel/air mixture and with the reference density set at ambient atmospheric conditions.

Air-Fuel Ratio For combustion to take place the proper relative amounts of air and fuel must be present in the cylinder. The air-fuel ratio is defined as

AF =

ma ma & = mf mf &

The ideal AF is about 15:1, with combustion possible in the range of 6 to 19. For a SI engine the AF is in the range of 12 to 18 depending on the operating conditions. For a CI engine, where the mixture is highly non-homogeneous, the AF is in the range of 18 to 70.

Engines Comparison
Engine performance can be compared by the following parameters: Mean effective pressure Brake specific fuel consumption Engine efficiency Volumetric efficiency First law analysis energy conservation Second law analysis entropy conservation

Engines Comparison
mep= work done per unit displacement volume Or average pressure that results in the same amount of indicated or brake work produced by the engine Scales out effect of engine size Two useful types: imep and bmep imep: indicated mean effective pressure
the net work per unit displacement volume done by the gas during compression and expansion

bmep: brake mean effective pressure

the external shaft work per unit volume done by the engine

BMEP
Based on torque:

4 bmep = Vd

(4 stroke)

2 bmep = Vd

(2 stroke)

Engines Comparison
Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) Measure of engine efficiency They are in fact inversely related, so a lower bsfc means a better engine Often used over thermal efficiency because an accepted universal definition of thermal efficiency does not exist

& & mf mf = bsfc = & Wb 2 N

bsfc
bsfc is the fuel flow rate divided by the brake power

& & mf mf = bsfc = & Wb 2 N

We can also derive the brake thermal efficiency if we give an energy to the fuel called heat of combustion or, qc

& Wb 1 = = & mf qc bsfc qc

Engines Comparison
Volumetric Efficiency, ev
The mass of fuel and air inducted into the cylinder divided by the mass that would occupy the displaced volume at the density i in the intake manifold Note its a mass ratio and for a 4 stroke engine

& & 2(ma + mf ) ev = iVdN

For a direct injection engine

& mf

= 0

Others Engines Comparison

First law analysis- energy conservation
For a system open to the transfer of enthalpy, mass, work, and heat, the net energy crossing the control surface is stored into or depleted from the control volume

Second Law Analysis entropy conservation

This approach takes into account the irreversibility that occurs in each process Another outcome of this analysis is the development of the usefulness of each type of energy (exergy)