CERTIFICATE IN ADVANCED ENGLISH CHECKLIST

A P Gardner 09.2009

(This adds to the FCE checklist: it assumes you know it!) 1. ADJECTIVES
1.1 Note the order of adjectives: article/number, value/opinion, size, age, shape, colour, origin, material, compound and noun. E.g. (a) a valuable old square Japanese clock (b) two attractive modern marble chess sets 1.2 Avoid: very, interesting, beautiful, lovely, important. Variety gets you a better mark. Instead of very, use extremely, particularly, unusually or exceptionally. Interesting - fascinating, intriguing, thought-provoking, absorbing, original, curious. Beautiful - stunning, eye-catching, captivating, attractive, gorgeous. Lovely - delightful, pleasant, charming, enchanting. Important - essential, vital crucial, key, decisive. Make your English expressive.

2. ADVERBS
2.1 Five functions of adverbs are: -introducing a sentence (a) Anyway, I've got to talk to the boss about it. (b) By the way, have you met her husband? -modifying an adjective (c) He's becoming increasingly vain. (d) Their results are absolutely fantastic. -weakening an adverb (This is typical English caution, protecting us from contradiction.) (e) She's nearly always right. (f) It was almost completely replaced by the new law. -modifying a verb (adverbs of frequency come before the verb) (g) They generally serve good food. (h) He changed his mind quickly! -adding information after the verb (i) He bought the car yesterday. 2.2 A few adverbs are the same as their adjectives: far, fast, long, next and straight. (a) Don't go too far! (b) He walks fast. (c) I can't wait long. (d) Next, do this. (e) Come straight back! 2.3 Adjectives with two different adverb forms include: clear, deep, fine, hard, late, open, right. E.g. (a) Keep clear! (= Don't come close!) (b) She's clearly the best. (= obviously) (c) His criticism went deep (= hurt). (d) Your help was deeply appreciated. (= greatly) (e) It worked out fine. (=well) (f) The material has to be finely crushed. (=into tiny pieces) (g) They tried hard to find proof. (= a lot of effort) (h) It was hardly fair. (=it wasn't truly fair) (i) She has got to work late again today! (j) Have you seen Clare lately? (= recently) (k) She left the door open. (l) He challenged the minister openly. (=in public) (m) Stay right here! (= Don't go anywhere!) (n) He was rightly dismissed. (= fairly) 2.4 Adjectives with two similar adverbs include: close, direct, first and most. (a) Dont come too close! I've got a cold. (b) It was closely followed by a film. (c) I should deal with the suppliers direct (or "directly"). (d) First we need to ... (e) Firstly we need to ... (also: second...last). Use "first"... after a verb. (f) What I like most is fishing. (g) Mostly he writes poetry. 2.5 A few adverbs change meaning with position, e.g. honestly, just, quite, really and well. (a) I honestly don't know. (= truly) (b) He didn't answer honestly. (= He lied) (c) Just wait here. (= Do nothing more than wait here) (d) She's just come back. (=recently) (e) She's sings quite well. (= but not very well) (f) I'm quite sure. (= very sure) "Quite" weakens ability but strengthens conviction. (g) I really meant to apologise.(= truly) (h) She sang really well. (= very) (i) Well (means nothing), how are you? (j) I thought she answered well.

3. AS COMPARING, DESCRIBING & LINKING

3.1 For comparing, as works either as a conjunction or introduces a preposition. E.g. (a) She chose law as her father had done. (b) In Japan, as in England, it is hard work. In example (b), as and like are equivalent. Remember, though, that like cannot be a conjunction. 1

3.2 As can show purpose and function. (a) He's working as a freelance photographer. (It's not his usual job) (b) We use the back door as a fire exit. (It wasn't built for this purpose) It can show equality and inequality. (c) She's as good as her teacher. (d) He's not as quick as he was. It can introduce descriptions. (e) It was seen as a mistake. (f) He was welcomed as a hero. It can sometimes replace because or, less often, when/while. (g) We'll finish here as it's getting late. (h) He came in as I was leaving.

4. CONDITION
4.1 Expressions include as long as, provided/providing (that), otherwise, in case of. E.g. (a) I'll get one as long as it's not too expensive. (b) In case of fire, break glass. (c) Yes, provided/ providing (that) you're back by ten o'clock. (that is optional) (d) Well have to apologise, otherwise theyll probably complain. 4.2 Use should or happen to if you want to say a condition is less likely. (a) If she happens to call, let me know. (b) Should he be late, the meeting will start without him. Both refer only to the future. "Should" is rather formal. 4.3 Use will, would, could or should to turn a conditional into a polite, formal offer, request or criticism. (a) Please come if you would like to. (b) If you could ask him, I'd appreciate it. (c) If you'll forgive me for saying so, it really is your own fault. 4.4 Use were to or but for to cover unlikely, formal conditions. (a) If someone were to complain, it would be very embarrassing. (b) Of course, if he were to apologise, we could forget the whole matter. (c) But for your intervention, I would have been in an extremely awkward position. 4.5 Use if only to add feeling to unlikely or impossible conditions. (a) If only I had challenged him at the time, he wouldnt have got away with it! 4.6 Mix conditionals (unlikely and impossible) to use the past to explain a current situation. (a) If I didn't trust you (unlikely), I wouldn't have lent you the money (imposs). (= I still trust you) (b) I could come (un) if I hadn't promised (im) to work late. (= I'm disappointed now) (c) If we had (un) a decent budget, we wouldn't have had (im) to borrow. (= It's still a problem) (d) If I could drive (un), I wouldn't have gone (im) by train. (= I'm annoyed that I can't drive) (e) He wouldn't be (un) in court now, if he hadn't been (im) so greedy. (= It is his fault) 4.7 Use won't to show determination. (a) If you won't listen to me, there is nothing more I can do. (b) Theres no way forward if they won't even negotiate with us. 4.8 Use ellipsis where impact is more important than correct grammar, for example with leaflets. (a) Avoid stress if at all possible. (b) If in doubt, consult your GP. (= family doctor)

5. CONTRASTING & COMPARING

5.1 Considerably, far, many, much and slightly modify fewer, less and more. E.g. (a) It cost far less than we expected. (b) We're much more efficient now. (c) There were considerably fewer visitors than at last year's show. Use many with fewer (plural noun) but use much with less (singular noun). (d) There were many fewer tourists than predicted. (e) It costs much less than comparable cars. 5.2 Use almost, around, exactly, just, nearly, over and roughly to modify half/twice/three times as many/much as. 2

(a) They demanded nearly twice as much as we offered. (b) We've sold roughly (= about) half as many computers as we did last year. (c) I need over twice as much information as I did with the old reporting system. 5.3 Other expressions include: is identical to, is similar to, is very like, is much the same as, is quite unlike, is a complete contrast to, resembles, reminds me of, makes me think of, bears no resemblance to, has nothing in common with. (a) He resembles his father; hes got the same determination and capacity for hard work. (b) All these houses are much the same. Its hard to know which one to recommend. 5.4 For emphasis, repeat the word. (a) Fewer and fewer people are voting for the party now. (b) More and more companies are wasting precious time on pointless bureaucracy. (c) Less and less money is being invested in education.

6. EMPHASIS
6.1 Use the main point as an introduction. E.g. (a) We got there at six. (no emphasis) It was six when we got there. (b) Tom broke it. It was Tom who broke it. (c) She's fine; it's her kids that drive me mad. 6.2 Use a single word (perhaps two) as an introduction. (a) We need organisation. (no emphasis) Organisation is what we need. (b) He retired because of poor health. Poor health is what made him retire. (c) Forget about more advertising! Better training is the solution. 6.3 Use suspense, putting the main point at the end. (a) Trust is the key to friendship. (no emphasis) The key to friendship is trust. (b) I admire Paul's determination. What I admire is Paul's determination. (c) What I find really hard to believe is that nobody called the police. 6.4 Use a question word with ever. (a) Don't forget my letter. Whatever you do, don't forget my letter. (b) I'm going to tell him he's wrong, however upset he gets. (c) Whoever told you that doesn't know what he's talking about. (d) Come whenever you want. (e) Do whatever you think best. (f) Whichever way you go, it's bound to take at least an hour. 6.5 Add the auxiliary do/does. (a) She does want to come but she just hasn't got enough money. (b) We do believe you. It's such a strange story, that's all. 6.6 Add an adverb, such as: actually, certainly, definitely, honestly, really. Informal use only. (a) You really need to see a doctor. (b) Do you honestly believe all that nonsense? (c) It's definitely time we got rid of him. (d) It really is a shame he's left. The adverb often loses much of its meaning. It is emphasized in speech. 6.7 Change the word order. Formal use only. You need to know it, but avoid using it. (a) Such laws rarely have much effect. Rarely do such laws have much effect. (b) The government scrapped the system just after it had been introduced. Hardly had the system been introduced when the government scrapped it. (c) I had never met so many kind, generous, forgiving people before. Never before had I met so many... (d) If you are dissatisfied with any of our products, please tell us at once. Should you be dissatisfied with... The new sentence has the word order of a question. It needs an auxiliary verb if the original sentence doesn't have one: see do, should in the examples. Some narratives use this method to create atmosphere. 3

(e) Little did I know what he would do next. (f) Never has so much money been wasted and so little achieved. (g) Not until long afterwards did I understand her anger and frustration.

7. FUTURE FORMS
7.1 Use the future perfect simple for a state or activity that ends before a future event. E.g. (a) I'll have finished the report by the time you get back. (b) They're building a bypass at last! I bet we'll have moved before they finish it. (c) He said I would be promoted next year. He'll have forgotten about it by then! (d) I hope the jewels will have been recovered by the time the owners find out about the theft. 7.2 Use the future perfect continuous for activities continuing or ending at a future time. (a) We'll have been going out together for five years next week. (b) When I retire next June, I'll have been working here for exactly fifty years. 7.3 Formal and official instructions and arrangements use to be with an infinitive. (a) Students are not to smoke anywhere in the college. (b) The accounts are to be audited sometime next week. (c) You are to comply with office procedures just like everyone else. This form always shows authority and sometimes anger or mild threat. 7.4 Use due to or about to with an infinitive for the near future. (a) The new director is due to be appointed next week. (b) They're about to announce the results. Although due to is a little formal, about to is flexible.

8. HYPOTHESIZING
8.1 A conditional sentence has a condition and a result; it is a statement of logic. A hypothetical one expresses frustration or longing and often omits the result as it is unnecessary. E.g. (a) I wish I could play the piano like my sister. (I'm not thinking about learning.) (b) I wish I had gone to Africa with my brother. (I'm just daydreaming.) (c) If only she would give up smoking! (I know she won't so I dont mention a result.) (d) If only they had asked me. (I could have helped them.) (e) Supposing it was your money, what would you do? (Let's pretend it is.) (f) Supposing you had been arrested, what would you have done? 8.2 Habits, actions and attitudes can also be covered. (a) I wish he wouldn't keep interrupting me. It really annoys me. (b) If only she had got permission before going home early. (c) He talks as if he owned the company. (current habit) (d) She behaved as if she had been the boss. (past action) (e) They treat me as if I were a rival. (f) They talked as if I had lied to them.

9. NOUNS UNUSUAL SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS

9.1 Some nouns have a plural unrelated to the singular, e.g. air, damage, fruit, manner, pain, sight, work. Here [c] means countable and [u] means uncountable. E.g. (a) Ah! Fresh air! [u] (b) She's always putting on airs. (= pretends to be better than she is) [u] (c) The storm did much damage. [u] (d) The court awarded him 50,000 damages (= compensation). [u] (e) I love fruit. [u] (f) Sadly, she didn't live to enjoy the fruits of her work. (= good results) [u] (g) Its the manner (= way) in which he made that changes that upsets me. [u] (h) The pupils manners (= behaviour) are excellent. [u] (i) Shes in a lot of pain. [u] (j) They went to great pains (= effort) to trace the child's parents. [u] (k) His sight (= eyesight) is weak now. [u] (l) We mustnt lose sight of (= forget) our aim. [u] (m) The sights (= tourist attractions) in London are really worth seeing. [c] 4

(n) Its his lifes work. [u] (o) His complete works (= all he wrote) are now on sale for 90. [u] 9.2 Some nouns have plurals with two different meanings, e.g. customs, grounds, spirits. (a) You go through immigration and then customs ( = luggage check). [u] (b) Its one of our more interesting rural customs (= traditions). [c] (c) The house and its grounds are now up for sale. [u] (d) He was dismissed on the grounds (= reasons) of lateness and carelessness. [c] (e) They're counted as spirits. (= strong alcohol) [c] (f) They sang to keep their spirits up. (= stay cheerful) [u] 9.3 Some nouns have singulars with two different forms, e.g. business, charity, surgery. (a) Shes thinking of starting her own business. (= firm) [c] (b) Business (= commercial activity) attracts a lot of ambitious youngsters. [u] (c) He's a director of three different charities. (= voluntary organisations) [c] (d) Charity (= caring for others) is vital in any society. [u] (e) There are over ten surgeries in our town. (a surgery is a place where doctors or dentists see patients) (f) Unfortunately, she needed surgery. (= an operation) [u]

10. PARTICIPLES PRESENT & PAST

10.1 Present participle Used with a noun, e.g. He hated missing the party. Used as a noun, e.g. You have to admire their acting. Used as an activity, e.g. No smoking anywhere in this building. Used negatively, e.g. (a) It's no use talking to him. (b) It's not worth waiting. Used after can't and verb, e.g. I can't help wondering what happened to him. Used with an object: (a) I liked the changing of the guard. (b) Killing the hostages outraged the public. Verbs use the present participle, the infinitive or both. If both are used, the two forms may mean the same, e.g. attempt, begin, bother, cease, continue, deserve, hate, like, love, prefer, start. They arent the same with: come, dread, forget, go on, mean, regret, remember, stop, try. E.g. (a) They ran screaming out of the shop. (motion) (b) I came to accept the deal. (no motion) (c) She dreads seeing him. (d) I dread to think how much it will cost. (set expression + future) (e) He can't forget breaking the vase. (-ing indicates a past action, but the memory is present) (f) He forgot to apologise about the vase. (past simple for past action; no link with the present) (g) She went on sewing as if nothing had happened. (= she didn't stop) (h) He went on to win the championship. (= later, on a different occasion) (i) Promotion meant moving house. (result) (j) I didn't mean to hurt her. (intention) (k) Do you regret leaving him? (in the past) (l) I regret to inform you that...(present) (m) I can't remember seeing her at the party. (present form, but refers to the past) (n) Did you remember to lock the door? (past form) (o) Let's stop arguing. (ends activity) (p) Let's stop to take some photos. (interrupts activity) (q) Try talking to him! (Do something!) (r) Try to persuade him! (Do your best!) 10.2 Present & past participles compared Use them as adjectives, -ing for continuing activities and -ed for completed ones. E.g. (a) They couldn't repair the leaking roof. (It still leaks) (b) You can buy the revised edition now. (The revision is completed) Use them both to describe a noun. They often don't use relative pronouns (who, which, what). (a) A man fitting the police description has just been arrested. (b) The yachtsman rescued last night is still recovering in hospital. Use them with actions are involved. (a) Removing the key, she slowly opened the door. (b) Caught red-handed, he simply had no explanation. (c) He walked quietly, watching and listening carefully. (d) Angered by the allegations, he stormed out of the meeting. (e) Having checked the rope, he started the climb. Use them to explain the main sentence. (a) They had to hurry, being already half an hour late. (b) She obeyed immediately, not wanting to upset him. (c) He talked hesitatingly, alarmed by what she had said. This structure is popular in writing, especially in newspapers, because it saves space. 5

11. PRONOUNS
11.1 Indefinite pronouns There are three pronouns that cover people generally: one, you, they. - Avoid using one: it is old and awkward. - Use you informally, e.g. The food's good if you (= anybody) don't mind waiting. - Use they to avoid problems with he/she, e.g. They won't let you in without a ticket. We often use they for the government, the council, the company or the police. - Use you and they together, e.g. They never listen to you anyway. It's pointless. 11.2 Reflexive pronouns - Use these when the object is the same as the subject or to add emphasis. E.g. (a) Eventually the fire burned itself out. (b) He lives by himself. (alone) (c) She needed someone to experiment on and decided to use herself. (d) They had to look after each other; it was a question of survival. (e) They used to get on one another's nerves so they split up in the end. Each other and one another are used mainly for two people. 11.3 The word it is often used to introduce a formal sentence, especially in journalism. (a) It seems/appears that (b) It is believed/understood/thought/expected that

12. PUNCTUATION
12.1 Commas separate simple items in a list except before and, introduce direct speech, show pauses without a conjunction, and identify clauses containing non-essential information. E.g. (a) He's short, fat and bald. (b) She answered, "It's too late". (c) When I find out, I'll phone you. (d) The doctor, who smoked heavily, just smiled. Compare these with (e) She said it was too late. (f) The man who died was his uncle. 12.2 Apostrophes show possession, missing letters and numbers, and close relationships. (a) the lady's coat/the ladies' coats (b) won't, '98 (= 1998) (c) an hour's walk 12.3 Semicolons link related sentences and separate long, complex items in a list. (a) This should be done carefully; it could be dangerous. (b) Her conscience told her to stop; ambition told her to go on. (c) It involves: contacting your embassy; arranging a meeting with the consul; explaining why you want political asylum; and giving good answers to questions. 12.4 Colons introduce lists, explanations and introduce literary quotations. (a) Don't forget essentials: a map, a compass and a torch. (b) He understood: resign or be fired. (c) There is a saying: "Live and let live". 12.5 Brackets are usually informal. Only use them for comments in friendly letters or notes. (a) His brother (I think you met him once) is quite an expert on this. 12.6 Hyphens are for compound adjectives and nouns. They also work like brackets. (a) a fifty-pound note/air-conditioning (b) I saw Bob - Tony's friend - last week. 12.7 Exclamation marks show direct commands and, when necessary, surprise. (a) Look out! (b) I couldn't believe it when she told me. (The words are enough) (c) Ten percent! (The words alone show no feeling; the "!" shows great surprise)

13. REGISTER
13.1 Register has three aspects: vocabulary, structure and style. 13.2 Use FRIENDLY when you have a good personal relationship with someone. Vocabulary - Use the shorter of two equivalent words, use phrasal verbs. Structure - Use short sentences, use abbreviations, avoid the passive, link ideas clearly. Style - Be open. Include exaggeration, humour and assumptions. 6

E.g. (a) Hurry up! It's late. (b) I haven't got a clue what she was going on about. (c) I met that boy again. He's mad! He keeps wanting do really crazy stunts. 13.3 Use INFORMAL when you are comfortable with someone who isn't a friend. Vocabulary - As above but avoid any impolite or non-standard language. Structure - Use correct grammar and be accurate with sentence structure. Style - Be moderately open, be careful and include limited emotion and humour. (a) We'd better hurry. A taxi might be a good idea. (b) I really don't know what she was trying to say. (c) He's a bit weird. You've got to be careful how you handle him. 13.4 Use NEUTRAL with strangers and when you aren't sure. Vocabulary - Use the correct word or expression, even if it's long. Structure - Aim to be clear and to express ideas logically. You can use the passive. Style - Be a little reserved, speak thoughtfully and avoid emotion. (a) I think we ought to go soon. (b) I'm not at all sure what she wanted to say. (c) Some people find him difficult. It's worth thinking about what you say to him. 13.5 Use FORMAL for official, business and academic work. Vocabulary - Use precisely the right word. Avoid phrasal verbs and ambiguous words. Structure - Sentences must have only one possible meaning. Logic must be clear. Style - Be impersonal, be factual, be concise and leave no room for misunderstanding. (a) The budget is currently expected to be exceeded by approximately fifteen percent. (b) Her presentation contained two points which need clarification. The first... (c) A cautious approach would avoid any misunderstandings. 13.6 VERY FORMAL is used mainly for public notices and official instructions. Vocabulary - Polite, correct language is used. Words often convey authority. Structure - Notices use ellipsis. The passive is common. Clarity is essential. Style - Uncompromisingly firm language encourages obedience. (a) Smoking is not permitted anywhere in this hospital. (b) Visitors are requested not to touch any of the exhibits. (c) A passport-sized photograph should be attached to this application form.

14. RELATIVE CLAUSES

14.1 Relative clauses add information about a noun that is either essential or added for interest. We call them defining (essential) and non-defining (added) clauses. 14.2 Defining clauses are introduced by who (people), which (things) or that (either). We don't use commas to separate them from the main sentence. The relative pronoun (who/which/that) is necessary if it is the subject of the clause, optional if it is the object. The accusative form, whom, is only used formally: who is normal. Whom is used after prepositions. The genitive, whose, is for both people and things. E.g. (a) The waiter who served us was very friendly. (essential info, who is the subject) (b) She's the one that (optional) I admire most. (that is the object and is optional) (c) To whom are the police answerable? (d) Who should the police answer to? Example (c) is correct but most people would use (d), especially in conversation. (e) Do you know whose book it is? (f) That's the bank whose manager was fired. 14.3 Non-defining clauses are introduced by who or which but never that. Commas separate out the clause. relative pronoun is essential. This clause is usually formal or neutral and is found mainly in writing. (a) The detective, who was getting suspicious, kept up the flow of questions. (b) The shop, which opens tomorrow, is likely to be very popular. (c) The engineer, whom I've known for years, said he could help me. (in writing) (d) I've known the engineer for years and he said he could help me. (in speech) Note: commas in writing represent pauses in speech; use relative clauses only if adjectives can't describe the noun adequately; avoid awkward language; which can refer to an idea as well as a single word, what can The 7

refer to something not said. (a) A highly respected expert... (better than) An expert who is highly respected... (b) Nobody knows who the box is for. (not) To whom the box was sent is a mystery. (c) He had saved a life, which was what mattered most to him. (d) We can only give what we believe to be the best advice.

15. REPLY QUESTIONS

15.1 Use reply questions to show interest in what someone else is saying, without stopping them. A reply question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun. E.g. (a) Your friend says, "I passed my driving test yesterday ". You say, "Did you? (= reply question) Well done." Your friend carries on. (b) Your friend says, "I'm going to England next year." You say, "Are you? That's wonderful." A reply question needs no answer, that's why it works. It's friendly/informal.

16. REPORTED SPEECH

16.1 If the words spoken are recent and still apply, use the actual words. E.g. (a) He says we don't need to lock the door. (b) She thinks he's already left. Putting these in the past makes them more complicated but gives no more information. Sometimes changing the tense makes the reported message unclear. (c) He says he's sure I'm going to pass the test. (The test is in the future) Not, (d) He said he was sure I was going to pass the test. (Perhaps I know my result) Example (c) shows the test is in the future, (d) doesn't and is therefore unsatisfactory. With proposals, suggestions and promises, it's often best to change the structure. (a) "I'll certainly think about it." He promised to think about it. (b) "I propose that we scrap the plan." He proposed scrapping the plan.

17. VOCABULARY
17.1 Differences between words are important at this level: words can have a difference in meaning, in use, in grammar and in the words they are used with. 17.2 Examples of differences in meaning include: (a) fit (good physical condition), healthy (no health problems), well (healthy at the moment) (b) designed (plan/intention), styled (artistic), programmed (computer/timetable) (c) estimate (use facts), guess (opinion only), assume (expectation) (d) normal (as it should be), typical (as we expect it to be), usual (as it mostly is) (e) repair (damage), renovate (whole building), redecorate (surfaces only) 17.3 Examples of small differences in use include: (a) manufacture (many, formal), produce (many, neutral), make (one or many, informal/neutral) (b) control (something), rule (people), dominate (biggest influence), impose (force on others) (c) equipped (hospital/person), fitted (room/machine), stocked (shop/store) (d) injure (accident), wound (war/deliberate), hurt (less serious), damage (thing, not person) (e) discover (already existed), uncover (by accident), recover (was lost), invent (didn't exist) 17.4 Examples of differences in grammar, mainly prepositions, include: (a) prepositions/adverbs in phrasal verbs - see FCE Checklist (b) in search of = looking for, (both mean the same) (c) was aware of = knew about (d) because of = owing to (e) due to = caused by (f) made me stay = forced me to stay (g) in future (adverb), in the future (preposition plus noun) 17.5 Examples of words that go together include: (a) the water's edge; the cup's rim; the country's border (b) an insurance policy; a pay deal; a peace treaty (c) a league table; an opinion poll; a public inquiry; head office 17.6 Avoid errors with words that sound the same but are unrelated: (a) councillor (member of a council); counsellor (adviser) (b) herd (group of cows); heard (c) pray (ask God); prey (what a bird/animal hunts) (d) beach (sand); beech (a tree) 8

(e) band (plays music); banned (not allowed any more) (f) tire (lose energy); tyre (car) other pairs include: fair/fare; stake/steak; aloud/allowed; find/fined; wait/weight. 17.7 Other words have two unrelated meanings: (a) found = to start an institution/past form of "to find" (b) match = to fit/a game/a lighter (c) matter = substance/problem (d) leave = holiday (formal)/to go from somewhere (e) lying = telling a lie/resting on something (f) execute = carry out/put to death other examples include: fan, tie, temper, try, table, court, lighter, helping, bank. 17.8 Some words which show the user's attitude (user = speaker/ writer): (a) terrorist (user opposed), freedom-fighter (user supportive) (b) cowardly (u. opp.), cautious (u. neutral) (c) extravagant (u. opp.), generous (u. supp.) (d) reckless (u. opp), adventurous (u. supp.) (e) boring (u. opp.), uneventful (u. neut.) The point is that the same person or action can be described by both words. 17.9 Some words have the same idea but a different emphasis or use: (a) sound (all we hear), noise (unpleasant) (b) slander (spoken), libel (written) (c) interview (limited questioning), interrogate (forceful) (d) avoid (legal), evade (often illegal) (e) rob (person, place), steal (things taken) (f) lively (full of energy), alive (not dead) 17.10 Some words differ in strength: (a) illegal (a crime), forbidden (less than a crime) (b) upset < angry < furious (never "very") (c) careless (excusable), negligent (inexcusable) (d) unfriendly (passive), hostile (active) (e) surprising < astonishing (a shock) (f) expensive < exorbitant (unreasonably costly) Others include: overweight/obese, unfair/outrageous, cunning/deceitful, law/rule.

18. WRITING
18.1 Introduction You have two tasks. Section 1 has one compulsory task. In Section 2 you choose one option. Choose the type of composition you usually get the best marks for. Plan both your answers: - match the middle precisely to what the question asks; - make your conclusion the logical result of the middle; - devise an introduction that fully prepares your reader for the rest. Plan in paragraphs and finish planning before you start. Once you start, never change your plan. Check your work but don't change anything unless you are sure it is wrong. Remember: use the English you know; never translate from Romanian or guess. 18.2 Business Letters Register Think clearly about your relationship with the reader. Think how polite, insistent, apologetic or firm you should be. Establish in your mind the attitude you need to answer the exam question. Put yourself in the readers position and think what would best influence you. Plan your letter, perhaps as follows. Content. Consider the information in the question and sort out the points you have to cover. Identify all you need to include for each point and arrange the points in two or three paragraphs of about the same length. They should each have a single theme and be in a logical order. Use the last line of each one to prepare the reader for the next one. Emphasis To make the letter more powerful, choose one idea in each paragraph that is worth emphasizing and select a suitable way of doing it. The other points in each paragraph should support the principal idea. This helps the reader remember your main points. Conclusion Without introducing new facts, devise a conclusion that summarises clearly what you want the reader to do, appreciates the effort involved and is both polite and positive. Think of two or three conclusions before selecting the best. Never rush a conclusion: end well. Introduction State clearly, simply, reasonably and politely what you want to achieve in your letter. Avoid emotion and exaggeration. Make the context clear. Try two or three introductions and imagine what effect each would have on you. It is a business letter, so be professional. Finally Write separate lists of your most common errors - your editing/hit list will help - and of language you want to include, such as passives, conditionals, reported speech and phrasal verbs. Remember what language your register needs. As you write the letter, keep thinking how you would react to it. Never change your plan as the change will almost certainly do more harm than good: even if the change appears good, it will disrupt the flow of your letter. Avoid language that could make the reader stop to sort out what you mean. Never translate from Romanian - use the English you know. 18.3 Informal Letters 9

Reader Think clearly about your relationship with the reader as it is the basis for the letter. Decide how you would act in the situation outlined in the exam question in real life. Then consider how the reader is feeling and show that you care and want to do something to help. Content Clarify the readers situation and needs, identifying all the essential points you need to cover, such as information, advice, practical help or comfort. Arrange these points in paragraphs, each one having a single theme. Dont let facts dominate the letter and be friendly in everything you recommend. Try to give the reader options. Emphasis It is helpful to emphasize the points in your letter that most directly answer the exam question and to choose gentle ways of doing it, for example, Do remember to...., Whatever you do, dont forget to....., or, I think what youve got to decide is...... Add expressions that show understanding of the readers situation. Keep thinking about your relationship with him or her. Conclusion Your conclusion should show warmth and support, while reinforcing the main point you are making in your letter. It is useful to avoid repeating language already used and to end positively and encouragingly, for example, Whatever happens, remember Ill do what I can to help you, or, Give me a call as soon as you decide what to do. Introduction Almost any informal letter needs a reference to the last contact you had with the reader and this forms a natural introductory first sentence. After an expression of concern or sympathy, your third sentence can mention the aim of the letter. Avoid rushing into the points you want to cover as this makes your letter more businesslike exactly what you don't want. Finally (As business letters, above.) 18.4 Magazine & Newspaper Articles Purpose Read the question carefully as it is crucial to find out exactly what the aim of the article is and what sort of person is likely to read it. You may need to inform, explain, persuade, summarise or justify. Underline key words in the question if it helps you to focus on the task and keep the aim of the article clearly in your mind. Unless the purpose of the article suggests otherwise, neutral register is usually best. Set out to be entertaining and struggle to avoid being boring. Content Identify what you need to include in the article so as to answer the exam question fully. Put the information in an order that will keep the readers interest. An article needs an eye-catching start and a reason for reading on to the end, so keep something unexpected for the finish, perhaps a surprise or a special offer. Any particularly important information can be repeated to help the reader remember it, for example, Dont forget to..., or, Once again.... Interest Although you mustnt change the information in the exam question or add anything major, you should try to create an interesting article. You can do this by including feelings, atmosphere, humour or emotion. You could create suspense by not giving the reader all the facts in order and saving something for the end. Try to think what you want to be in the readers mind at each stage and plan your article to achieve this. An article should be entertaining as well as functional. Layout Set the article out so that it looks appealing, using sub-headings if you think these help. Avoid long paragraphs and sentences as these slow the reader down and can be discouraging. Title A good title is vital to the success of the article and demands careful thought. It must give the reader a clear idea of the theme of the article but doesnt need to be a whole sentence or even grammatically complete. Originality helps a lot and humour may be appropriate. Try a number of different titles before choosing one: it is worth investing time in this. 18.5 Reports Register Reports are generally formal. They present and analyse facts in order to help the reader make decisions. Some individual interpretation is allowable but this must be logical and fair. Reports should be easy to read and understand, but also precise and convincing. They should give the reader confidence in what they say and need to be objective and balanced to achieve this. Humour and emotion are not appropriate. Content Reports give information and conclusions or recommendations. Decide what information you need to include in your report and then consider what you can fairly conclude or recommend from this. You must put aside personal views and convictions: this is an exam and it is vital to write a good report without imposing your opinions on the examiner. There are three essential parts to a report. First, you need to explain what you are analysing and what sources you are using. Second, you should present your information in a balanced and perceptive way. Finally, you need to outline your conclusions or recommendations and be honest about any doubts or other interpretations your information allows. Limits Clarify exactly what the exam question requires and decide what you can cover thoroughly. Limit yourself to what you can do well. Also, restrict yourself to what you are sure about as your report must be believable in Britain, where the papers are marked. Limit your conclusions to what is plainly demonstrated by your information. Dont worry if what you say seems obvious to you. Logic Every decision you make must be logical and this is the skill of report writing. It is essential to give the reader confidence in what you say and only clear thinking achieves this. Avoid hurrying your plan because faulty logic severely damages a report. Never change your plan once you start writing, even if a wonderful idea comes to you, as it will upset the continuity of your report. Finally From the start of your report, show the reader that you know exactly what you are doing and are 10

doing it calmly, fairly and reliably. Be reasonable and modest in all you write, keeping the readers confidence right up to the last word. Leave the reader with the clear impression that reading your report was a useful experience and that your conclusions or recommendations are trustworthy. 18.6 Reviews Explanation Sometimes there is an exam question requiring a review. The question specifies what kind of material you have to review, perhaps a book, television programme or video, and may say what the theme should be, for example, travel, education or biography. You choose the book, or whatever, and write the review for a particular readership. The question is phrased to stop you preparing too much in advance but you can at least make sure you have a thorough knowledge of one of each kind of material. The following advice uses a book review as an example. Content A good review gives the reader an overview of the book and includes specific incidents to illustrate what it contains. It shouldnt take away the joy of reading the book itself by saying too much about the plot but needs to help the reader decide whether or not to buy it. The review must be balanced, perceptive and mainly objective, but you can express some personal opinions as long as you do so openly. Overview This summary should include the setting of the book, the characters, and an indication of the plot. The setting identifies the time and place while a brief description of the principal characters indicates what kind of story it is. It is enough to say what the plot centres on, perhaps a persons career or relationships in a small community. Incidents Picking out a couple of key incidents focuses the readers attention on what the experience of reading the book is going to be like. Avoiding events that are too close to the climax of the book saves spoiling the readers enjoyment of it. Examples could include a significant case in a lawyers career or a traumatic incident in a village. In both examples, enough can be said without giving away how they end. Conclusion A review must close with an assessment of the book. This should cover both good and bad aspects of the book and indicate the sort of person its meant for. You can add your own comments on how you reacted to it providing you do so openly. 18.7 Guidance on sentence structure Sentence length A simple sentence has one idea, The magazine was fascinating, and there are occasions when this kind is ideal, for example when you want to emphasise a single point. A one-idea sentence used among longer ones tends to have greater impact than the others and readers often remember it better. It stops you. Thats why it works. Never imagine that a longer sentence is better than a shorter one: each sentence length has its role. Longer sentences combine more ideas but introduce other problems. Incorrect structure is a common error and some examples follow. Longer sentences In the following (X) indicates a sentence with poor structure. E.g. (X) I didnt have very much money so I had to buy the cheapest one and I spent all my money. Think how to express these three ideas better before you read on. One solution follows. E.g. Even though I bought the cheapest one, I spent all my money. The answer is that the original sentence only has two essential ideas and adding the third one simply confuses the reader. Putting even though at the start tells the reader to expect a surprising end and makes reading easier. E.g. (X) It was a nice holiday and all of us enjoyed it but we couldnt go swimming and it wasnt as good as we hoped it would be. Once again, try to correct it before reading on. One option follows. E.g. We enjoyed the holiday but we were a bit disappointed that we couldnt go swimming. The original sentence has four ideas which need to be combined thoughtfully so the reader can understand the three main points without stopping. Linking words Words that connect two ideas are called linking words or conjunctions and it is useful to understand the function each one has. As before, try to correct the following and then read the suggested solution. There is, of course, more than one good solution. E.g. (X) It was raining and I took my umbrella but then the sun came out and I didnt need it. The word and seems misused both times. Think of a better sentence. One answer follows. E.g. I took my umbrella because it was raining but the sun came out so I didnt need it. Changing the order of the ideas avoids using so twice. Well-chosen conjunctions make reading much easier. E.g. (X) There is a lot of violence on television but some of it is necessary and we shouldnt make it all illegal because that would undermine our freedom of expression. Once again, try to find a better option. One follows. Violence on television should not be made illegal because some of it is necessary. I dont think the comment about freedom in the original sentence adds anything so Ive left it out.

19. WRITING: OTHER SPECIFIC TASKS AT A GLANCE

19.1 Leaflet: (a) identify the points you want to highlight and note other essential details; (b) use ellipsis to present your points powerfully; the first word of each point matters; (c) be positive and encouraging, without exaggerating, to convince the reader; (d) make the leaflet visually attractive and easy to read quickly; (e) check you have included all necessary details, such as location, times, prices. 11

19.2 Speech: (a) clarify the aim of the speech: thanks, welcome or persuasion; (b) catch listeners attention at the start, e.g. a funny incident, a challenge, a promise; (c) include a few simple points and illustrate them with examples or experiences; (d) summarise one point before starting another to help listeners remember; (e) conclude with what the listener should do next and thank them for their attention; (f) use informal/neutral language unless the context suggests otherwise. 19.3 Story: (a) settle on the action and the characters; dont change your decision later; (b) keep the readers wondering what is going to happen but dont confuse them; (c) make your story believable and make your characters into real people; (d) create interest in the first line and save a satisfying surprise for the end.

20. MISCELLANY
20.1 Be careful with: although, even though, despite, in spite of. The first two are both conjunctions; "even though" shows greater surprise. Despite/In spite of introduce a noun, a present participle, or the fact that and a sentence. E.g. (a) He finished the race despite (= in spite of) his injury. (b) They used to argue a lot in spite of (= despite) being good friends. (c) They accepted the application despite the fact that it was late. 20.2 Use barely, hardly or scarcely for statements that are nearly negative. (a) I can barely/ hardly/ scarcely hear you. (all three mean the same) (b) The sign was barely visible. (c) There was scarcely anywhere to park. (d) I had hardly finished speaking when the fire alarm went off. (e) Don't give me any more to do. I can scarcely cope with what I've got. (f) Hardly had they got their tent up when the storm started. (more dramatic) In (f), no sooner ...than can replace hardly...when. Note "had they". 20.3 Be careful: alike is an adjective or adverb but like introduces a noun. (a) He sings like an angel. (= similar to) (b) All pupils are treated alike. (= the same) (c) They are so alike that I always confuse them. (= similar) 20.4 Comparatives can be paired, using the...the... (a)The sooner he's sacked, the better for all of us. (b) The more he explains the system, the better I understand it. 20.5 In England, a person is suspected first, then arrested, charged (or released), tried (in court), found guilty (or acquitted) and finally sentenced. Remember: accused of, blamed for, charged with, sentenced to, suspected of. 20.6 There are three common expressions using time. They use the past simple. (a) Don't you think it's time we bought a new car? (neutral) (b) It's about time we invited them to dinner. (about weakens the expression) (c) It's high time we took on a secretary. (high strengthens it) 20.7 Avoid repeating main verbs. Modal and auxiliary verbs replace understood main verbs. (a) He plays as well as he can. (b) I'm ready when you are. (c) She only works when she has to. (d) Come whenever you want.

END

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