Fast-Front Overvoltages

Fast-Front Overvoltages
Fast-front overvoltages may be: overvoltages may be: lightning overvoltages affecting overhead lines; overhead lines; lightning overvoltages affecting substations; substations; overvoltages due to switching operations and faults. operations and faults.
Fachgebiet Hochspannungstechnik
Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4
-1-
Lightning Overvoltages affecting Overhead Lines (OHL)

Reasons for lightning overvoltages affecting OHL: Reasons for lightning overvoltages affecting OHL: direct lightning strikes to the phase conductor strikes to the phase conductor see later; lightning strikes to tower/ground wire and subsequent back flashover; lightning strikes to tower/ground wire and subsequent induced by lightning strikes to ground nearby the OHL. strikes to ground nearby the OHL.
Amplitudes of induced overvoltages usually below 400 kV problem for distribution systems, but not an issue for high-voltage (LIW(Um = 72.5 kV) = 325 kV, LIW(Um = 123 kV) 450 kV) Back flashovers less probable in range II than in range I rare in systems of Us = 550 kV and above
The representative voltage stress is characterized by: The representative voltage stress is characterized a representative voltage shape 1.2/50 s; s; a representative amplitude which can be either an assumed maximum overvoltage or assumed maximum a probability distribution of the overvoltage amplitudes. probability distribution
-2-
Lightning Overvoltages affecting Substations

Amplitudes and rates of occurrence depend on: Amplitudes and rates of occurrence depend on: lightning performance of the OHLs connected to it; performance of the OHLs connected to it; substation layout, size and in particular number of OHLs connected to it; size and in particular number of OHLs connected to it; instantaneous value of the operating voltage (at the moment of strike). value of the operating voltage (at
Reduction of overvoltages phase-to-ground by cables (due to their low surge impedance) many lines connected in parallel ( reduction of effective surge impedance)
see lecture on traveling waves
LI by direct strike to L1
Phase-to-phase: Effects of power-frequency voltage and coupling between conductors roughly cancel each other. The neighbored phase may be considered as earthed.
L2 L1
induced LI voltage by coupling L1 L2
-3-
Lightning Overvoltages affecting Substations

Longitudinal: Power-frequency voltage of opposite terminal to be taken into account! For direct strikes: Representative overvoltage composed of the representative LI voltage phase-to-earth at one terminal and 0.7 p.u. power-frequency voltage of opposite polarity at the other (empirical finding)
Terminal 1
Terminal 2
For back flashovers: Back flashovers most likely occur on the phase that has the highest instantaneous power-frequency voltage at opposite polarity. Representative overvoltage composed of the representative LI voltage phase-to-earth at one terminal and 1 p.u. power-frequency voltage of opposite polarity at the other
Terminal 1
Terminal 2
-4-
Fast Front Overvoltages due to Switching Operations

Occur when Occur equipment is (dis-)connected from the system via short connections, mainly in substations; in substations; external insulation flashes over. external insulation Representative voltage = Standard Lightning Impulse Voltage 1.2/50 s Representative voltage = Standard Lightning Impulse Voltage 1.2/50 s (though the real voltages are usually oscillatory) (though the real voltages are usually oscillatory) Amplitudes usually lower than those caused by lightning strikes. Maximum values: circuit breaker switching without restrike 2 p.u. circuit breaker switching with restrike 3 p.u. (exception: with vacuum breakers up to 6 p.u. voltage limiters required!) disconnector switching 3 p.u. It may be assumed that phase-to ground overvoltages constitute the decisive stress for insulation coordination purposes.
-5-
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL

Statistical distribution of parameters of the flash to be approximated by a lognormal distribution (Berger, Anderson, Eriksson, CIGR) Probability density function:
1 ln( x M ) 1 2 e f ( x ) = 2 x 0
2
for x > 0 for x 0
M ... Median = 0.5 probability not to be mixed up with the mean or average value! .... log standard deviation
Calculation of the mean or average value: = M e Calculation of the standard deviation:

2
2
= M e e 1
2
-6-
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Berger's Data

Lightning research station of Prof. Berger in a radio transmission station on top of Monte San Salvatore (912 m; Lake of Lugano, Switzerland) Installed 1942 on behalf of SEV Lightning studies up to 1970 Bergers Data
-7-

t10/30 t30/90 I10
I tm = F Sm tm = II Sm
I30
The strike The strike current's front current's front typically has a typically has a concave shape. concave shape.
I90 I100
Difference Median Mean value: Mean value of first strike's final crest current
I F = M I F e
IF 2
2
= 31.1 e
0.484 2 2
= 35 kA
-8-

Extract of the table values of primary importance , mean value
1.54 s 4.46 s 29 kA/s 91.5 s
tm = IF Sm
=Me2
, mean value
35 kA 14.2 kA
Sm S30/90 Sm S30/90
29 kA/s 8.7 kA/s 57.4 kA/s 32.1 kA/s

-9-
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL CIGR Model

CIGR and IEEE strike current probability curves, first strike, negative downward flash [CIG-91]
P(I < IF)
CIGR curve:
The CIGR distribution is based on the latest The CIGR distribution is based on the latest data available and better represents the data available and better represents the actual data. actual data. CIGR curve should preferably be used! CIGR curve should preferably be used!
Note: M = 61.1 kA for IF < 20 kA does not mean that this current really occurs. It is just a parameter that characterizes the curve, which is actually valid only in the range < 20 kA, however!
IF, median = 33.3 kA IF, median = 61.1 kA
- 10 -

Derived parameters of conditional lognormal distributions, derived from Berger's data
- 11 -

Average wave shape of the first and subsequent negative strike currents as developed by CIGR [CIG-91]
- 12 -

Models of lightning strike acc. to IEC 60071-4
Double ramp shape Double ramp shape easy to use easy to use
CIGR concave shape, parameters from [CIG-91] CIGR concave shape, parameters from [CIG-91] higher accuracy higher accuracy
- 13 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL strike Multiplicity

no subsequent strikes, highest reported current peak values and charges cloud-to-cloud flash
> 90% > 90%
downward flash
Seldom!
negative cloud-to-ground from exposed points such as aerials, tv towers
positive cloud-to-ground
upward flash
negative ground-to-cloud
positive ground-to-cloud Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4 - 14 -

Only 45% of negative downward flashes consist of one strike per flash. In all other cases: multiple strikes in time intervals of 10 ms to 100 ms (see HVT II, Chapter 11). Subsequent strikes have higher front steepness lower amplitude up to 54 follow strikes reported often: dc component (in ca. 50% of all cases)
scale of dc component
11 current impulses of 7 kA up to 63 kA peak value
dc component
- 15 -

Number of strikes per flash, negative downward flash 1)
Probability of 4 strikes or more
= =
Probability of 8 strikes or more
based on 6000 flash records from different regions of the world median of the distribution: 2 1) R. B. Anderson, A. J. Eriksson mean or average value: 3
Lightning Parameters for Engineering Application ELECTRA 69, Mar. 1980, pp. 65-102
- 16 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Lightning Activity

Keraunic levels worldwide TD = 20 ... 80 TD = 80 ... 180 TD = number of thunderstorm days per year
Middle Europe: TD = 10 ... 25 Middle Europe: TD = 10 ... 25 in equator regions: TD = 100 ... 180 in equator regions: T = 100 ... 180
D
Lightning ground flash density Ng = number of lightning ground flashes per km2 and year
1.25 Empirical relation: Ng = 0.04 Td
Ng in (km2a)-1
1)
reported by Eriksson1) from observations in South Africa generally accepted both by CIGR and IEEE
A. J. Eriksson The Incidence of Lightning Strikes to Transmission Lines IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Jul. 1987, pp. 859-870
- 17 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Geometric Model

Basic idea (see also HVT II, Chapter 11)
For a specific current I, calculate the striking distance rg and rc. Draw a line parallel to the ground at a distance rg from the ground. With compasses centered at the tower top, draw an arc of radius rc until it intersects the parallel lines drawn in 2, above.
Any strike that arrives between A and B will terminate on the ground wire, and any strike that arrives to Any strike that arrives between A and B will terminate on the ground wire, and any strike that arrives to the left of A or to the right of B will terminate to ground. the left of A or to the right of B will terminate to ground.
- 18 -

Basic idea (see also HVT II, Chapter 11)
N (G ) I = 2 N g LDg
N(G)|I ... number of strikes to ground wire for current I L ... length of line
N (G ) = 2 N g L
3 kA
Dg f ( I ) d I
f(I) ... probability that current I occurs 3 kA = lowest observed lightning flash current amplitude D'g may be expressed in terms of striking distances and tower height:
Dg = r ( rg h ) = rc cos
2 c 2
- 19 -

Practical approach (by empirical observations) (Eriksson)
N (G ) =
N'(G) ... Ng ... b h
N g ( b + 28 h 0.6 ) 10
(assuming an approximate median current of 35 kA)
number of strikes to the line in (100 km a)-1 ground flash density in (km2 a)-1 distance of outer conductors in m average ground wire height (htower 2/3sag) in m
N'(G)
TD = 35 d
b TD = 20 d
[BAL-04]
h
Note: in case of Note: in case of good shielding most good shielding most of these strikes will of these strikes will hit the shield wire! hit the shield wire!
- 20 -

Striking distance b Basic dependence: r = A I many different factors A, b published:
Adopted by CIGR Working Group
rc = 7.1 I
for references, see [HIL-99]
0.75
[I] = kA, [rc] = m = striking distance to an OHL conductor or ground wire

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4 - 21 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Shielding Failure

Shielding effect of ground wire Shielding failure rate:
SFR I = 2 N g LDc = 2Ng L

Im
3 kA
Dc f ( I ) d I
L ... length of line
= shielding angle
Im is the maximum current at and above which no strikes will terminate on the phase conductor see next slide
strikes between A and B strikes between A and B phase conductor phase conductor strikes between B and C strikes between B and C ground wire ground wire strikes beyond A strikes beyond A ground ground
- 22 -

Shielding effect of ground wire Point where all three striking distances rc,GW, rc,PhC, rg meet c,GW c,PhC g each other. Dc = 0 c = 0 Currents I Im will hit Currents I Im will hit ground wire or ground ground wire or ground
- 23 -

Situation for I = Im
c a
= 180 - 90 x = 180 - - 90 = 180 - 180 + + 90 - 90 =
- 24 -

sin = rgm h+ y 2 c2 2 rcm 4
c2 r 4
2 cm
As
2 rcm
c 4
2
sin =
rgm
h+ y 2
rcm
Simplification:
rgm rcm = rm
sin
rm
h+ y 2 rm
h+ y 2 rm 1 sin
- 25 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Shielding Angle

h+ y 2 rm 1 sin
With
0.75 rm = 7.1 I m
(see slide 20)
h+ y 0.75 2 rm 7.1 I m 1 sin
h+ y 2 Im 7.1 (1 sin )
1 0.75
Examples: h = 60 m, y = 45 m, = 30 Im 36.3 kA h = 30 m, y = 25 m, = 15 Im 9.1 kA
The higher the structure and the larger the shielding angle, the higher The structure larger the shielding angle, is the maximum current of a direct lightning strike to the OHL conductor. is the maximum current of a direct lightning strike to the OHL conductor.
- 26 -

h = 60 m, y = 45 m
h = 45 m, y = 35 m h = 30 m, y = 25 m
[BAL-04]
deg
- 27 -

Choice of Im
iiBlitz stroke
u i
u i
i = istroke /2 Blitz/2 u = Zi u = Zi
Strom- und Spannungswellen nach Blitzeinschlag in ein Leiterseil Current and voltage surges after lightning stroke into a line conductor
If flashovers of the insulators shall be avoided, following requirement has to be fulfilled:
Im <
2 U 50 neg Z
Example: Um = 420 kV Im < 12 kA
U50 neg = 2 100 kV, Z = 350
- 28 -
Direct Lightning Strikes to OHL Corona Damping

When the corona inception voltage is exceeded Corona inception voltage of a single conductor: corona
r Z 0 E0 Ui = 60
Z0 ... natural (non-corona) surge impedance in E0 ... critical voltage gradient in kV/cm r ... conductor radius in cm
Critical voltage gradient (CIGR):
1.22 E0 = 23 1 + 0.37 kV/cm d

d ... conductor diameter in cm
critical voltage gradient (kV/cm)
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 conductor diameter (cm)
- 29 -

When the corona inception voltage is exceeded Corona inception voltage of a single conductor: corona
r Z 0 E0 Ui = 60
Z0 ... natural (non-corona) surge impedance in E0 ... critical voltage gradient in kV/cm r ... conductor radius in cm
Critical voltage gradient (CIGR):
1.22 E0 = 23 1 + 0.37 kV/cm d

Example: 123-kV OHL
d ... conductor diameter in cm
(d = 1.9 cm, r = 0.95 cm, Z0 = 450 )
1.22 E0 = 23 1 + 0.37 = 42 kV/cm 1.9

Ui =
0.95 450 42 = 299 kV 60

- 30 -

Effect of corona
Decrease of steepness! Decrease of steepness!
t > t0
t = t0
Apparent increase of radius from non-corona conductor radius r to corona conductor radius Rc Increase of conductor capacitance (whereas inductance remains unchanged)
L L Zc = Decrease of surge impedance for surge front: Z 0 = C C + C

Decrease of velocity for parts of surge voltage u > Ui: v0 =
1 vc = LC
- 31 -
1 L(C + C )

Effect of corona Steepness of the surge depending on traveling distance:
S =
1 1 K C0 + S0
S ... KC0 ... ... S0 ...
steepness of surge after traveling distance in kV/s corona damping constant in s/(kVm) traveling distance in m initial steepness of surge in kV/s
Distribution
5 x 10-6
[IEC 60071-2], [BAL-04]
- 32 -
[BAL-04]
(for S0
- 33 -

Measured overvoltage surges on a single-line conductor
ca. 2200 kV/s Voltage
ca. 370 kV/s
Time
- 34 -
Back Flashover
See HVT II, Chapter 11 and [BAL-04]
iB = 2iE + iM
uM = iMRM
Shield wire
RM ... tower surge impedance RM ... tower surge impedance uinsul. = uM - uL At unfavorable phase relation:
Line conductor
uinsul. = uM + |uL| If uinsul. > ud, LI Problem: extreme du/dt-values! Problem: extreme du/dt-values! For tower footing resistances < 10 : Flashovers at IB > 190 kA
- 35 -
Protection by Surge Arresters and Representative Overvoltage

Due to separation effects, surge arresters have a limited protection distance. The larger the distance between arrester and the equipment to be protected and the higher the steepness, the higher the fast front overvoltage at its terminals. Representative overvoltage when surge arresters are applied (simplified equation):
U rp = U pl + 2 ST U rp = 2U pl (!)
for U pl 2 ST for U pl < 2 ST
S ... T ...
steepness of surge in kV/s travel time along distance L in s
T=
L c0
next slide
L ... distances a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 in m c0 ... velocity of light: 300 m/s
Note: Urp depends exclusively on steepness and distance arrester equipment, Note: Urp depends exclusively on steepness and distance arrester equipment, but not on the overvoltage amplitude! but not on the overvoltage amplitude!
Example: Um = 420 kV Upl = 825 kV; S = 1000 kV/s; L = 30 m
U rp = U pl + 2 ST = 825 kV + 2 1000 kV/s

30 m = 1025 kV 300 m/s

- 36 -
- 37 -

Considerations on steepness S Impact of number of connected lines
S ... KC0 ... ... S0 ... steepness of surge after traveling distance in kV/s corona damping constant in s/(kVm) traveling distance in m initial steepness of surge in kV/s
S =
1 1 K C0 + S0
1 K C0
(for S0
Steepness is reduced inversely proportional to number n of connected lines:
1 S = n K C0
(Explanation see next slide)
- 38 -

Z Z n 1
n = 1: n = 1:
2U0
Z=
UTr
UTr = 2U0
Z Z =Z Z= n 1
n = 2: n = 2:
2U0
UTr
UTr Z 1 UTr = 2U0 = 2U0 2Z 2
Z Z Z = Z= n 1 2
n = 3: n = 3:
2U0
UTr
UTr Z 1 = UTr = 2U0 2U0 3Z 3
and when the voltage amplitude is reduced, the steepness is reduced proportionally.
- 39 -

S ... KC0 ... ... n ... steepness of surge after traveling distance in kV/s corona damping constant in s/(kVm) traveling distance in m number of connected lines
1 S = n K C0
Practical observations on the relevant traveling distance : 1) Shielding failures do not occur in the first span adjacent to the substation.
Reason: shielding is intentionally improved by lower shielding angles or double ground wires.
2) Back flashovers do not occur at the first tower(s) adjacent to the substation.
Reason: low footing impedance due to connection to substation earthing.
The minimum value of is one span length Lsp.. The minimum value of is one span length Lsp
1 Srp = n K C0 ( Lsp + Lt )
Srp ... representative steepness of surge in kV/s Lsp ... span length in m overhead line length with the adopted return rate; in m Lt ...
Lt =
adopted return rate 1/a shielding failure rate + back flashover rate 1/a m
- 40 -

U rp = U pl + 2 ST
S ... T ...
steepness of surge in kV/s travel time along distance L in s
(from slide 35)
1 U rp = U pl + 2 T n K C0 ( Lsp + Lt )
Introduction of a factor A describing the lightning performance of the OHL:
A=
2 K C0 c0
compare with slide 31, e.g.:

K C0 = 0.6 106 s kV m
[IEC 60071-2]
- 41 -

A c0 A L U rp = U pl + T = U pl + n ( Lsp + Lt ) n ( Lsp + Lt )
L ... distances a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 in m
Assumed maximum value (worst case) by assuming the return rate equal to zero, i.e. Lt = 0:
A L U rp = U pl + n Lsp
(To be used for convenience if the result gives satisfyingly low Urp) Note: n should reasonably be set to n = 1 (if only one line is connected) or n = 2 (if two Note: n should reasonably be set to n = 1 (if only one line is connected) or n = 2 (if two or more lines are connected). Assuming n > 2 could yield too optimistic results that are or more lines are connected). Assuming n > 2 could yield too optimistic results that are not valid in a real failure scenario (e.g. possible loss of lines). not valid in a real failure scenario (e.g. possible loss of lines).
- 42 -

Example: Um = 420 kV Upl = 825 kV; A = 11000 kV (quadruple bundle); L = 30 m; Lsp = 400 m; 2 lines connected; shielding failure rate (typ. for Germany; one OHGW): 2.5 per 100 km and year = 2.510-5 (am)-1 adopted failure rate: 110-3 a-1 LIWV = 1425 kV; 15% safety factor allowed umax = 1211 kV
a) using the "worst case" equation:
U rp = U pl +
A L 11000 kV 30 m = 825 kV + = 1238 kV n Lsp 2 400 m

Note again: Note again: No effect of the lightning No effect of the lightning overvoltage amplitude!! overvoltage amplitude!!
b) using the "realistic" equation:
1 103 Lt = = 40 m 5 2.5 10 A L 11000 kV 30 m U rp = U pl + = 825 kV + = 1200 kV n Lsp + Lt 2 (400+40) m

- 43 -

Example: Um = 420 kV Upl = 825 kV; A = 11000 kV (quadruple bundle); L = 30 m; Lsp = 400 m; lines connected shielding failure rate (typ. for Germany; one OHGW): 2.5 per 100 km and year = 2.510-5 (am)-1 adopted failure rate: 110-3 a-1 LIWV = 1425 kV; 15% safety factor allowed umax = 1211 kV
Effect of double OHGW in span field adjacent to substation: shielding failure rate reduced by factor of 10, i.e. to 2.510-6 (am)-1
1 103 Lt = = 400 m 6 2.5 10 A L 11000 kV 30 m U rp = U pl + = 825 kV + = 1031 kV n Lsp + Lt 2 (400+400) m

Note: these equations yield the representative overvoltages, which are not implicitly the real Note: these equations yield the representative overvoltages, which are not implicitly the real overvoltages (see next two slides)! overvoltages (see next two slides)!
- 44 -

Making use of breakdown voltage-time-characteristic of the insulation
2000
3.0 MV/s 1.5 MV/s

1800 1600 1400
1.0 MV/s 0.7 MV/s 0.5 MV/s 0.3 MV/s
V-t-curves of 245 kV AIS and GIS equipment (LIWV = 1050 kV) The V-t-curve of GIS is flatter due to more homogeneous field distribution.
1200 U [kV] 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 t [s] 3 3,5 4
V-t SF6
Ste epn ess o
f ov erv o
V-t air
ltag e
4,5
- 45 -

Making use of breakdown voltage-time-characteristic of the insulation
1000
1
800 Amplitude in kV
Example: Um = 300 kV LIWV = 950 kV Upl = 550 kV

The real overvoltage at the equipment's terminals, limited by the surge arrester, has oscillations due to traveling wave effects. Case 1: the representative overvoltage Urp is the real overvoltage as there is no time dependance of the V-t-curve. Case 2: the representative overvoltage Urp is lower than the real overvoltage, e.g. 650 kV. (The first voltage peak will not cause a dielectric breakdown.)
2
600
400
200
0 0 5 Time in s 10 15
- 46 -
Very-Fast-Front Overvoltages
VFFO originate from disconnector operations or faults within GIS due to the fast breakdown of the gas gap and the nearly undamped surge propagation within the GIS. Amplitudes are rapidly damped and front times increased when leaving the GIS through the bushing. VFFO are usually not a concern or a dimensioning parameter for the hv insulation. Therefore no standardized test has yet been defined (and is not under consideration, either). Mainly an EMI problem, as external electric fields may appear between the metal enclosure and ground problem for secondary control circuits. Countermeasures: usual means of EMC.
VFFO measured in a GIS [ETG-93] (LScircuit breaker; TRdisconnector, operated; Dbushing; OHLoverhead line
OHL
- 47 -
Occurrence of VFFO depends on type of disconnector:
SF6 disconnecor, type A SF6 disconnector, type B
- 48 -
7 p.u. 6
5
fast-front overvoltage
4
3 2 1
0
slow-front overvoltage
VFTO very-fast-front-overvoltage
temporary overvoltage
cont. service voltage

-7
DC-voltage 10 0 10 2 10 4 10 6
10
10
-6
10 -4
10 -2
second
- 49 -

Fast-Front Overvoltages

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Fast-Front Overvoltages

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4

Lightning Overvoltages affecting Overhead Lines (OHL)

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4

Lightning Overvoltages affecting Substations

induced LI voltage by coupling L1 L2

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4

Lightning Overvoltages affecting Substations

Overvoltage Protection and Insulation Coordination / Chapter 4