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It allows several users to share the same frequency channel by dividing the signal into different time slots. The users transmit in rapid succession, one after the other, each using its own time slot. This allows multiple stations to share the same transmission medium (e.g. radio frequency channel) while using only a part of its channel capacity. TDMA is used in the digital 2G cellular systems such as Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), IS-136, Personal Digital Cellular (PDC) and iDEN, and in the Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT) standard for portable phones. It is also used extensively in satellite systems, combat-net radio systems, and PON networks for upstream traffic from premises to the operator. For usage of Dynamic TDMA packet mode communication, see below.
TDMA frame structure showing a data stream divided into frames and those frames divided into time slots. TDMA is a type of Time-division multiplexing, with the special point that instead of having one transmitter connected to one receiver, there are multiple transmitters. In the case of the uplink from a mobile phone to a base station this becomes particularly difficult because the mobile phone can move around and vary the timing advance required to make its transmission match the gap in transmission from its peers.
TDMA characteristics
Shares single carrier frequency with multiple users Non-continuous transmission makes handoff simpler Slots can be assigned on demand in dynamic TDMA Less stringent power control than CDMA due to reduced intra cell interference Higher synchronization overhead than CDMA
Advanced equalization may be necessary for high data rates if the channel is "frequency selective" and creates Intersymbol interference Cell breathing (borrowing resources from adjacent cells) is more complicated than in CDMA Frequency/slot allocation complexity Pulsating power envelope: Interference with other devices
3G systems
Although most major 3G systems are primarily based upon CDMA[citation needed], time division duplexing (TDD), packet scheduling (dynamic TDMA) and packet oriented multiple access schemes are available in 3G form, combined with CDMA to take advantage of the benefits of both technologies. While the most popular form of the UMTS 3G system uses CDMA and frequency division duplexing (FDD) instead of TDMA, TDMA is combined with CDMA and Time Division Duplexing in two standard UMTS UTRA
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by various radio communication technologies. It should not be confused with the mobile phone standards called cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne) and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as simply CDMA, and use CDMA as an underlying channel access method. One of the concepts in data communication is the idea of allowing several transmitters to send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies (see bandwidth). This concept is called multiple access. CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where each transmitter is assigned a code) to allow multiple users to be multiplexed over the same physical channel. By contrast, time division multiple access (TDMA) divides access by time, while frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) divides it by frequency. CDMA is a form of spread-spectrum signalling, since the modulated coded signal has a much higher data bandwidth than the data being communicated. An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people wish to talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in different languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where people speaking the same language can understand each other, but other languages are perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a particular code can communicate. The technology of code division multiple access channels has long been known. In the USSR, the first work devoted to this subject was published in 1935 by professor Dmitriy V. Ageev.[1] It was shown that through the use of linear methods, there are three types of signal separation: frequency, time and compensatory. The technology of CDMA was used in 1957, when the young military radio engineer Leonid Kupriyanovich in Moscow, made an experimental model of a wearable automatic mobile phone, called LK-1 by him, with a base station. LK-1 has a weight of 3 kg, 2030 km operating distance, and 2030 hours of battery life.[2][3] The base station, as described by the author, could serve several customers. In 1958, Kupriyanovich made the new experimental "pocket" model of mobile phone. This phone weighed 0.5 kg. To serve more customers, Kupriyanovich proposed the device, named by him as correllator.[4][5] In 1958, the USSR also started the development of the "Altai" national civil mobile phone service for cars, based on the Soviet MRT-1327 standard. The phone system weighed 11 kg and was approximately 3 cubic meters in size[dubious discuss]. It was placed in the trunk of the vehicles of high-ranking officials and used a standard handset in the passenger compartment. The main developers of the Altai system were VNIIS (Voronezh Science Research Institute of Communications) and GSPI (State Specialized Project Institute). In 1963 this service started in Moscow and in 1970 Altai service was used in 30 USSR cities.[citation needed]
Uses
One of the early applications for code division multiplexing is in GPS. This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile phones.
The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne. The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000. This standard is used by several mobile phone companies, including the Globalstar satellite phone network. The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA. CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for transportation logistics.
, the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is much larger than the
bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio is called the spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.[7]
Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The best performance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in common with the signal the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross correlation. If the code is correlated with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path interference.[8] In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and asynchronous (pseudorandom codes).
Start with a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal. (Although mutual orthogonality is the only condition, these vectors are usually constructed for ease of decoding, for example columns or rows from Walsh matrices.) An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture on the left. These vectors will be assigned to individual users and are called the code, chip code, or chipping code. In the interest of brevity, the rest of this example uses codes, v, with only 2 bits. Each user is associated with a different code, say v. A 1 bit is represented by transmitting a positive code, v, and a 0 bit is represented by a negative code, v. For example, if v = (1, 1) and the data that the user wishes to transmit is (1, 0, 1, 1), then the transmitted symbols would be (v, v, v, v) = (v0, v1, v0, v1, v0, v1, v0, v1) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1). For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the transmitted vector. Each sender has a different, unique vector v chosen from that set, but the construction method of the transmitted vector is identical. Now, due to physical properties of interference, if two signals at a point are in phase, they add to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they subtract and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled by the addition of the transmission vectors, component by component.
If sender0 has code (1, 1) and data (1, 0, 1, 1), and sender1 has code (1, 1) and data (0, 0, 1, 1), and both senders transmit simultaneously, then this table describes the coding steps:
Step 0 1 Encode sender0 Encode sender1
code0 = (1, 1), data0 = (1, 0, 1, 1) code1 = (1, 1), data1 = (0, 0, 1, 1) encode0 = 2(1, 0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1, 1) encode1 = 2(0, 0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 1, 1)
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
2 signal0 = encode0 code0
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
signal1 = encode1 code1
Because signal0 and signal1 are transmitted at the same time into the air, they add to produce the raw signal:
(1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) + (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0)
This raw signal is called an interference pattern. The receiver then extracts an intelligible signal for any known sender by combining the sender's code with the interference pattern, the receiver combines it with the codes of the senders. The following table explains how this works and shows that the signals do not interfere with one another:
Step 0 1 2 3 4 Decode sender0 Decode sender1
code0 = (1, 1), signal = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0) code1 = (1, 1), signal = (0, 2, 2, 0, 2, 0, 2, 0) decode0 = pattern.vector0 decode1 = pattern.vector1
decode0 = ((0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0)).(1, 1) decode1 = ((0, 2), (2, 0), (2, 0), (2, 0)).(1, 1) decode0 = ((0 + 2), (2 + 0), (2 + 0), (2 + 0)) data0=(2, 2, 2, 2), meaning (1, 0, 1, 1) decode1 = ((0 2), (2 + 0), (2 + 0), (2 + 0)) data1=(2, 2, 2, 2), meaning (0, 0, 1, 1)
Further, after decoding, all values greater than 0 are interpreted as 1 while all values less than zero are interpreted as 0. For example, after decoding, data0 is (2, 2, 2, 2), but the receiver interprets this as (1, 0, 1, 1). Values of exactly 0 means that the sender did not transmit any data, as in the following example:
Assume signal0 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) is transmitted alone. The following table shows the decode at the receiver:
Step 0 1 2 3 4 Decode sender0 Decode sender1
code0 = (1, 1), signal = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) code1 = (1, 1), signal = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1) decode0 = pattern.vector0 decode1 = pattern.vector1
decode0 = ((1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1)).(1, 1) decode1 = ((1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1)).(1, 1) decode0 = ((1 + 1), (1 1),(1 + 1), (1 + 1)) data0 = (2, 2, 2, 2), meaning (1, 0, 1, 1) decode1 = ((1 1), (1 + 1),(1 1), (1 1)) data1 = (0, 0, 0, 0), meaning no data
When the receiver attempts to decode the signal using sender1's code, the data is all zeros, therefore the cross correlation is equal to zero and it is clear that sender1 did not transmit any data.
long as the multipath channel induces at least one chip of delay, the multipath signals will arrive at the receiver such that they are shifted in time by at least one chip from the intended signal. The correlation properties of the pseudo-random codes are such that this slight delay causes the multipath to appear uncorrelated with the intended signal, and it is thus ignored. Some CDMA devices use a rake receiver, which exploits multipath delay components to improve the performance of the system. A rake receiver combines the information from several correlators, each one tuned to a different path delay, producing a stronger version of the signal than a simple receiver with a single correlation tuned to the path delay of the strongest signal.[10] Frequency reuse is the ability to reuse the same radio channel frequency at other cell sites within a cellular system. In the FDMA and TDMA systems frequency planning is an important consideration. The frequencies used in different cells must be planned carefully to ensure signals from different cells do not interfere with each other. In a CDMA system, the same frequency can be used in every cell, because channelization is done using the pseudo-random codes. Reusing the same frequency in every cell eliminates the need for frequency planning in a CDMA system; however, planning of the different pseudo-random sequences must be done to ensure that the received signal from one cell does not correlate with the signal from a nearby cell.[11] Since adjacent cells use the same frequencies, CDMA systems have the ability to perform soft hand offs. Soft hand offs allow the mobile telephone to communicate simultaneously with two or more cells. The best signal quality is selected until the hand off is complete. This is different from hard hand offs utilized in other cellular systems. In a hard hand off situation, as the mobile telephone approaches a hand off, signal strength may vary abruptly. In contrast, CDMA systems use the soft hand off, which is undetectable and provides a more reliable and higher quality signal.[11]
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a method of encoding digital data on multiple carrier frequencies. OFDM has developed into a popular scheme for wideband digital communication, whether wireless or over copper wires, used in applications such as digital television and audio broadcasting, DSL broadband internet access, wireless networks, and 4G mobile communications. OFDM is essentially identical to coded OFDM (COFDM) and discrete multi-tone modulation (DMT), and is a frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme used as a digital multi-carrier modulation method. The word "coded" comes from the use of forward error correction (FEC).[1] A large number of closely spaced orthogonal sub-carrier signals are used to carry data[1] on several parallel data streams or channels. Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme (such as quadrature amplitude modulation or phase-shift keying) at a low symbol rate, maintaining total data rates similar to conventional single-carrier modulation schemes in the same bandwidth. The primary advantage of OFDM over single-carrier schemes is its ability to cope with severe channel conditions (for example, attenuation of high frequencies in a long copper wire, narrowband interference and frequency-selective fading due to multipath) without complex equalization filters. Channel equalization is simplified because OFDM may be viewed as using many slowly modulated narrowband signals rather than one rapidly modulated wideband signal. The low symbol rate makes the use of a guard interval between symbols affordable, making it possible to eliminate intersymbol interference (ISI) and utilize echoes and time-spreading (that shows up as ghosting on analogue TV) to achieve a diversity gain, i.e. a signal-to-noise ratio improvement. This mechanism also facilitates the design of single frequency networks (SFNs), where several adjacent transmitters send the same signal simultaneously at the same frequency, as the signals from multiple distant transmitters may be combined constructively, rather than interfering as would typically occur in a traditional single-carrier system.
Summary of advantages
Can easily adapt to severe channel conditions without complex time-domain equalization. Robust against narrow-band co-channel interference. Robust against intersymbol interference (ISI) and fading caused by multipath propagation. High spectral efficiency as compared to conventional modulation schemes, spread spectrum, etc. Efficient implementation using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Low sensitivity to time synchronization errors. Tuned sub-channel receiver filters are not required (unlike conventional FDM). Facilitates single frequency networks (SFNs); i.e., transmitter macrodiversity.
Summary of disadvantages
High peak-to-average-power ratio (PAPR), requiring linear transmitter circuitry, which suffers from poor power efficiency. Loss of efficiency caused by cyclic prefix/guard interval.
one microsecond or less. This imposes severe constraints on synchronization and necessitates the removal of multipath interference. If the same million symbols per second are spread among one thousand sub-channels, the duration of each symbol can be longer by a factor of a thousand (i.e., one millisecond) for orthogonality with approximately the same bandwidth. Assume that a guard interval of 1/8 of the symbol length is inserted between each symbol. Intersymbol interference can be avoided if the multipath time-spreading (the time between the reception of the first and the last echo) is shorter than the guard interval (i.e., 125 microseconds). This corresponds to a maximum difference of 37.5 kilometers between the lengths of the paths. The cyclic prefix, which is transmitted during the guard interval, consists of the end of the OFDM symbol copied into the guard interval, and the guard interval is transmitted followed by the OFDM symbol. The reason that the guard interval consists of a copy of the end of the OFDM symbol is so that the receiver will integrate over an integer number of sinusoid cycles for each of the multipaths when it performs OFDM demodulation with the FFT.
Newer systems, however, usually now adopt near-optimal types of error correction codes that use the turbo decoding principle, where the decoder iterates towards the desired solution. Examples of such error correction coding types include turbo codes and LDPC codes, which perform close to the Shannon limit for the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel. Some systems that have implemented these codes have concatenated them with either ReedSolomon (for example on the MediaFLO system) or BCH codes (on the DVB-S2 system) to improve upon an error floor inherent to these codes at high signal-to-noise ratios.
the mobility mode of the IEEE 802.16 Wireless MAN standard, commonly referred to as WiMAX, the IEEE 802.20 mobile Wireless MAN standard, commonly referred to as MBWA, the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) fourth generation mobile broadband standard downlink. The radio interface was formerly named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA). the now defunct Qualcomm/3GPP2 Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB) project, intended as a successor of CDMA2000, but replaced by LTE.
OFDMA is also a candidate access method for the IEEE 802.22 Wireless Regional Area Networks (WRAN). The project aims at designing the first cognitive radio based standard operating in the VHF-low UHF spectrum (TV spectrum). In Multi-carrier code division multiple access (MC-CDMA), also known as OFDM-CDMA, OFDM is combined with CDMA spread spectrum communication for coding separation of the users. Co-channel interference can be mitigated, meaning that manual fixed channel allocation (FCA) frequency planning is simplified, or complex dynamic channel allocation (DCA) schemes are avoided.
[edit] Transmitter
An OFDM carrier signal is the sum of a number of orthogonal sub-carriers, with baseband data on each sub-carrier being independently modulated commonly using some type of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keying (PSK). This composite baseband signal is typically used to modulate a main RF carrier. S[n] is a serial stream of binary digits. By inverse multiplexing, these are first demultiplexed into N parallel streams, and each one mapped to a (possibly complex) symbol stream using some modulation constellation (QAM, PSK, etc.). Note that the constellations may be different, so some streams may carry a higher bit-rate than others. An inverse FFT is computed on each set of symbols, giving a set of complex time-domain samples. These samples are then quadrature-mixed to passband in the standard way. The real and imaginary components are first converted to the analogue domain using digital-to-analogue converters (DACs); the analogue signals are then used to modulate cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency, fc, respectively. These signals are then summed to give the transmission signal, .
[edit] Receiver
The receiver picks up the signal r(t), which is then quadrature-mixed down to baseband using cosine and sine waves at the carrier frequency. This also creates signals centered on 2fc, so lowpass filters are used to reject these. The baseband signals are then sampled and digitised using
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), and a forward FFT is used to convert back to the frequency domain. This returns N parallel streams, each of which is converted to a binary stream using an appropriate symbol detector. These streams are then re-combined into a serial stream, which is an estimate of the original binary stream at the transmitter.
Usage
OFDM is used in Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital television DVB-T/T2 (terrestrial), DVB-H (handheld), DMB-T/H, DVB-C2 (cable), Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11a, ADSL (G.DMT/ITU G.992.1), Mobile phone 4G.