" CARD 41

COTTONMOUTH
~ ______________________ G_R_O_U_P_3_:_R_E_PT_I_LE_S_& __ A_M_P_H_IB_IA _N __ S _ ~ ~
... CLASS
~ Reptilia
... ORDER
~ Squamata
... FAMilY
~ Viperidae
GENUS & SPECIES
Agkistrodon piscivorus
The cottonmouth is one of the largest poisonous snakes in the
United States, sometimes reaching a length of six feet. A deadly
predator, it is also one of the few snakes to eat carrion.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
length: 1 ~ - 6 feet.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: About 3 years.
Mating season: Spring or fall.
Gestation: Nearly a year.
No. of young: 1-15.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Active mainly at night,
when the pit organ is more effec-
tively used. Lives alone or in pairs
but hibernates in groups.
Range of the cottonmouth.
DISTRIBUTION
Diet: Fish, frogs, turtles, young alli-
gators, birds, and mammals.
lifespan: 18-20 years.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 2 other Agkistrodon spe-
cies found in North and Central
America: the copperhead, A. con-
tortrix, and the Mexican moccasin,
A. bilineatus. The 10 Asian species
include the Malaysian moccasin,
A. rhodostoma.
The cottonmouth is found in the southern and southeastern
states of the United States, from eastern Texas to Virginia.
CONSERVATION
The cottonmouth's habitat is threatened by the drainage of
swamps and other wetlands. In addition, shooting is drastical-
ly reducing the population.
FEATURES OF THE COTTONMOUTH
Body: Thick and
muscular. Dark
blue-black scales
with brown mark-
ings that later
turn black.
Pit: Heat-detecting organ situated on each side of the
face, between the eye and nostril. Detects infrared
radiation given off by warm-blooded animals. En-
ables the cottonmouth to hunt camouflaged prey
and track mammals in the dark.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Mouth:
Opened
wide in
threat
display
to reveal
pale in-
terior.
0160200901 PACKET 90
The cottonmouth, also known as the water moccasin, is a
familiar sight in the southern United States. It is often seen
swimming in a muddy pond with just its head showing. Or it
may be found lying on a log digesting a meal. Although the
cottonmouth moves rather sluggishly, humans have good
reason to fear it because this snake's venom is highly lethal.

The cottonmouth is found in
the southern United States. It
lives alone or in pairs in ponds,
swamps, and marshes. It spends
most of its time in the water or
on a bank, waiting for prey to
come near.
The cottonmouth cannot reg-
ulate its body temperature, so it
relies on the sun to keep warm.
It often drapes itself over a low
branch overhanging the water
or basks in the sun on a half-
sunken log. If it is disturbed or
needs to cool off, it slides into
the water, keeping its snout
above the surface.
The cottonmouth sometimes
travels across woods and fields,
where farmhands may find it in
a drainage ditch. As winter ap-
proaches, it moves away from
water. It finds a dry corner high
in a rocky outcrop, where it hi-
bernates with other snakes.
Right: The cottonmouth has a
thick, muscular body with dark
bluish black scales.
FOOD &: HUNTING
The cottonmouth's lethal ven-
om not only kills prey, but also
aids digestion because it con-
tains enzymes that break down
animal tissue. The snake may
take several days to digest large
animals like young alligators. It
also eats mammals, turtles, and
birds, as well as other snakes. Af-
ter feeding, it lies in the sun to
speed digestion.
The cottonmouth is a pit vi-
per: a snake with a small "pit"
on each side of its face between
its nostril and its eye. This heat-
detecting organ can sense the
radiation given off by a warm-
blooded animal as much as 20
inches away. As a result, the
Left: The cottonmouth's fangs fold
away in the roof of its mouth under
a flap of skin.
DID YOU KNOW?
When disturbed, the cotton-
mouth opens its mouth wide
to show the whitish interior as
well as its fangs. Cotton pick-
ers thought the open mouth
looked like cotton and gave
the snake its name. This ani-
mal also has several nicknames,
snake is able to strike accurately.
When attacking, the cotton-
mouth sinks its fangs into its vic-
tim. It holds onto small animals
but releases larger prey to avoid
being clawed or bitten. Later it
returns to the kill, flicking out its
tongue to detect the scent trail.
The cottonmouth swallows
large prey headfirst, dislocating
its jaw so it can take in the ani-
mal's whole body. After moving
side of its jaw forward in
order to engulf its victim, the
snake yawns to reset its jaw.
The cottonmouth also feeds
on carrion (dead animal flesh) as
well as fish waste thrown over-
board from fishing boats.
Right: The cottonmouth senses
prey with its forked tongue and
heat-detecting pits.
including gaper and snapjaw.
'0 The cottonmouth's venom is
medically beneficial. It destroys
red blood cells and clots the
blood. Scientists "milk" the
venom from captured snakes
and use it to treat illnesses in
which bleeding will not stop. J
The female cottonmouth mates
every two years, in spring or fall.
She usually has more than one
mate during this season. Since
only half of the females mate
each year, the males are highly
competitive. Two rivals will rise
up, locked together, and press
against each other until one of
them gives way. The female
gives off a scent and waits until
a male comes near. The male
then imitates her movements in
a kind of courtship dance.
Left: Initially,
the juvenile cot-
tonmouth has
bright, jagged
bands. These
start to fade
after about six
months, turn-
ing brown and
finally black.
Almost a year after mating,
the female produces up to 15
young. They are born live in jel-
lylike egg sacs. They remain in
the sacs for about 15 minutes,
then tear them open with their
snouts. Only 8 to 13 inches long
when they emerge, the young
snakes are completely indepen-
dent. With their bright yellow-
green tail tips, they lure young
frogs and fish. The mother plays
no part in rearing the young, so
the death rate is very high.
RED-EARED SLIDER
'--___________ 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS . '.
CLASS ... ORDER FAMILY GENUS & SPECIES
Reptilia Chelonia Emydidae Chrysemys scripta
The red-eared slider is a sociable turtle found in the southern and
midwestern United States. When large numbers bask in the sun,
they may climb on top of each other in stacks of three or four.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Carapace (upper shell),
5-11 in. Female larger than male.
Weight: Up to 2 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 2-3 years.
Mating: March to June.
No. of eggs: 2-22 white elliptical
eggs per clutch. Often 2 clutches
per year.
Incubation: months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Fairly sociable. Often basks
in large groups.
Diet: Water plants, freshwater fish,
mollusks, and insects.
Lifespan: 40 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The red-eared slider is a subspecies
(race elegans) of Chrysemys scripta,
the pond slider. Two closely related
species are the painted turtle, C.
picta, and the red-bellied turtle,
C. rubriventris.
Range of the red-eared slider.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in freshwater ponds and slow-moving streams and rivers
in the United States, from Indiana to Texas.
CONSERVATION
The heavy demands of the pet trade appear to be affecting
wild populations of the red-eared slider. Many red-eared sliders
are raised on turtle farms, but few of them reach adulthood.
FEATURES OF THE RED-EARED SLIDER
Head: Distinc-
tive red patches
behind eyes.
Mouth has pow-
erful jaws, with
toothless sharp
edges that tear
food into pieces.
Young: Green at first. Gains brown or
black blotches as it matures.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Carapace: Domed upper part of the
shell, covered with horny plate. Color
and markings vary.
Plastron: Bony
lower part of the
shell . Joined to
the carapace.
Hind limbs:
Strong and
muscular. Feet
have claws for
tearing food and
are partially
webbed for
swimming.
0160200791 PACKET 79
The red-eared slider is named for the way it slides
into the water and for the broad red stripe behind
each of its eyes. The red stripe looks somewhat like an
ear, and it is most noticeable in young adult males.
On occasion, however, the stripe may be yellow.
~ HABITS
The red-eared slider prefers an
undisturbed pond or a quiet
stretch of slow-moving fresh
water that has a muddy bot-
tom and plenty of thick vege-
tation surrounding it.
Like many other freshwater
chelonians (terrapins, tortoises,
and turtles), the slider spends
hours out of the water during
spring and summer. After haul-
ing itself onto a log or rock, it
warms its body by basking in
the sun. If disturbed, it retreats
into the safety of the water. In
some areas there are so many
red-eared sliders sunbathing
that they climb on top of each
other in stacks of three or four.
Right: The red-eared slider and
other pond sliders quickly slide
into the water when alarmed.
~ BREEDING
When the temperature begins
to rise in the spring, the red-
eared slider is ready to mate.
The male waves the long claws
on his forefeet in the face of
the female to stimulate her to
mate. As he clambers onto the
female, his claws help him grip
her carapace (upper shell).
In early summer the female
chooses a nest site near the
water's edge, just above the
Left: The red-eared slider emerges
from its food-rich waters and basks
in the sun on land.
DID YOU KNOW?
Melanism (the development
of dark pigment) is common
in the red-eared slider. Black
streaks, spots, and blotches
appear on both the upper
and lower shells and spread
high-water mark. After digging
out the nest with her hind legs,
she lays 2 to 22 white eggs with
leathery shells. She sometimes
lays two clutches in a year.
After they hatch, the young
sliders grow rapidly, reaching
two or more inches by their
second year. They then grow
about a half-inch each year un-
til they reach the adult size of
up to 11 inches.
Right: The female carefully chooses
a nest site on land in which she lays
her eggs.
over the original shell pattern.
In some cases, the shell be-
comes a uniform brown.
For the slider to be buoyant
in water, 14 percent of its to-
tal body volume must be air.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The red-eared slider eats plants
and animals. Fibrous green wa-
ter plants are its main food, but
it may also catch worms, small
freshwater fish, mollusks, and
aquatic insects, which it swal-
lows whole.
Like other chelonians, the red-
eared slider lacks teeth. It tears
up large pieces of food using its
foreclaws. To chew, it uses the
sharp cutting edges inside its
mouth, which are moved by
strong jaw muscles.
~ RED-EARED SLIDER & MAN
Because of cartoon series about
the Teenage Mutant Ninja Tur-
tles, the red-eared slider was a
popular pet in the late 1980s.
At the craze's peak in 1988, two
million sliders were exported
from the United States, mainly
to western Europe.
Most red-eared sliders die in
captivity, mainly because their
owners are unaware of their re-
quirements. The few that do
survive mature rapidly and be-
come large and messy. Some
become snappish and cannot
be kept at home. Many people
simply dump their unwanted
pets in the country, where they
may die from cold or the lack
of suitable food.
Left: Buying
a young red-
eared slider as
a pet may not
be a good idea
because it often
carries Salmo-
nella bacteria.
In addition, the
pet trade is a
threat to slid-
ers in the wi/d.
GRASS SNAKE
CLASS
Reptilia
ORDER
Squamata

GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
FAMILY
"11IIIIIIII Colubridae
GENUS fir SPECIES
Natrix natrix
One of the largest and most common snakes in Europe, the grass
snake is harmless to humans. Also known as the water snake,
it is equally at home in the water and on land.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: Male, about ft. Fe-
male, Longest recorded,

BREEDING
Breeding season: April to July.
Sexual maturity: 5 years.
No. of eggs: 30-40, increasing
with the age of the female.
Hatching time: 6-10 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Day-active in damp areas.
May hibernate with several others.
Diet: Frogs, newts, fish, and small
mammals. Young feed on insects
and other invertebrates.
Range of the grass snake.
DISTRIBUTION
lifespan: About 9 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The grass snake is found in Great Britain, east across Europe
and Asia as far as Mongolia, and south to the northwestern
coast of Africa.
CONSERVATION The grass snake's closest relatives
are the water snakes of the genus
Nerodia of North America.
Steady loss of habitat is causing a reduction in the grass snake
population. Although the animal is already less common than
in the past, it is not yet endangered.
HOW THE GRASS SNAKE EATS ITS PREY
The grass snake seizes prey in its jaws, then works it
into its mouth very gradually. Its jaws are loosely
hinged and very elastic. While gripping its victim with
its small teeth, the snake "walks" its jaws forward one
side at a time. Slippery prey such as a frog is easy to
Markings: Irregular dark markings on
a brown or olive-green background.
work into the mouth. But to swallow furry prey,
the snake produces large amounts of saliva
to ease passage through its mouth.
Head: Yellow collar around
neck gives the animal its
alternative name of
ringed snake. Black
eyes; round pupils.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200851 PACKET 85
The grass snake is not poisonous, but it is often mistaken
for the venomous adder. As a result of this confusion, many
grass snakes are killed. Although there are some similarities
between them, it is quite easy to tell the difference between
the harmless reptile and the toxic animal. Their markings
are noticeably different, and the grass snake can
sometimes be twice as long as the adder.

The grass snake is active by day
in damp places in hedgerows,
marshes, and woods. It sleeps
at night in a dry, sheltered spot.
It spends much of its time bask-
ing in the sun and it may climb
into a shrub late in the day to
catch the last rays of the sun.
In the cold parts of its range
the grass snake hibernates for
the winter in an empty burrow,
hollow log, or hole in a bank or
tree. Sometimes several snakes
hibernate together.
The grass snake is preyed on
by badgers, hedgehogs, and
birds of prey. It has no venom-
ous bite to use as a defense, but
its coloring makes it difficult to
detect in the undergrowth, and
it can move very fast.
When threatened, the snake
strikes as if it were venomous.
But it keeps its mouth closed,
inflates its body, and hisses. If
this does not succeed, it then
produces a foul-smelling liquid
from glands at the base of its
tail. If the predator still does
not go away, the grass snake
may play dead by lying on its
back with its head flopped to
the side, its mouth open, and
its tongue hanging out.
BREEDING
The grass snake mates in April
or May. To court a female, the
male approaches her while nod-
ding his head and then rubs his
chin along her back.
The female lays up to 40 eggs
in June or July. In colder regions
she finds a warm place such as a
manure heap, haystack, or pile
of rotting leaves and makes a
nest by burrowing into the soft
material. Or she uses a natural
hole and enlarges it by twisting
her body around. Sometimes
Left: A dead grass snake is not an
appealing meal, so playing dead is
a good defense.
1
0 10 YOU KNOW?
It is said that the grass snake
I drinks milk from the udders of
cows and goats, but this is just
folklore. The snake will drink
milk in captivity, but only if it is
the only liquid available.
A grass snake found swim-
ming 25 miles from shore in
the Bay of Biscay was not hurt
by the salt water.
several grass snakes will use the
same site.
The female does not remain
with her eggs or look after the
young. The eggs may hatch af-
ter 6 weeks in warm weather or
take up to 10 weeks. The young
snake is about six inches long. It
has an egg tooth on its snout,
which it uses to tear its way out
of the leathery shell. The egg
tooth drops off in a few hours.
The young then eats worms
and other small invertebrates.
Right: The eggs all hatch at about
the same time, and the young go
off to find food.
II The grass snake is one of the
few snakes that can be found
inside the Arctic Circle. It also
lives at altitudes of over 7,200
feet in the Alps.
" Great Britain has three spe-
cies of snakes, but Ireland has
none at all. According to Irish
legend, Saint Patrick rid the
island of snakes.
NATUREWATCH
The grass snake is often mis-
taken for a poisonous adder.
Although the two snakes look
similar, the grass snake has a
yellow collar, round pupils,
and irregular dark markings.
The adder has no collar, its
pupils are slitted, and a zigzag
FOOD &: HUNTING
The grass snake feeds on frogs,
newts, fish, lizards, and small
mammals such as mice. It also
eats birds and their eggs and
chicks. It consumes very large
meals that sustain it for days
and can go for a week without
food if inactive.
The snake hunts on land and
in water. It swallows small prey
underwater but takes larger an-
imals onto land. It locates prey
by flicking its tongue to pick up
scents in the air. It catches prey
Left: With its jaws open wide, the
grass snake slowly works prey into
its mouth.
pattern runs down its back.
The grass snake can be seen
on damp ground near fresh
water or on the surface of a
pond. In cold areas it can only
be seen from May to Septem-
ber, since it hibernates from
October to April.
by gliding as close as possible,
then lunging forward to seize
the victim in its teeth.
The grass snake's elastic jaws
are loosely joined and are able
to move separately. The snake
usually moves its prey until its
mouth is over the head. It swal-
lows the animal whole by mov-
ing alternate sides of its jaws
forward over its victim. It pro-
duces a large amount of saliva
to ease the operation.
A big meal takes some time
to digest, so the grass snake
rests in a quiet place while its
food goes down.
J
TOADGROUP 3: REPTILES &; AMPHIBIANS
CLASS ORDER FAMILY GENUS & SPECIES
"'IIIIIIII Amphibia Anura Bufonidae "'IIIIIIII Bufo calamita
The natterjack toad burrows into coastal dunes and sandy
heaths in much of Europe. It has rapid reflexes, snatching
and then eating almost any small animal it encounters.
KEY FACTS

SIZE
Length: Normally, up to 2Z1 in.;
rarely, up to 3 in. Female usually
larger than the male.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 2-4 years.
Breeding seas6n: April to July.
Hatching time: 5-8 days.
Tadpole stage: 6-8 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, active at night.
Usually land-dwelling, but lives in
ponds while breeding. Hibernates
during winter.
Diet: Small live prey such as in-
sects, worms, and snails.
Call: Male croaks when courting.
Lifespan: 15-16 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The natterjack toad's relatives in-
clude the wide-ranging Europe-
an toad, Bufo bufo; the American
toad, B. american us; and 1 7 other
toad species in North America.
Range of the natterjack toad.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in much of continental Europe from Spain north to the
Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, and
Lithuania. It is rare in Great Britain and Ireland.
CONSERVATION
The natterjack toad is in decline throughout its range, mainly
because of habitat destruction.
FEATURES OF THE NATTERJACK TOAD
Skin: Dry, shiny, and warty. Yellowish
olive-green with green patches. Laced
with glands that secrete a bad-tasting
poison to deter predators. A yellow
Eyes: Pupils are fully rounded
at night to absorb qS much
light as possible. During the
day they narrow to slits.
down its back distinguishes it
from the European toad.
Voice: In the
breeding season
males call from
their spawning
l
ponds. They may
continue their
rattling, trilling
croaks through-
out the night.
Forefeet: May be used for digging in
areas with firm soil. A breeding male
develops pads on his first three fingers
to improve his grip on the female.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Hind limbs: Comparatively short for I
a toad, enabling it to run wi th
surprising speed. Its digi ts are
partially webbed. J
0160200921 PACKET 92
The natterjack is a small, burrowing relative of the
European toad. In some parts of its range it has suffered
greatly from the conversion of its heath land habitat into
modern farms. It has also been affected by urbanization.
Even though it is still widespread in much of continental
Europe, it is now an endangered species in Great Britain.

In winter the natterjack toad re-
mains in its burrow, insulated
from the cold by up to two feet
of soil or sand. When spring tem-
peratures rise to about 54
0
F, it
rouses and digs to the surface.
Although the natterjack is ac-
tive mostly at night, it may ven-
ture out on a dry day. Known as
the "running toad," it prefers to
crawl or run and rarely hops. It
is a skilled climber and can scut-
tle over sand dunes. But com-
pared with other toads or frogs,
the natterjack is a bad swimmer.
It visits water only when neces-
sary, in order to breed.
The natterjack often lives in
areas with sandy, loose soil that
it can dig easily. It uses its short
hind legs to burrow in sand but
employs its forelimbs to scoop
out a retreat on firmer ground.
Right: After absorbing their tails,
tadpoles move onto land as tiny
toads under half an inch long.
FOOD & HUNTING
The natterjack toad eats small
animals such as insects, spiders,
slugs, snails, and worms. As a
tadpole, it may even eat other
tadpoles if food is scarce.
The natterjack usually hunts at
night, attacking anything that
moves. Once the toad's atten-
tion is caught, it watches briefly.
If the prey stops moving, the
toad may lose interest. But if the
animal twitches, the natterjack
DEFENSES
Poison glands in the natter-
jack's skin give it a bad taste,
but this does not always stop
predators. Crows rip off the
skin, while herons, foxes, and
snakes eat the toad anyway.
Left: In early spring the male nat-
terjack toad swells his vocal sac
and sings to attract a mate.
DID YOU KNOW?
The natterjack toad has been
known to climb a steep sand-
bank and spend the winter in
the burrow of a bank swallow.
Several toads may huddle to-
gether in a big burrow.
During the spawning season,
small "satellite" males some-
flicks out its sticky tongue and
quickly snatches its victim.
Because the toad swallows its
food whole, the size of its prey is
limited by the size of the toad's
mouth. After crushing its victim,
the toad retracts its eyeballs to-
ward the roof of its mouth to
force its meal down its throat.
Right: The natterjack toad is alert
to signs of live preYt reacting to the
slightest movements.
The natterjack has other de-
fenses. To deter a rat, the toad
may fill its body with air so that
it appears larger. At the same
time it raises its rump to pre-
sent the poison glands on its
back. To deceive a heron, the
toad may lie flat on the ground
and pretend to be dead.
times lurk silently near a pond
where other males are calling
and intercept females on their
way to their suitors.
The natterjack is often found
close to reeds, and its scientif-
ic name derives from calamus, I
the Latin word for a reed.
[>, NATUREWATCH
The natterjack toad is slightly
smaller and greener than the
European toad. It is easily dis-
tinguished from this related
toad by the yellow line down
its back.
Because the natterjack usual-
BREEDING
The natterjack toad lives mostly
on land but returns to water to
breed. It actually mates in water,
since the male just sheds sperm
over the female's eggs and the
eggs must stay moist to survive.
Cloudy, mild weather in early
spring prompts males to head
for shallow, warm ponds, where
they prefer to breed. They croak
to attract females within a radi-
us of a half-mile or more.
The breeding male develops
Left: The male
natterjack does
not internally
fertilize the fe-
male's eggs. In-
stead, he mounts
her, gripping her
firmly while she
spawns. This
mating act is
referred to as
amplexus.
Iy forages at night, it is rarely
seen in daylight. Rather than
hopping, it normally runs on
its short legs. If it is alarmed, it
may try to burrow quickly out
of sight, scooping out sand J
like a dog burying a bone.
thick pads on his first three fin-
gers, so he can grip the female
and fertilize her eggs as she lays
them. Each season she produces
up to 4,000 eggs in jelly strings
over three feet long. The strings
wrap around water plants.
The tadpoles hatch in five to
eight days. They are oval with
long tails but in a few weeks de-
velop hind legs, then forelegs .
Finally they absorb their tails
and move to dry land.
LEATHERBACK TURTLE )
GROUP 3: REPTILES < AMPHIBIANS ~
... FAMILY GENUS & SPECIES
~ Oermochelyidae Oermochelys coriacea
CLASS ORDER
Reptilia Chelonia
The leatherback turtle is the biggest turtle in the world. This
hardy reptile wanders in tropical as well as temperate oceans.
It spends most of its life feeding far from land.
'\J KEY FACTS
I ~ I SIZES
~ Shell length: Up to 7 ft.
Weight: Up to 1,600 lb .
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary, oceanic.
Diet: Large planktonic animals like
jellyfish and siphonophores. Also
mollusks and crustaceans.
Lifespan: Unknown, but probably
quite long.
BREEDING
Mating: At sea.
Egg laying: On traditional breed-
ing beaches.
Eggs: Up to 1,000 per season. Laid
in batches of 50 to 170.
Incubation: Several months.
RELATED SPECIES
The leatherback is the only species
in its family. The other family of
true sea turtles, the Cheloniidae,
includes the green, ridley, and
loggerhead turtles.
Range of the leatherback turtle.
DISTRIBUTION
Widespread but scattered throughout the oceans of the world.
Not found in the polar regions.
CONSERVATION
The leatherback turtle is classified as an endangered species.
Populations that breed on well-known beaches are threatened
by the collection of eggs by local people. The development of
tropical beaches for tourism is also a problem.
FEATURES OF THE LEATHERBACK TURTLE
Ridges: 7 raised ridges run the length of the
carapace, or top covering. There are 5 on the
plastron, or bottom part of the covering.
Foreflippers: Very powerful. The turtle
uses them for swimming and digging
but may occasionally lash out in defense.
Winglike and tapering, the flippers may
span 11 feet.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Carapace: The structure of this mas-
sive, tapering covering is unique
among turtles. Instead of horny
scutes (outer plates) , there is a
thick, leathery skin. Instead of
internal bone plates, there
are many small , linked
bones supporting a
cartilage "shell ."
0160200841 PACKET 84
The leatherback turtle is unusual because it does not have
a stiff shell. Instead, this marine giant has a lightweight
structure of cartilage that is covered with leathery skin and
reinforced with tiny bones. This structure gives the turtle
surprising mobility in the water. However, the leatherback
must return to land to lay its eggs, and on the beaches it
faces interference from egg collectors as well as tourists.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
The huge leatherback is clearly
a turtle, but it lacks the one fea-
ture that is common to nearly
all other turtles and tortoises: a
rigid, horny shell. The bodies of
most turtles are encased in a
two-part boxlike armor. The
top part is called the carapace,
and the bottom part is called
the plastron. Each is made up
of an outer layer of thick, horny
scutes (plates) bonded to an in-
ner layer of bony plates. The in-
ner plates are fused to the ribs
and backbone to form a rigid
unit. Only the turtle's tail, legs,
and head are free to move.
Judging from fossil remains,
ancestors of the leatherback
turtle had shells of this type.
However, over years of evolu-
tion, the leatherback replaced
the horny scutes with a thick,
leathery skin. Instead of bony
inner plates, it developed tiny
interwoven bones that support
a fake shell of flexible cartilage.
This structure is much lighter
than a rigid shell. As a result,
the turtle is more buoyant in
water and uses less energy to
swim. Although the lack of a
hard shell makes it vulnerable,
few predators are big enough
to attack it.
Right: The three-inch-Iong hatch-
lings are covered with scales, which
they shed as they mature.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The leatherback uses its wing-
like forelimbs to "fly" through
the water. But it cannot swim
fast enough to pursue swift fish
and squid. It generally feeds on
less agile prey such as jellyfish
and comb jellies, as well as oth-
er large creatures that drift with
the plankton near the surface.
Although these animals are
large, they consist mostly of
water and are not as nutritious
as fish of similar size. The turtle
Left: The leatherback visits land to
lay its eggs, which it buries in sand.
DID YOU KNOW?
The leatherback travels great
distances. One turtle that was
tagged in Suriname turned up
on the other side of the Atlan-
tic over 4,200 miles away.
The leatherback may not
nest for several years. But then
it lays up to nine clutches with
more than 80 eggs in each.
Because it is an open-sea
must eat great numbers to get
the nourishment it needs.
The leatherback seems to be
immune to the poisons that
these animals use to catch their
own prey. Many possess sting-
ing cells, and several jellyfish
species can paralyze and kill
large fish . Yet the turtle appar-
ently snaps them up without
suffering. The leatherback may,
however, avoid species that
have the strongest poisons.
Right: Long spines in its mouth
help the leatherback swallow food.
species, the leatherback does
not adapt to captivity. The tur-
tle never learns to avoid the
walls of its tank.
Several of the eggs in each
leatherback clutch are mal-
formed and do not hatch.
This turtle is found in waters
near Iceland in the north to
New Zealand in the south.
~ SPECIAL ADAPTATIONS
Turtles obtain body heat from
the environment rather than
generating their own heat, so
most sea turtle species live only
in warm tropical waters.
The leatherback has a great-
er range because of the insu-
lating fat under its skin and the
~ BREEDING
The leatherback spends most of
its life at sea but returns to land
to breed. Until recently its nest-
ing sites were unknown, but
several breeding beaches have
now been found in the tropics.
The turtle prefers beaches fac-
ing deep water and avoids sites
that are protected by coral reefs.
It will swim through heavy surf
to reach a good location.
After mating at sea, the fe-
male comes ashore at high tide,
frequently at night. She crawls
up the beach to a point where
the sand is moist but beyond
the waves' reach. She may ex-
cavate a few trial pits before dig-
ging in earnest with her flippers.
heat-exchange system in its
forelimbs. Heat is transferred
from warm blood exiting the
heart to cooler blood entering
the heart-conserving heat in
the body. These adaptations
and its big size keep the turtle
warm in waters as cool as 54F.
When the nest hole is deep
enough, she starts to lay 50 to
170 large, round eggs. She
guides them into the hole with
her hind limbs and covers them
with sand. Then she returns to
the sea, hiding her tracks by
zigzagging across the beach.
The eggs develop over several
months. When the young tur-
tles hatch, they climb out of the
nest and scurry off to the sea.
Many never make it. They are
easy targets for such predators
as skuas, gulls, and ghost crabs.
But a few do survive and grow
to maturity. Many years later
they return to the same beach
to produce the next generation.
COMMON GARTER SNAKE
... CLASS
~ Reptilia
.... ORDER
~ Squamata
GROUP 3: REPTILES &: AMPHIBIANS
FAMILY
Colubridae
... GENUS &: SPECIES
~ Thamnophis sirtalis
The common garter snake is the most widespread snake in North
America. This harmless, graceful creature is unusually sociable and
lives in large groups that contain several hundred individuals.
"J KEY FACTS
I ~ I SIZE
~ Length: Usually 2-2y'; ft. Male
smaller than female .
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 2-3 years.
Breeding season: Spring.
No. of young: 12-80.
Incubation: 3 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Sociable, living in large
groups of several hundred indi-
viduals. Torpid in winter.
Diet: Frogs, toads, fish, salaman-
ders, earthworms, small mammals
and birds, carrion.
Range of the common garter snake.
DISTRIBUTION
Lifespan: Up to 12 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The common garter snake is found from southern Canada
through the United States southward to Central America.
CONSERVATION
There are 22 species in the genus
Thamnophis, of which 13 occur in
the U.S. and Canada. Among the
more widespread are the eastern
ribbon snake, T. sauritus, and the
western terrestrial garter snake,
In general the common garter snake appears to be in no dan-
ger. But one subspecies-the San Francisco common garter
snake-has been affected by habitat disturbance and is now
listed as endangered.
T. terrestris . .
FIVE SUBSPECIES OF THE COMMON GARTER SNAKE
Eastern common garter snake, Thamnophis
sirtalis sirta/is: Common across eastern U.S.
Usually striped. May also be spotted or plain.
San Francisco
garter snake,
T. s. tetra taenia:
Restricted to San
Mateo County.
Threatened by habi-
tat disturbance. Red,
orange, black, and yellow stripes.
Texas garter snake,
T. s. annectans: '
Inhabits eastern
Texas. Heavily
marked and
has an
orange
dorsal stripe.
Pale blue-green belly.
I ~ . MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
Blue-striped garter
snake, T. s. similis:
Limited to coast of northern
Florida. Blue lateral stripes.
Lives along
coast north
of Baja.
Red spots
and pale
lateral stripes.
0160200971 PACKET 97
The common garter snake is found in a variety of North and
Central American habitats. Although the different subspecies
vary in color and size, many have three light stripes and a
checkered pattern. These markings resemble the patterns on
the old-fashioned garters once used to hold up men's socks.

The common garter snake lives
in southern Canada, most of the
United States, and parts of Mex-
ico and Central America. It is of-
ten found near water such as a
pond or stream. It is also seen in
city parks and gardens, since it
is well adapted to humans.
Like other reptiles, this snake
relies on outside sources to raise
its body temperature. Active by
day, it hides at night beneath a
fallen tree or in a deep hole or
rock crevice.
Right: An excel-
lent swimmer, the
common garter
snake can remain
submerged for a
long period. It is
at home on land
as well as in the
water.
At the onset of winter, a large
group of common garter snakes
gathers in a communal shelter
called a hibernaculum, which is
in a rock crevice, ground hole,
or empty burrow. The snakes
spend the winter in a sluggish
or inactive state called torpor.
Periodically, the common gar-
ter snake molts, shedding its out-
er layer of skin as it grows. This
process usually occurs immedi-
ately after the snake emerges
from its winter torpor.
FOOD & HUNTING
Unlike other snake species, the
common garter snake cannot
immobilize large prey with any
venom or by coiling itself tightly
around the animal's body. As a
result, it preys only on small ani-
mals such as fish, frogs, toads,
salamanders, and earthworms.
Its diet also includes small mam-
mals and birds as well as carrion
(dead animal flesh).
Left: Although harmless, common
garter snakes are killed because
people think they are poisonous.
The garter snake senses the
approach of prey by repeatedly
flicking out its forked tongue to
pick up chemical molecules in
the air. The chemicals are ana-
lyzed in the snake's Jacobson's
organ, a pair of pockets located
in the roof of the mouth.
The common garter snake is
generally an active hunter. It of-
ten searches for its prey among
vegetation. It takes a victim with
a single lunge, seizing the ani-
mal behind the head.
DID YOU KNOW?
The longest common garter
snake on record measured al-
most four and a half feet.
The common garter snake
can survive farther north than
almost any other snake spe-

Common garter snakes mate in
spring, not long after emerging
from their winter torpor. A num-
ber of males compete for a fe-
male by wrapping themselves
around her, but only one male
succeeds in fertilizing her. After
mating, the male and female
go their separate ways.
The female common garter
snake is ovoviviparous (giving
Left: The common garter snake re-
quires warmth, so it lives in a com-
munal den during winter.
Left: Because
it does not have
venom and is
unable to con-
strict big prey,
the common
garter snake
feeds on a va-
riety of small
animals. It eats
anything it can
easily subdue
on land or in
water.
cies. It can even be found in
sub-Arctic areas of the Yukon.
There is a Native American
superstition that the year's first
thunderclap brings the garter
snake out of its winter torpor.
birth to live young). The fertil-
ized eggs stay in her body until
they are ready to hatch, at the
end of a period of about three
months. She is a prolific breed-
er, usually producing up to 60
young in a single brood. The
number may rise to 80 if it is a
warm year with plenty of food.
The young snake is left on its
own from the minute it is born.
It grows rapidly during its first
two years and is ready to mate
when two to three years old.
Left: At mating
time, several
male common
garter snakes
wrap them-
selves around
a female and
sometimes be-
come knotted
together in the
process.