Air Pre-heater Fires in Large Capacity Boilers: The damage due to air pre-heater fire is very severe depending

upon the intensity of the fire. In many cases it has made the regenerative air pre-heater elements a molten mass. The boiler availability loss will be high if a fire takes place in the air heater. Air pre-heaters are heat recovery systems used in boilers to improve boiler operating efficiency. There are two major types of air pre-heaters: the recuperative and the regenerative. For higher sizes boilers, say 350 t/hr and above, designers adopt the regenerative type. This is mainly due to the compactness of regenerative air pre-heaters for higher heat duty. In both cases, air heater fires are not uncommon in boilers, but more common in the regenerative type. When a boiler is operated with pulverized coal with a higher load, then the probability of air heater fire is low. An air pre-heater fire can happen during startup or shutdown when there is a possibility of a large volume of unburnt particles reaching the air pre-heater. This unburnt gets deposited in the air pre-heaters elements and gets ignited when the temperature rises and particles that are still burning reach this area. The plant operator will have to quickly respond to symptoms that show a tendency for air pre-heater fire to start. The possibility of detecting a fire in the air pre-heater in a boiler is very difficult from the operating parameters of boiler. However, indications of an air preheater fire can be verified from a certain parameter changing its trend suddenly. When both air and flue gas temperature leaving the air pre-heater increase suddenly with a steep gradient, then the reason for it is to be verified. The specific causes for an air pre-heater fire, the plant response, and the immediate operator response required during this are discussed. The specific causes Heavy Unburnt Oil / soot deposits in air pre-heater due to o Poor atomization of oil being fired o Worn-out oil burner tips leading to coarser particles of oil o Low air flow through the burner leading to unburnt particles o Improper air distribution between primary, secondary etc o Wrong tip position with respect to diffuser or spinner Inadequate frequency of operation of APH Soot blowers Plugged Nozzles of APH Soot blowers Low blowing steam pressure in APH Soot blowers

Plant Response Sharp rise in air temp at APH outlet will be noticed Increase in flue gas temperature at air pre-heater outlet

Immediate Operator Action Trip unit on emergency Stop all fans immediately Close all dampers on the air and flue gas side Flood APH with water through air heater water washing system or otherwise Rotate APH to avoid buckling of the air pre-heater rotor

Adopting some of the good operating practices of boiler can prevent air pre-heater fire totally during the life of the boiler. Reduce number of startups of boiler to a bare minimum. Avoid operating boiler in low loads requiring oil support for a prolonged duration. It is a good practice to check oil viscosity characteristics on a periodic basis and whenever there is a change in supplier. Clean oil gun tips and lap the internals to satisfy the design requirements. Never restart the oil burners without purging during startup. Boiler startup operation must be avoided when air pre-heater soot blowers are not available. Always make it a practice to soot blow all the air pre-heaters, the non working air pre-heaters also must be soot blown by keeping the isolation damper marginally open to allow the soot to be blown out. During startups, low load operation, and shutting down, make it a practice to watch the trend of air and gas temperature leaving the air pre-heaters. Operate air pre-heater soot blowers regularly. Any fire detecting device provided by supplier has to be kept active and tested as and when possible. To repair the air pre-heater damaged due to fire takes large amount of time and needs spares for replacements. Some of the spares of large air heaters will not be available off-theshelf which can further delay the process of repair. The boiler availability loss will be high if a fire takes place in an air heater. Responding quickly to suspected air pre-heater fire immediately and taking corrective action can save a lot of money, downtime, and generation loss.

Carryover From Boiler Drum: Carryover from the boiler drum leads to deposit in superheaters of boiler and turbine blades. Carryover from drum is of two types- mechanical and vaporous carryover. Deposits in superheater tubes results in overheating failure. In the turbine, this reduces the turbine efficiency. In a high pressure large capacity boiler, the drum acts not only as a water reservoir, but also has a major function of separating the steam water mixture coming into it from the raisers or waterwall tubes. This is done by a set of separators and dryers housed inside the drum. Dry steam with the quality required for superheating and admitting into the turbine is the output of a drum with good internal design. Depending upon boiler operating pressure, the boiler water and superheated steam quality are decided. Water treatment plants are provided in boiler plant installations to ensure the quality of boiler water. Parameters like alkalinity of water expressed in pH levels, total dissolved solids in ppm, specific electrical conductivity of water in S/cm, residual phosphate in ppm, and silica in ppm level are to be maintained with in specific limits. This is achieved by conditioning feed water to boiler within preset quality levels. The typical recommended boiler water limits for a boiler with operating pressure range from 160 to 180 kg/cm2 (g) is given below. Total dissolved solids (Max) ppm 25 Specific electrical conductivity at 25 deg C in S/cm (Max) 50 Phosphate residual ppm 5 to 10 pH at 25 deg C 9.1 to 9.8 Silica (Max) ppm - To be controlled on the basis of silica in boiler water and drum pressure relationship to maintain less than 0.02 ppm in steam leaving drum.

Carryover from the drum can be of two types: mechanical carryover and vaporous carryover. Mechanical carryover take place in a boiler mainly due to drum internals; drum level, foaming, and spray water. If the alignment of drum internals are not maintained as per requirement then the separation efficiency comes down and carryover occurs. Faulty screen driers also contribute to carryover. It is necessary to adhere to the dos and donts given by the designer during operation and maintenance of the boiler to avoid carryover. Maintaining a very high drum level reduces the separation efficiency and a high level of carryover results. High alkalinity, oil in water and high TDS (Total Dissolved Solids) in boiler water will

result in foaming in drum which leads to carryover. The chart attached gives a total picture of carryover. Carryover can be minimized by adhering to good operating and maintenance practices. Maintain drum water level within +/- 50 mm Maintain silica below the recommended value for the operating pressure Check and maintain the drum internals periodically and whenever carry over is noticed Feed water conductivity at 25 deg C to be maintained between 0.2 and 0.3 S/cm Boiler water solids to be maintained during operation within limits Measure steam purity and maintain within the specified limits Ensure feed water conductivity meter online to help monitoring the same

The end result of carryover will lead to deposition in superheater tubes which will result in long term overheating of superheater tubes. Carryover will also lead to deposits in the low pressure stage blades of turbine which reduces blade efficiency and increase heat rate of the machine.

Carryover From Boiler Drum:-

How to Deal with Tube Failures in Boilers Tube failures in boilers need to be addressed properly by data collection and analysis for knowing the root cause and preventing reoccurrence of the same. A systematic analysis helps to improve the availability and reliability of boiler operation. As soon as tube failure is suspected in a boiler, first identify the location roughly, take out the log data of boiler for at least eight hours before failure. If the boiler tripped due to tube failure take full first-up logs, take out the trend graphs for reference, or mark clearly the time of failure and speed of chart- its better to mark on all charts and take printout of trend charts from DCS. Decide to run or stop boiler if unit did not trip o Evaluate the extent of secondary damage possibility if run Water wall area lesser chances Platen area- the damage can be severe and downtime and spares requirement will be high LTSH and Eco- very high secondary damages possible o Bring down the unit at the earliest to reduce secondary damage After boiler is shut down o Open the man hole in the suspected area of tube failure when safe, never try to enter unless temperature has come down to safe level - Near ambient o Try with a powerful light to find the leaky tube and mark the location on the drawing - rough elevation and tube number indicate from which side count is done o Any visual appearance / observation can be logged o Send these details with log data and trend sheets collected to designers and ask for first opinion o Take photos of the area of failure from outside and other areas like furnace if required Ask designers o Tell designer that the tube samples from the failed tube is arranged o Any specific information other than supplied is required based on the first impression o Immediate checks required during shut down o Additional samples required from the area of failure or otherwise Collecting tube sample o Organize to drain the boiler if required o Once it is safe to enter the boiler provide scaffolding and reach the area of failure o Make sure the location noted before is correct or need to be altered - Mark this on drawing o Mark about 150 to 200 mm above and below the failure area - total length of sample more than 300 mm o Cut the tube sample by cutting tool or hacksaw - Never cut by gas as this destroys the evidence o It is a good practice to cap the sample as soon as the sample is cut Before repairing the failed area o Make sure all inspection is done- check the adjacent tubes and area for any evidence of deterioration o If required do open the header hand hole plates for inspection and make sure no cleaning is needed o If material mix-up is suspected, then it is good to replace the length from the transition point of the material

It is required to check the adjacent coils for any material mix-up by spark test Check with the designer about the need for an experts visit to site before repair First impression report from designer o Inform site about the first impression of failure- broad classification of the type of failure o Ask for additional details and samples if required o Tell about expert visit- plan immediately as owner cannot wait o After seeing the failed sample and noting all observations, sent it for lab analysis Ask for any special test required- deposit analysis Flattening test- if hydrogen damage is suspected Analysis by designers o Review the log data and details sent from site with respect to all deviations o Look at the trend charts and first-up details for any inference possible o Look for any abrupt changes in the operating regime- log data, water chemistry, loading pattern, etc. o Make sure metal temperature details are reviewed o Correlate the findings of lab analysis- use EPRI guide lines and classification on tube failures o Make sure the failure is not generic in nature Final evaluation and corrective action o The final finding can be classified for one-in-case, generic due to operational practice, design, material inadequacy, etc. o Make an action plan to correct the boiler in question, similar operating boilers, and similar boilers being commissioned, erected, manufactured, or designed o If required make out a design guide line or operational guide line o Inform all owners about the problem and corrective action needed- owners need to plan o Monitor the boiler for performance after corrective action o o

Detection of HRSG tube leaks on-line can be done by using acoustic leak detection system. However if you are looking for parameters to be monitored which can give indication of tube leak are: 1. Increasing trend in back pressure 2. The pressure drop across the bank on the gas side will be on the increasing trend 3. If the leak increases the make-up water quantity will be on the increase. 4. During daily walk down check a hissing noise can also be heard. Normally it takes about 72 hours from the leak start to hear a noise by human ear, unless the leak is big enough to create high noise level.

Compare the Efficiency of Different Power Plants

Electricity generation is only conversion of energy from different forms to Electricity which is the most convenient form of energy. How efficiently does this conversion take place? We take look at the conversion efficiencies of the common types of Electricity generation plants. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed First Law of Thermodynamics.... Mayer Coal Fired Power Plants Coal based power accounts for almost 41 % of the worlds electricity generation. Coal fired power plants operate on the modified Rankine thermodynamic cycle.The efficiency is dictated by the parameters of this thermodynamic cycle. The overall coal plant efficiency ranges from 32 % to 42 %. This is mainly dictated by the Superheat and Reheat steam temperatures and Superheat pressures. Most of the large power plants operate at steam pressures of 170 bar and 570 C Superheat, and 570 C reheat temperatures. The efficiencies of these plants range from 35 % to 38 %. Super critical power plants operating at 220 bar and 600/600 C can achieve efficiencies of 42 %. Ultra super critical pressure power plants at 300 bar and 600/600 C can achieve efficiencies in the range of 45% to 48 % efficiency. Natural Gas Fired Power Plants

Natural Gas fired (including LNG fired) power plants account for almost 20 % of the worlds electricity generation. These power plants use Gas Turbines or Gas Turbine based combined cycles. Gas turbines in the simple cycle mode, only Gas turbines running, have an efficiency of 32 % to 38 %. The most important parameter that dictates the efficiency is the maximum gas temperature possible. The latest Gas Turbines with technological advances in materials and aerodynamics has efficiencies upto 38 %. In the combined cycle mode, the new "H class" Gas turbines with a triple pressure HRSG and steam turbine can run at 60 % efficiency at ISO conditions. This is by far the highest efficiency in the thermal power field. Renewables Hydro turbines, the oldest and the most commonly used renewable energy source, have the highest efficient of all power conversion process. The potential head of water is available right next to the turbine, so there are no energy conversion losses, only the mechanical and copper losses in the turbine and generator and the tail end loss. The efficiency is in the range of 85 to 90 %. Wind turbines have an overall conversion efficiency of 30 % to 45 %. These two renewable sources, though efficient, are dependent on availability of the energy source. Solar thermal systems can achieve efficiency up to 20 %. The moving path of the sun and the weather conditions drastically alter the incident solar radiation. The efficiency on an annual basis, around 12 %, is considerably less than on a daily basis. Geo thermal systems, on the other hand, also use the Rankine cycle with steam temperatures at saturation point. Since there is no other conversion loss, this plant can achieve efficiencies in the range of 35 %. Nuclear The efficiency of nuclear plants is little different. On the steam turbine side they use the Rankine thermodynamic cycle with steam temperatures at saturated conditions. This gives a lower thermal cycle efficiency than the high temperature coal fired power plants. Thermal cycle efficiencies are in the range of 38 %. Since the energy release rate in nuclear fission is extremely high, the energy transferred to steam is a very small percentage - only around 0.7 %. This makes the overall plant efficiency only around 0.27 %. But one does not consider the fuel efficiency in nuclear power plants; fuel avaliabity and radiation losses take center stage Diesel Engines Diesel engines, large capacity industrial engines, deliver efficiencies in the range of 35 42 %.The power industry is trying to increase this conversion efficiency of power plants to maximise elctricity generation and reduce environmental impact

Implications of Operating Boilers at Lower Pressures than Design Pressure Boiler operation at very low pressure carrying high load leads to problems in the boiler performance as well as overall plant heat rate. Boilers are used for steam production in process plants and in power plants for electricity generation. These boilers are designed for specific operating parameters and one of the critical parameters is that of steam. The steam parameters are mainly superheated steam pressure, superheated steam temperature and the superheated steam flow. While carrying

10

any load the boiler steam parameters have to be maintained as designed to achieve the optimal performance. Deviations in steam parameter has implications on: Changes in the steam pressure and temperature change the enthalpy of the steam available for Rankine cycle. Temperature of superheated steam plays a major role in the available enthalpy however pressure also changes enthalpy and if the reduction in pressure is significant there will be considerable increase in enthalpy. The problem is mainly the specific volume of steam; reduction in pressure increases the specific volume. This leads to higher steam pipe and tube velocities thus increasing the pressure drop by a square function. Due to increase in superheated steam pressure drop at lower operating pressure and higher steam flow the changes in drum pressure from design will be to a reduced extent. However it will depend on the amount of reduction in operating pressure and the amount of increase in steam flow. The saturation temperature of water drops with pressure and so the sensible heat addition required reduces The latent heat of evaporation increases with reduction in pressure only a gradual change If turbo separators are used in drum this is also will have a very high velocity due to specific volume change which has a very impact on carryover. The performance of screen dryers in the drum also deteriorates and increases carryover As the operating pressure is lowered to a large extend, it is possible the heat input and the heat absorption pattern changes to that an extent that it will be difficult to make the super heater steam temperatures. No operating group would lower the operating pressure to this extend under any condition. However some operating engineers try to load the unit with steam flow higher than the designed limit during the cold startup conditions for meeting the electrical load demand.

Boilers are designed for both constant pressure operation and sliding pressure operation. In constant pressure operation the boiler superheater outlet pressure is designed to be maintained constant from as low as 40% of the rated maximum continuous load. In sliding pressure boilers the superheater steam outlet pressure is slowly taken up at a particular ramping rate acceptable to both boiler and turbine designers. Operations of the boiler at lower than the designed pressure in both the types of boilers has all the implications at different levels depending upon the deviation. Boilers operated at a reduced pressure in power station lowers the overall heat rate of the power plant. It is found that in a 176 kg/cm 2 steam cycle with 540 degree C superheated steam temperature for a 500 MW power plant lowers the overall plant heat rate around 1.2 kcal/hr. However a reduction of 10 degree C in superheated steam temperature lowers the overall plant heat rate around 9 kcal/hr.

11

Low Steam Pressure in Boiler

Operation of boiler with low steam pressure makes power generation less competitive. It reduces the plant heat rate and will increase fuel consumption over a period of time. Steam pressure and temperature are the key parameters of power generation for thermal power plants and also for process application. Steam pressure and temperature decide the amount of heat available, inform of enthalpy, to do work in turbine. A drop in both will reduce the plant heat rate in different magnitude. Many boiler operators prefer to operate the boiler at slightly lower pressure, when they have load variation, fuel quality variations, etc, as they get more margins between the safety valve set pressure and the operating pressure. Main steam pressure is used as the input to master pressure controller to change the fuel input to the boiler. The main reasons for variation in steam pressure when the boiler operates with steady conditions are: Sudden increase of generator load Mal-operation of steam pressure controller Coal hang up in mills Disturbed combustion condition in furnace Tripping of one or more mills

Sudden increase in load can be due to grid demand or due to process requirement in the plant. Coal hang up in coal mills is not uncommon due to the presence of foreign material in coal or even due to high moisture coal. Disturbed furnace condition can be due to many reasons. The plant responses due to these conditions give indication to the boiler desk operator and local operator to take immediate action. Normally the turbine will slow down due to the braking effect of the generator. During this time the steam demand signal will go up reducing the pressure further if the fuel input does not increase. As the main steam pressure drops, there is a good reason for the auxiliary steam pressure to drop. This will depend on many other operating conditions from the turbine and the boiler side. Immediate operator action will depend upon the cause that resulted in the reduction of steam pressure. The first action of the operator will be to check and reduce the turbine generator load so that the steam pressure does not drop to a very low level. The operator will switch to manual mode for pressure control if he suspects the pressure controller is misbehaving. This he can infer from the erratic way in which the pressure control is behaving even before the main steam pressure drops continuously or otherwise. Starting of the spare mill will be required if any of the operating mills have tripped. He first will reduce the load if possible and bring in the new mill immediately. During this disturbance the boiler opreator will have to keep vigil on the water level in the boiler drum. If this level drops more and reaches the trip level, then he will lose the unit and will have to line-up for start-up again. The local operator will have to quickly check if the coal mill feeder is delivering the coal in all the operating mills. Check for any coal hang up in any of the operating mills. He has to also

12

check the furnace conditions and inform the desk operator. If he has to line up another mill to start, he has to inform the boiler control room and prepare the mill for starting. Low Steam Pressure in Boiler

13

Furnace Pressure and Boiler Operation Low furnace pressure can cause equal damage like furnace pressurization or a explosion. Low furnace pressure leads to a situation called furnace implosion if not corrected at the right time. Balanced draft boilers are prone to a very low pressure condition inside the furnace. This condition creates a large amount of force on the waterwalls of the furnace. The buckstays which are provided in the boiler furnace are designed to handle both high and low pressure conditions that can damage the furnace. However if the low pressure continues, and if it exceeds the limit the buckstays can withstand, then the furnace is subject to implosion. Implosion happens when a large pressure acting on the walls of the furnace from outside overcomes the very low pressure prevailing inside the furnace. This leads to a high differential pressure between the atmospheric pressure outside and the pressure inside the furnace. Some of the furnace implosions have led to replacements of the furnace walls and have caused large financial losses to the owners. It is also possible to get into a furnace implosion condition in positive pressure boilers. In fact, in balanced draft furnaces the availability of openings softens the effect to some extent when they are near breakeven points. The damage to the furnace is nearly the same if implosion happens. The reasons of furnace implosion are many. Induced draft fan control failure is one of the common causes in a balanced draft boiler Induced draft fan vane control failure also leads to furnace low pressure condition in balanced draft furnace. Sudden load throw off leading to a large fuel cutting is another common cause of low furnace pressure in both positive and balanced draft boilers Sudden reduction in air flow Sudden tripping of one forced draft fan, leading to a large reduction in air flow

The plant responds to these conditions by a large reduction in furnace pressure and leads to unstable furnace flame conditions. Depending on the indication and the reason for the cause of the problem the boiler operator will have to respond. Switch to induced draft fan control from auto mode to manual mode if the control system is the reason leading to low furnace pressure and take corrective action. Ask the controls engineer to rectify the fault before again turning on to the auto mode. Check the induced draft fan vane control system for proper functioning by changing the set point and finding the response. Rectify if required. Check the air flow condition and ensure the correct air flow to the boiler as per the load condition

14

If one of the forced draft fan has tripped then after establishing the reason for trip and correcting the same, restart the forced draft fan.

The local operator in the field invariably has to check the induced draft fan vane control if this was the reason causing the low furnace pressure. If one of the forced draft fan has tripped, then he has to make ready the fan for restart after ascertaining the reason for the trip. Low Furnace Pressure Flowsheet

15

High Furnace Pressure Problems in Boilers High furnace pressure is a direct indication of a disturbance in combustion performance. The rate of change in the furnace pressure can vary very much, that is from a simple sudden surge due to fuel variations to a huge furnace explosion. Combustion in a boiler furnace is normally considered a controlled explosion, as all boilers operate at a regime where explosion pressure is the maximum. This is mainly due to the fact that it is at this regime we get the maximum efficiency of the boiler. Furnace pressure in boilers is one of the most critical and important parameter to be maintained and monitored. Furnace pressure in a balanced draft furnace is always kept negative, and in pressurized furnace it is positive. Present days designers adopt balanced draft furnace for all solid fuel fired boiler, however there are installations of pressurized furnace even in the case of solid fuel fired boilers. In the case of gas and liquid fuel, generally designers adopt pressurized furnaces. It should be understood that the selection of pressurized or balanced draft furnace depends upon many other factors. Present day boilers have online monitoring of furnace pressure and are controlled on auto. There are also alarms and trips provided for furnace pressure to alert the operator and also to protect the boiler from very high pressure surges. In the case of furnace explosion, if the explosion process is triggered then the boiler cannot be protected by any of these devices. Only the good and safe operating procedures can prevent explosions. There are many reasons why furnace pressure goes high, and the plant responds to these changes in furnace pressure like any other boiler parameter. Specific causes Tripping of induced draft fan Mal-operation of regulating vanes of the fans Unstable flame o Low wind box pressure o Improper burner operation o Sudden starting of mills with fuel in the mill o Sudden fuel input in to the furnace o Loss of ignition energy Gradual buildup of fouling in air pre-heaters Tripping of air pre-heater Furnace water seal broken High excess air levels Large amount of air ingress in the second pass of boiler

The causes given are all applicable for balanced draft furnace, but in the case of forced draft furnace some of the causes are not applicable.

16

Plant response Furnace pressure high alarm appears for corrective action by operator Furnace trip activates if pressure goes above trip limit Boiler furnace pressure surge Can lead to explosion

Immediate operator action Check draft reading for any damper closure Check vane control mechanism of fans for any mal-operation If induced draft fan tripped, reduce load and stabilize boiler parameters Stabilize combustion if combustion is unstable Restart air pre-heater if tripped Check furnace seal and establish if broken Check induced draft fan for any mal-operation

Immediate local operator action Check Check Check Check Check Check for any opening of man holes in second pass air pre-heater rotation dampers in flue gas path for proper position induced draft fan fully to ensure it is in proper operating condition and ensure furnace bottom seal water flow combustion condition and inform control room of any disturbance

It is a good practice for the local operator to get clearance from the control room before making any change (unless it is a standard procedure to take corrective action by the local operator). As furnace pressure increase is one of the indications for boiler explosion boiler operating engineers and all concerned must view increase in furnace pressure very critical and take corrective action and ensure safety. High Furnace Pressure in Boiler

17

18

Cavitation in Hydraulic Turbines: Causes and Effects Cavitation is formation of vapor bubbles in the liquid flowing through any Hydraulic Turbine. Cavitation occurs when the static pressure of the liquid falls below its vapor pressure. Cavitation is most likely to occur near the fast moving blades of the turbines and in the exit region of the turbines Causes of Cavitation The liquid enters hydraulic turbines at high pressure ; This pressure is a combination of static and dynamic components. Dynamic pressure of the liquid is by the virtue of flow velocity and the other component, static pressure, is the actual fluid pressure which the fluid applies and which is acted upon it. Static pressure governs the process of vapor bubble formation or boiling. Thus, Cavitation can occur near the fast moving blades of the turbine where local dynamic head increases due to action of blades which causes static pressure to fall. Cavitation also occurs at the exit of the turbine as the liquid has lost major part of its pressure heads and any increase in dynamic head will lead to fall in static pressure causing Cavitation. Detrimental Effects of Cavitation

19

The formation of vapor bubbles in cavitation is not a major problem in itself but the collapse of these bubbles generates pressure waves, which can be of very high frequencies, causing damage to the machinery. The bubbles collapsing near the machine surface are more damaging and cause erosion on the surfaces called as cavitation erosion. The collapses of smaller bubbles create higher frequency waves than larger bubbles. So, smaller bubbles are more detrimental to the hydraulic machines. Smaller bubbles may be more detrimental to the hydraulic machine body but they do not cause any significant reduction in the efficiency of the machine. With further decrease in static pressure more number of bubbles is formed and their size also increases. These bubbles coalesce with each other to form larger bubbles and eventually pockets of vapor. This disturbs the liquid flow and causes flow separation which reduces the machine performance sharply. Cavitation is an important factor to be considered while designing Hydraulic Turbines. Avoiding Cavitation To avoid cavitation while operating Hydraulic Turbines parameters should be set such that at any point of flow static pressure may not fall below the vapor pressure of the liquid. These parameters to control cavitation are pressure head, flow rate and exit pressure of the liquid. The control parameters for cavitation free operation of hydraulic turbines can be obtained by conducting tests on model of the turbine under consideration. The parameters beyond which cavitation starts and turbine efficiency falls significantly should be avoided while operation of hydraulic turbines. Flow separation at the exit of the turbine in the draft tube causes vibrations which can damage the draft tube. To dampen the vibration and stabilize the flow air is injected in the draft tube. To totally avoid the flow separation and cavitation in the draft tube it is submerged below the level of the water in tailrace. Hydraulic Turbines Hydraulic Turbines transfer the energy from a flowing fluid to a rotating shaft. Turbine itself means a thing which rotates or spins. To know more about what are Hydraulic Turbines, what is the working principle of Hydraulic Turbines and how are they classified, read on through this article series. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Hydraulic Turbines: Definition and Basics Hydraulic Turbines: The Pelton Turbine Hydraulic Turbines: Francis Turbine Hydraulic Turbines: Kaplan Turbine Cavitation in Hydraulic Turbines: Causes and Effects

Handle Low Drum Level in Boiler Operation

Low drum level operation leads to availability loss of the boiler. Water wall tubes fail due to short term overheating. Never bye-pass the very low drum level trip in boiler is to be adopted. Drum level in boiler indicates the level of water in drum for enabling the steam generation without hurdle.

20

Drum level in a boiler indicates the level of water in drum for enabling the steam generation without any hurdle. The level is maintained near normal water level, which generally is below the geometric center of the drum. Maintaining high drum level has its own problems like carryover of salt to superheaters etc. The low drum level has much more serious effect on the boiler tubes. Whenever the boiler operator has a very low drum level, he is warned by alarm for taking a corrective action. If in case this is not responded to and the drum level goes further down to a dangerously low level, the boiler trips on auto to protect the boiler. What are the specific causes, how the boiler responds, what is the immediate action of the boiler control room operator and the local operator are given below. Specific causes One feed pump trips Mal-operation of feed control auto Mal-operation of feed pump scoop Mal-operation of feed control / regulating valve Sudden reduction in load Sudden tripping of one or more mills Tube failure in water wall with large opening Mal-operation of emergency drain valve Mal-operation of low point drain

Plant response Low drum level alarm Very low drum level trip

Immediate boiler desk operator action Start reserve feed pump if needed Change to manual feed water control if required Never bye-pass very low drum level trip Trip the unit if the visible level goes out even if auto did not act

Immediate local operator action Check the tripped pump, rectify cause and inform boiler desk operator that it is ready for restart Check for possible tube leak in furnace first and other areas if needed Check drum drain and low point drain for possible opening Check the feed water auto controller in local and inform condition also arrange for rectification Check feed controller for any link failure

The effect of very low drum level operation is very severe that it can cause the water wall tubes to get overheated; it can cause snaking of water wall tubes leading to lot of projection in and out of furnace. It can cause instant short term fish mouth tube failures in water wall. This kind of failures has led to furnace explosion under certain specific condition and location of failure. If the failure of the tube is in such a location in furnace that the steam coming out of the tube mixes with the coal particles to form producer gas then an explosive mixture gets formed and boiler furnace explodes. The overheating is seen to happen in many water wall tubes than a single tube as experienced in many cases.

21

Rectification of the furnace wall becomes more difficult and time consuming as it requires extensive checking both by NDT (Non Destructive Testing) method as well as sampling method. Leaving the tubes, which have snacked, may not lead to any adverse effect in performance of the boiler except in certain specific locations, like near the burner where fuel impingement can occur and cause fuel ash erosion. The reason for such major failure of water wall tubes when the drum level goes to lower than the very low limit is due to the fact that the steam in the drum gets entrained in the down comers of the circulation system and this upsets the whole natural circulation in the boiler. When the circulation in furnace tubes is upset the cooling of tubes does not take place effectively, which leads to failure of tubes due to short term overheating. Low Drum Level

Steam Power Plant Condenser Cooling 4: Hybrid Wet and Dry Cooling The air cooled condenser is a low water use option used for steam power plant water cooling, but at a cost and performance penalty. Adding a small evaporative cooling component to make it hybrid wet and dry cooling, can eliminate most of the performance penalty with only slightly more water use. Introduction The air cooled condenser (also called a dry cooling tower) is seeing increased use for steam power plant condenser cooling because of increasing concern about the extent of power plant water usage for condenser cooling. Use of an air cooled condenser drastically reduces the rate of power plant water usage, but at the expense of increased capital cost, increased operating cost and a reduction in power production efficiency, especially in hot weather. An air cooled condenser with an added evaporative cooling component has come to be called a hybrid wet and dry cooling system. This combination provides the possibility of eliminating most of the efficiency penalty with only a small increase in power plant water usage.

22

Hybrid Wet and Dry Cooling Objectives

Both wet and dry components (evaporative cooling and an air cooled condenser) are included in a hybrid wet and dry steam power plant condenser cooling system. The evaporative cooling and air cooled condenser components may be used separately or they may be combined in one unit. Plume abatement was the objective for the first hybrid wet and dry power plant water cooling systems put into operation. Plume abatement can be accomplished by using a small amount of dry cooling with an evaporative cooling tower, for use during cold, high humidity periods. More recently hybrid wet and dry cooling systems are being developed with water conservation and reduction of the performance penalty of an air cooled condenser (dry cooling) system. Several way of combining evaporative cooling with an air cooled condenser are being developed to meet these objectives.Hybrid Wet and Dry Cooling for Plume

Abatement Plume abatement, wet and dry systems are essentially a wet cooling tower that uses a small amount of dry cooling to dry out the cooling tower when the plume is most likely to be visible during cold, high-humidity days. This type of hybrid power plant water cooling system will reduce water consumption to some extent from the amount used by a strictly wet cooling tower, but the primary objective is plume abatement. The diagram at the left shows a system with a small air cooled condenser at the top of a wet cooling tower. The air cooled condenser would only be used during cold, high-humidity periods.Hybrid Wet and Dry Cooling for Water Conservation

23

There are several configurations possible for a hybrid wet and dry cooling system that is intended for water conservation. There could be a single tower or separate wet and dry towers, using series or parallel airflow and series or parallel cooling water flow. The diagram at the left shows a hybrid cooling system with an

evaporative cooling tower and an air cooled condenser as separate structures. The air cooled condenser would handle all of the cooling load except for the hottest periods, when part of the cooling load would be handled by the wet cooling tower. Another option using a single tower with supplementary wet cooling available to be used as needed for hot weather is shown at the right. Some of the low capital cost alternatives include spraying water into the air cooled condenser or deluging the air cooled surface with water for short periods. Hybrid wet and dry cooling systems can reduce steam power plant water usage to 5% to 80% of that needed for a wet cooling tower, and still achieve substantial hot weather efficiency and capacity improvements over a steam power plant with a completely dry cooling system. References References: Comparison of Alternate Cooling Technologies for California Power Plants:Economic, Environmental and Other Tradeoffs, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA, and California Energy Commission. 500-02-079F, February 2002. Running Dry at the Power Plant, EPRI Journal, pp 28-35, Summer 2007 The images were adapted from some in the above two references.

24

About the Author Dr. Harlan Bengtson is a registered professional engineer with 30 years of university teaching experience in engineering science and civil engineering. He holds a PhD in Chemical Engineering. Steam Power Plant Condenser Cooling The main use for steam power plant water is in the condenser. The alternatives for cooling are once through cooling, wet cooling tower, dry cooling tower (air cooled condenser), and cooling pond. Each of the steam power plant cooling methods has advantages and disadvantages. 1. Steam Power Plant Condenser Cooling - Part 1: Introduction to Alternatives 2. Steam Power Plant Condenser Cooling - Part 2: Comparison of Alternatives 3. Steam Power Plant Condenser Cooling - Part 3: The Air Cooled Condenser 4. Steam Power Plant Condenser Cooling 4: Hybrid Wet and Dry Cooling 5. A Cooling Pond or Constructed Wetlands for Thermal Power Plant Condenser Cooling

25