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CIGRE 2008

AN EXTENDED MODELING OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS FOR INTERNAL FAULT EVALUATION AND PROTECTION ASSESSMENT G.B. DENEGRI1*, M. INVERNIZZI1, G. MACCIO2, R. PROCOPIO1 and U. REGGIO2 1 Electrical Eng. Dept., University of Genoa, Via Opera Pia 11/A 16145 Genova, Italy 2 Ansaldo Energia, Generation Eng. Dept., Via N. Lorenzi 8, 16152 Genova, Italy

SUMMARY
Investigation of faults in electric power systems is of primary relevance for planning and operation: contingency occurrence analysis finds, for instance, specific application in protection system design, security assessment and economical impact evaluation. Loss of generation is surely one of the most severe outage affecting power systems: all the aspects quoted above are linked to generation management throughout the grid. Concerning the protection system, in particular, it is essential to counteract generator faults efficiently both to prevent cascading events in the electric grid, and to avoid severe damages to generators and related long out of service. Standard approaches for analysis of network faults are well known, whereas additional work could be specifically done for generator fault modelling and detection. From this point of view, internal faults are of particular concern as unexpected fault paths and current amounts could sometime arise, leading to protection malfunctioning and misdetection [1-2]. In literature, some models have been set up [3-7], but further developments can be done especially for what concerns input parameters, not always easily available, and sensitivity to fault location. The paper proposes an extended model of the synchronous machine suitable for a generalised analysis of internal faults, accounting for stator windings with multiple paralleled paths for phase. The main aims and properties of the here presented simulation model are: input parameters as derived from either the electromagnetic design or experimental identification of the generator; fault current computation for variable location, along a winding path, of internal (single or multiple) phase to ground, phase to neutral or phase to phase faults; evidence of selective contributions to fault currents from the different paths of the stator windings; comparison and link between internal fault currents and ones detected by conventional protection schemes.

KEYWORDS
Generator, flux, short-circuit, turn, Fortescue components

*denegri@die.unige.it

1. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELLING The basic modelling of synchronous machines derives from the well established coupled circuit description of stator and rotor windings in relative rotation [4]. Some simplifying assumptions are commonly accepted such as neglecting iron saturation and space harmonics. For the purpose of analysing internal fault conditions in generators with multiple parallel connected paths for each stator phase, some other hypotheses have been made. Being a the number of parallel paths for each phase, one of them is split into two parts, labelled f and r and consisting of Nf and Nr turns, respectively, in order to make accessible internal terminals for describing different fault types. The remaining a-1 unfaulted paths, for each phase, are taken into account by defining an equivalent path p of N=Nf+Nr turns. The rotor is modelled in a classic way, considering the presence of the field and one damper winding for the d-axis, and two damper windings for the q-axis. As far as the stator winding portions f and r are concerned, their main flux directions are different from the p one, as depicted in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Synchronous machine stator and rotor windings with their main flux directions.

1.1 Magnetic equations With the aforementioned assumptions, the generic phase magnetic equations are:

f ,ph = Lfli f ,ph + k f2 M ff ,ph i f ,ph + k f (1 k f ) M fr,ph i r,ph + k f M fp,ph i p,ph + k f M fk,ph i k 2 r,ph = (1 k f ) k f M T i f ,ph + L rli r,ph + (1 k f ) M rr,ph i r,ph + (1 k f ) M rp,ph i p,ph + (1 k f ) M rk,ph i k fr,ph T p,ph = k f M fp,ph i f ,ph + (1 k f ) M T i r,ph + L pli p + M pp,ph i p,ph + M pk,ph i k rp,ph T k = k f M fk,ph i f ,ph + (1 k f ) M T i r,ph + M T i p,ph + L kli k + M k i k rk,ph pk,ph
(1)

being kf=Nf/N, x,ph = [ xa , xb , xc ] stator winding portion,

T

( x = f , r, p ) the vector of the phase flux linkages of the x T i x,ph = [i xa ,i xb ,i xc ] ( x = f , r, p ) the vector of the corresponding currents,
T
T

the vector of the rotor currents and k = fd , kd , kq1 , kq 2 the vector of the rotor fluxes. The M matrices depend on the angles r and f, the magnetic and geometric properties of the machine and the number of turns of the stator (N) and rotor (Nk) windings.

i k = i fd ,i kd ,i kq1 ,i kq 2

1.2 Leakage inductances of stator phases By assuming de-coupled leakages for the parallel connected branches of a phase, the leakage flux of the equivalent path p results:

lp,ph =

a Lli p,ph a 1

(2)

being Ll the overall leakage inductance of a stator phase. Concerning branches f and r, a coupling between their leakage fluxes should arise; this effect is neglected by defining an approximate de-coupled model for leakages of branches f and r according to the relationship (3) lf ,ph = k f aLli f ,ph , and

lr = (1 k f ) aLli r .

(4)

In this way leakage inductances of stator phases, included in the diagonal elements of matrices L in equations (1), are completely defined. 1.3 Park transformation Applying the Park transformation to system equations (1) and scaling the rotor quantities through multiplying currents and dividing fluxes by generic rotor winding), one obtains:

2N x / 3N (being Nx the number of turns of the

f = Lfli f + k f2 M ff i f + k f (1 k f ) M fr i r + k f M fp i p + k f M fk i k 2 r = (1 k f ) k f M T i f + L rli r + (1 k f ) M rr i r + (1 k f ) M rpi p + (1 k f ) M rk i k , fr T p = k f M fpi f + (1 k f ) M T i r + L pli p + M ppi p + M pk i k rp T k = k f M fk i f + (1 k f ) M T i r + M T i p + L kli k + M k i k rk pk

(5)

where matrices M are functions only of the angles r and f as well as of the direct and quadrature axis mutual inductances Md and Mq of the classic machine equivalent circuit [8]. If one is interested only in the subtransient quantities, it is possible to assume that the rotor flux k does not change. As a consequence, rewriting (5) in terms of variations with respect to the pre-fault conditions, it can be stated k=0, thus leading to a relationship between stator fluxes and currents without involving rotor currents, namely:

f = Lfl i f + k f2 Lff i f + k f (1 k f ) Lfr i r + k f Lfp i p 2 T r = k f (1 k f ) Lfr i f + (1 k f ) L rr i r + L rl i r + (1 k f ) L rp i p , p = k f LT i f + (1 k f ) LT i r + L pl i p + L pp i p fp rp

T T

(6)

being, x = xd , xq , x 0 and i x = i xd ,i xq ,i x 0 respectively the vectors of axis fluxes and currents of the x stator-winding portion and L xy = M xy M xk ( M k + L kl ) M T ( x, y = f , r, p ) yk
1

1.4 Sequence transformation Applying the Fortescue transformation to (6) leads to:

being xs = [ x + , x , x 0 ]

fs = Lfl i fs + k f2 Lffs i fs + k f (1 k f ) Lfrs i rs + k f Lfps i ps 2 *T rs = k f (1 k f ) Lfrs i fs + (1 k f ) L rrs i rs + L rl i rs + (1 k f ) L rps i ps ps = k f L*T i fs + (1 k f ) L*T i rs + L pl i ps + L pps i ps fps rps
T

(7)

and i xs = [i x + ,i x ,i x 0 ]

( x = f , r, p )

the vectors of the sequence

components of linkages and currents of the x stator-winding portion, respectively. The matrices Lxys are defined as L xys = TP 1L xy PT 1 ( x, y = f , r, p ) , being P and T Park and Fortescue transformation matrices [8]. As a general remark, it can be observed that the zero sequence is not coupled with the other ones, the diagonal terms of matrices Lxys are real positive numbers and a non-stationary coupling between positive and negative sequences results; such coupling would vanish if Md=Mq and couples of rotor windings (one d and one q) with equal leakages are present. Indeed, the non diagonal terms of the matrices are negligible, thus allowing to set up an approximate de-coupled model. Finally, considering the voltage electrical equations and collecting positive, negative and zero sequence relationships, three de-coupled systems arise; they can be described with three equivalent circuits whenever the effects of angles r and f may be neglected. In Fig. 2, positive and zero sequence circuits are depicted, the negative being equal to the positive one.

Fig. 2 Positive (left) and zero (right) sequence equivalent circuits to address internal fault general modelling.

2. FAULT ANALYSIS
As mentioned before, the model of the machine is defined by three linear systems, one for each sequence, linking voltage and currents, namely:

vf + i f + v r + = [ M + ] i r + , v p + i p +

v f i f v f 0 i f 0 v r = [ M ] i r and v r0 = [ M 0 ] i r0 . v p0 i p 0 v p i p

(8)

In order to use the generator model for internal fault analysis, it is necessary to firstly re-elaborate (8) to account for winding actual connections, neutral set-up and terminal links to the grid, as shown in Fig. 3. Moreover, one has to modify (8) to obtain relationships among the node voltage (f, p, n) referred to ground G (vfg,vng and vpg) and the injected currents (ife, ine and ipe) into the generator. Doing so, the currents ipe and ine are defined in the model to properly simulate an internal fault occurrence; in general, with reference to Fig. 3, we have to face with 24 unknowns and 9 equations (8).

Fig.3 Synchronous machine one-line diagram with highlighted potential fault terminal, neutral grounded impedance and terminal connections to the grid.

The remaining 15 equations can be written out by expressing the links of the machine neutral to ground (3 equations), generator terminals to an external grid (3 equations) together with constraints imposed by the specific fault (9 equations). More in details, the links of the machine neutral to ground and terminals to an external grid state that:

v ng + = 0 v ng = 0 v = 3z ( i + i ' ) T ne0 ne0 ng0

(9)

v pg + = z r + ( i pe + + i 'pe + ) v pg = z r ( i pe + i 'pe ) v pg0 = z r0 ( i pe0 + i 'pe0 )

(10)

being zT the ground impedance and zr(+,-,0) the network sequence Thevenin impedance. As previously remarked, each fault type poses specific additional constraints. Here, as an example, the single phase fault (terminal F, phase a, to neutral N) is considered. Expressing the constraints in the phase domain and, next, applying the Fortescue transform, one has that

i 'pea = 0 i 'peb = 0 i 'pec = 0 i 'nea = i fea i 'neb = 0 i 'nec = 0 i feb = 0 i fec = 0 v fga = z g i fea + v nga efa ( 0 )

i 'pe + = 0 i 'pe = 0 i 'pe0 = 0 i fe + = i fe = i fe i fe0 = i fe (11) (12) i 'ne+ = i fe i 'ne = i fe i 'ne0 = i fe v fg + + v fg v fg0 = 3z g i fe + v gn 0 efa ( 0 )

being zg the fault impedance and efa(0-) the voltage at point f before the fault. Solving the overall equation set allows to determine all the currents and voltages appearing in Fig. 3., as well as the rotor currents, obtained from the equation k=0 (Section 1.3). With a similar procedure, other fault types can be analysed, namely: fault between F and G, F (phase a) and P (phase b), F(phase b) and F (phase c). The only difference with respect to phase to neutral fault concerns the equation sets (11) and (12).

3. APPLICATION CASES
The proposed model is applied with reference to the test-case depicted in Fig. 3, where a generator is connected to the grid through a step-up transformer. The main data of the generator are in Table I.
Table I: Rated quantities of the synchronous generator used in the application cases.

Rating Rated voltage (L-L, RMS) Parallel paths Stator resistance Stator leakage inductance Direct axis mutual inductance Quadrature axis mutual inductance Field leakage inductance Direct axis damper winding leakage inductance Quadrature axis first damper winding leakage inductance Quadrature axis second damper winding leakage inductance

AN VN a R Ll Md Mq Lfdl Lkdl Lkq1l Lkq2l

300 MVA 19 kV 2 0.00086 pu 0.155 pu 2.009 pu 1.88 pu 0.05279 pu 0.00253 pu 0.05176 pu Not present

The generator neutral is grounded through a 1 resistance, while the step-up transformer group is Dyn11, with a short-circuit voltage of 12%. In the following, the results of the simulations relevant to the phase to neutral internal fault are reported. According to Fig. 3, an internal fault from no load conditions is simulated by connecting terminal N to terminal F, which can be moved along the winding portion f from zero to 100% of one of the paralleled paths of a stator phase. The proposed model makes it possible to obtain results for both currents and voltages; however, here, only currents are focused essentially for two reasons: they cause thermal and dynamic stresses on the windings they are the most meaningful quantities, as far as monitoring and protection aspects are concerned. In Fig. 4, the fault and the machine phase currents (neutral side) are depicted. The contributions to the fault of the windings f and r are shown in Fig. 5, while Fig. 6 shows the contribution of the unfaulted winding p and of the external grid.

Fig. 4 Fault current (left) and machine currents at the neutral side (right) in case of a single-phase internal fault between terminals F and N.

From the stress point of view, inspection of the diagrams suggests the following comments: a) Initial fault current maintains significant values even when fault location is close to the neutral itself; this is due to the reduction of the fault impedance, which compensates the reduction of the active electro-motive force. Such a current cannot be monitored with any usual device, as neutral grounding connection is not committed, and can cause stresses in the fault point (hot spot) of the machine, i.e. near the terminal F.

Fig. 5 Contributions of f (left) and r-portion (right) of the stator winding to a single-phase internal fault between F and N.

Fig. 6 Contributions of p-portion (left) of the stator winding and of the external grid (right) to a single-phase internal fault between F and N.

b) For faulted winding portions not greater than about 20%, practically all the fault current flows in the f portion of the faulted path, whereas the current in the r portion is almost negligible; on the contrary, for faults closer to the HV terminals (kf>0.8), the r portion becomes the most stressed one, with current levels of about 5-6 p.u. It should be noticed that, for values of kf very close to 0 and 1, the model loses its validity, since kf is assumed to be a continuous variable belonging to [0,1], while a winding is a discrete quantity which must consist at least of one turn. If one focuses his attention to monitoring and protection aspects, it can be noticed that: c) The usual differential protections are uneffective, since the generator phase currents at the neutral and grid sides are equal, as confirmed by results of Figs. 4 and 6 (right sides). The earth-stator protection is again uneffective, since no current flows in the ground connection. d) The maximum current protection relays could be uneffective in some cases. More in detail, for kf<0.6, the grid side machine terminal current (i.e. the one monitored by such relays) is less than 1.5 p.u., which is normally the tripping threshold for such protection. In such range, for example, a current greater than 3.5 p.u. flows in the f portion, without being detected. Finally, Fig. 7 shows the effects on the field current as a function of the percentage of faulted winding. Such figure depicts both the second harmonics RMS due to the inverse sequence on the stator currents and the DC peak during the transient, which is obtained in the hypothesis that the field flux remains frozen in the first stage of the fault and the damper windings currents have already vanished.

Fig. 7 Field current during a single-phase internal fault between F and N.

As shown, the peak value can reach more than 5 times the no load field current (about 530 A). However, for kf<0.4, such peak becomes less than the rated load field current, and so a related overcurrent protection relay would not be effective for all possible cases. On the contrary, monitoring of the second harmonics could be more effective, since during normal operating conditions, this quantity is not present.

4. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a detailed model of the synchronous machine has been presented in order to properly describe internal faults. Such model, which only requires the knowledge of the classical Park equivalent circuit parameters as input data, is able to predict the value of both stator and rotor currents in the subtransient frame for faults occurring between any internal point F of a stator phase path and the ground G, the neutral point N, the end terminal P or the corresponding internal point F of another phase winding. The application of the procedure to a test-case has highlighted that sometimes the conventional protection schemes can be uneffective in detecting the fault and that a second harmonic relay on the field winding could be useful for fault detection. Future work will concern the upgrade of the model in order to describe also faults between any point of a winding and any other point of another winding. We believe that complete mapping of internal fault currents of a synchronous generator is an essential need for setting up ad-hoc protection schemes.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1] D. Z. Meng Influence of special short circuit on electrical generator design (A1-101 Session 2004-Cigr) [2] M. Papadopulos, N. Boulaxis, D. Tsanakas, A. Safakas Failure analysis of a 360 MW power unit generator (A1-205 Session 2004-Cigr) [3] R.A. Galbraith Short circuits in synchronous machine armatures (Elec. Eng., Vol. 60, Dec 1941, pp.124-1029) [4] V.A. Kinitsky Inductances of a portion of the armature winding of synchronous machines (IEEE Trans., May 1965, PAS-84, (5) pp. 389-395) [5] V.A. Kinitsky Calculation of internal fault currents in synchronous machines (IEEE Trans., May 1965, PAS-84, (5) pp. 381-389) [6] V.A. Kinitsky Digital computer calculation of internal fault currents in a synchronous machine (IEEE Trans., Aug. 1968, PAS-87, (8) pp. 1675-1679) [7] A.I. Megahed, O.P. Malik Synchronous generator internal fault computation and experimental verification (IEE Proc. Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol 145, No. 5, Sept. 1998) [8] R. Marconato Electric Power Systems-Vol. 1 (CEI Italian Electrotechnical Committee)