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NSW, Department of Education and Training

Chemistry notes
Preliminary notes

By Shivangi Shahu 2/22/2012

CHEMICAL EARTH
1. The living and non-living components of the earth contain mixtures
Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of the particle theory
Particle theory Particle Theory all things are made of atoms and atoms can be represented diagrammatically. Elements contain only one type of atom, compounds contain different atoms joined chemically and mixtures are compounds and elements thrown together.

Classification of matter
Pure substances Fixed composition and fixed properties. They cannot be decomposed by simple physical separation techniques. Impure substances are mixtures. Variable composition and properties. Separated into their components by various physical separation techniques.

Elements (exist in its purest form and cannot be broken down into simpler substances)

Compounds (two or more elements)

Solutions - homogenous mixtures (uniformly mixed and has the same properties throughout the mixture e.g. saltwater and sugar-water)

Solutions - heterogenous mixtures (consists of visibly different substances e.g. salad dressing, mud, ink in a pen)

Elements Are pure substances that contain only one type of atom Cannot be chemically changed or condensed into simpler substances E.g. molecule of oxygen (O2) or atoms of Gold Compounds Are pure substances containing two or more types of elements Chemically bonded and are consistently found in a fixed ratio of atoms E.g. Water: H2O and Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Mixtures Are not pure substances Contain a variable composition of two or more types of elements Are not chemically bonded and thus can be physically separated E.g. salt water, crude oil, mud

Identify the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of different mixtures of elements and compounds

THE DIFFERENT SPHERES


Atmosphere - layer of gases surrounding a planetary body such as Earth An example of a mixture which exists in this sphere is air Elements: N2, O2 and Examples of elements in this sphere are nitrogen, oxygen, and argon Compounds: H2O, CO2, NO2, SO2, and CO Hydrosphere - all the water on the earths surface, such as lakes and seas, and water over the Earth's surface such as the clouds. Composition varies between sea-water and fresh-water Elements: oxygen, hydrogen. Compounds: sodium chloride, water, calcium sulfate, sodium, magnesium. Biosphere - region of the Earth where living things are found. The ecosystems in which these life forms are found occupy the hydroshpere, lithosphere and atmosphere. Elements: Carbon, oxygen, nitrogen Compounds: glucose, carbon dioxide, haemoglobin

The lithosphere is rigid outer rock layer of the Earth including all of the crust and the upper mantle Examples of mixtures in this sphere are granite rock and clay Elements: iron, gold, silver and copper Compounds: Fe2O3 and SiO2

Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate naturally occurring mixtures of:
Solids of different sizes Solids and liquids Dissolved solids in liquids Liquids Gases

Solids of different particle size

Sieving
A method of separating of large particles from a mixture Sieves contain tiny holes that prevent large particles from escaping Large particles remain trapped above the sieve Particles tinier than the holes of the sieve are able to pass through

Gases
The gases in the mixture must be condensed, which can be achieved be condensing/cooling the gas with liquid nitrogen. The liquid mixture then undergoes fractional distillation. For example, a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen can be separated by first cooling it (-200 degrees Celsius) and then recollecting/grouping the gases as they evaporate (-196 degrees) nitrogen and oxygen (-183 degrees).

Liquids
Immiscible liquids can be separated using a separating funnel. Some liquids form separate layers with the less dense kerosene floating on top of water. Separation is achieved by placing the mixture in a separating funnel and opening the tap to let out the lower layer into a clean vessel. Eg. Oil and water, kerosene and water. When the solvent with the lower boiling point (volatile) evaporates, its vapour rises and is then condensed via the cooling tube (condenser) where it is collected and returned to liquid form (distillate). The solid remains in the round bottomed/distilling flask.

Fractional distillation: Similar BP Simple distillation: major difference in BP

Solids and liquids


A system of separating large solid particles from a solid/liquid solution Contents of the material of the solution are allowed to settle heavier, insoluble particles sink to the bottom (sedimentation) Decanting: A less dense liquid will be left at the top. Once it is taken out you have decanted the liquid. The impure substances are left behind. Centrifuging: is a way of speeding up the process of sedimentation. A centrifuge, found in a laboratory, consists of many test tubes spinning at high speeds which increase the settling rate. The liquid can be separated from the settled solid (pellet) by pouring or decanting off the liquid.

A method of separating fine, solid, undissolved solids (insoluble substances) from mixtures The mixture is filtrated through a filtrating medium, such as filter paper, leaving the residue on the impermeable substance/filtrating medium and the filtrate to pass through.

Dissolved solids in liquids


If the liquid in the mixture is more volatile (boiling point is lower) than the soluble solid, the soluble solid will remain while the liquid evaporates. The procedure employs the use of an evaporating dish and a Bunsen burner. Another method of dissolved solids from a liquid mixture (solution) The impure salt is dissolved in water at a high temperature to create a concentrated solution. The mixture is then cooled and the salt crystallises, leaving the impurity in the solution. This crystallised slat contains much less of the impurity than before. The salt can then be filtered and dried. Sugar cane industry.

Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials, identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations
Yes, fractional distillation can separate a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen because they have similar (but not the same) boiling points. Could filtration successfully separate sand from a sand-salt mixture? No. Without water the salts in the sand and salt mixture will not separate out via filtration because filtration requires an insoluble solid plus a liquid mixture, which in this case would be salt + water

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other scientists
Gravimetric analysis percentage composition. Involves separating the components of a material and determining it mass. Quantitive analysis Volumetric analysis: involves measuring the volumes of solution Chemical analysis Qualitative analysis What substances are present?

the process of determining the % by mass of one substance in a mixture It is used to determine whether mining is economically feasible to determine the composition of compounds in soil to determine whether the soil is appropriate for growing certain crops to determine the percentage of particular pollutants in water

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory
Ionic compounds (Metals and non-metals) e.g. sodium chloride Two elements First name: ususally the element on the left or the periodic table Secind name: use the first part and add ide at the end
For example: Mg + C = Magnesium chloride Zn + S = Zinc Sulfide Cu + N = Copper Nitride

Three elements Same rules except use ate instead of ide


For example: Mg + C + O = Magnesium carbonate Zn + S + O = Zinc Sulfate Cu + N + O = Copper Nitrate

Metals with more than one ionic charge


Cu+1 + Cl = Copper (I) Chloride Pb+2 + F = Lead (II)

(Covalent compounds) Non metals + non metals e.g. Carbon dioxide Use prefixes

1 = mono 2 = di

3 = tri 4 = tetra

5 = penta 6 = hexa

7 = hepta 8 = Octa

N2 O4 = Dinitrogen Tetraoxide Cl2 O7 = Dichloride heptoxide

Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered

1 = meth 2 = eth
Single bonds "ane"

3 = prop 4 = but

5 = pent 6 = hex

7 = hept 8 = Oct
Triple bonds "yne"

9 = Non 10 = Dec

Double bonds "ene"

Identify data sources, plan and choose equipment and perform first-hand investigation to separate the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as sand, salt and water Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture to estimate its percentage composition
Aim: TO become familiar with several separation techniques used in the process if physical separation AND To determine the percentage of iron and sand gravimetrically Hypothesis: The cooper sulfate will be able to be dissolved in water and removed first, then the iron filings can be removed from the sand mixture through magnetic separation. Hence allowing the experiment to successfully answer the aim and isolate/separate all three components in the mixture. Materials: Retort stand Evaporating dish Method: 1. Weigh watch glass to be used Weigh watch glass + mixture Mass of mixture = (mass of watch glass + mass of mixture) mass of watch glass 2. Remove iron using magnet. (Existing/initial mass) (watch glass + remaining mixture) = mass of iron filings 3. Mass of current mixture = (Mass of current mixture mass watch glass/beaker) 4. Separate the copper sulfate from the sand by adding water and putting gently/lightly boiling it until the copper sulfate dissolves. Use filtration to separate the sand from the dissolved copper sulfate (and water). 5. Mass of sand = (Mass of initial mixture mass of current mixture) 6. Use evaporation or crystallisation to separate the copper sulfate from the water Accuracy: Use of measuring cylinder, electric weighing scale Tripods Watch glass Bunsen burners Spatula Beaker Magnet Retort ring Gauze mat

Validity: Opened windows to have ventilation Used different watch glasses and apparatus each time we separated we isolated or separated each component. Conclusion: The components were effectively able to separated out using the physical separation techniques of magnetic separation, filtration and evaporation or crystallisation. Reliability: repeated experiments compared results with other groups

Identify data sources, gather, and process and analyse information from secondary sources to identify the industrial separation processes used on a mixture obtained from the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere or atmosphere and use the available evidence to: Sphere Mixture to be separated Products of separation and uses Properties of components used to separate the mixture and refine the final product Extraction procedure

Identify the properties of the mixture used in its separation Identify the products of their separation and their uses Discuss issues associated with wastes from the processes used
Biosphere Olive oil and olive flesh/seed Olive oil Cooking Personal use for skin, hair, nails, lips etc. Olive oil is less dense than water and can be separated through centrifugation (and/or decanting) Olive oil does not dissolve in water (immiscible liquids) Crushing/grinding The fruit is crushed in a metal hammer mill to produce a paste Beating The paste plus some water is used to remove more oil from cells. Salt may be used to assist in osmotic breakdown of the cells and release of oil Centrifuging The mixture is placed in a horizontal centrifuge and spun at high speed. The light oil forms the upper, inner layer, and water and heavier fruit fragments forms the outer layers The inner, floating oil layer continuously overflows a weir and is collected through a separate portal. Water is removed by rotating internal scrolls through a separate exit. The pulp phase is discharged using rotating internal scrolls The pulp waste contains about 6 % oil. Specialised plants can use solvent extraction to remove some of this oil. In some countries, the dried pulp waste is used as a home fuel, mulch, fertiliser or animal feed.

Issues associated with wastes

2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found uncombined
Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined substance
Reactivity The tendency/likelihood of an element to react with other elements If an element is highly reactive it is more likely to found combined with other substances it has already combined/reacted with other substances/elements to become more stable Likewise an element that is highly unreactive is more likely to be found uncombined

Classify elements as metals, non-metals, and semi-metals (metalloids) according to their physical properties
Metals Are solids at room temperature except mercury (liquid) High electrical conductivity Shiny lustre Malleable (hammered) Ductile (drawn into wires) High range melting and boiling point Non-Metals Poor electrical conductivity Dull lustre Brittle (break when trying to break them) Non-ductile Low density, melting and boiling point Semi-Metals Poor conductors Properties of metals and non-metals (also known as metalloids e.g. Boron, Silicon) Low density and malleability High lustre e.g. Silicon is shiny Medium range melting and boiling point

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties
Metals 1. Mercury - Used in thermometers liquid state expands when heated 2. Iron used in building construction and car-making high tensile strength and hardness 3. Copper Good conductors for domestic appliances Non-metals 1. Carbon Good conductors used in batteries 2. Oxygen - for medical purposes to help with breathing 3. Argon - gas for filling light bulbs

Analyse information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of metals and non-metals

Metals
Physical State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of mercury and gallium, which are liquids at room temperature. Lustre: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from its surface and can be polished e.g., gold, silver and copper.

Non-metals
Physical state: Most of the non-metals exist in two of the three states of matter at room temperature: gases (oxygen) and solids (carbon). These have no metallic lustre, and do not reflect light. Nature: Non-metals are very brittle, and cannot be rolled into wires or pounded into sheets.

Malleability: Metals have the ability to withstand hammering and can be made into thin sheets known as foils.

Conduction: They are poor conductors of heat and electricity

Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. 100 gm of silver can be drawn into a thin wire about 200 meters long.

Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which are soft and can be cut with a knife. Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free electrons. Silver and copper are the two best conductors of heat and electricity. Lead is the poorest conductor of heat. Bismuth, mercury and iron are also poor conductors. Density: Metals have high density and are very heavy. Iridium and osmium have the highest densities where as lithium has the lowest density. Melting and Boiling point: Metals have high melting and boiling point. Tungsten has the highest melting point where as silver has low boiling point. Sodium and potassium have low melting points.

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic level
Identify that matter is made of particles that are constantly moving and interacting
Matter is made of particles which are constantly moving and interacting. The movement of the particles occurs in:

Solids Particles are compactly packed, they vibrate within the space available (vibrational movement) Liquids In liquids, the particles are all over each other. They move about freely. Gases Particles are well separated in space and more freely

Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number


Mass number the number of protons plus neutrons in the atom Atomic number the number of protons in the atom

Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms


The electron is an extremely small negatively charged particle 1/1836 the mass of a proton. Electrons in an atom move very rapidly and randomly, but not in fixed positions. Electron configuration: the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus They are arranged in different shells or energy levels. The more valence shells an atom has, the more PROTONS, NEUTRONS AND ELECTRONS it contains. Therefore, there is more energy.

Describe the formation of ions in terms of losing or gaining electrons


Gaining electrons: if an atom has 5,6,7 electrons in its outer shell, it will tend to take electrons away from other atoms, hence they gain electrons. Losing electrons: atoms that have 1,2,3 electrons in the outer shell can looses these electrons. Gaining electron overall negative charge Losing electron overall positive charge

Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:
The formation of ions

The electron sharing in some simple molecules Ions

Covalent

Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge
Ionic compounds: formed by electrostatic of oppositely charged ions, metal + nonmetal E.g. positively charged hydrogen ion joins with negatively charged chloride ion to form hydrogen chloride, an ionic compound.

Describe molecules as particles that can move independently


The intermolecular force between molecules is a weak force in comparison to the intramolecular force holding the atoms of the molecule together. This weak force gives the molecule the ability to move independently.

Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom
MOLECULES Monatomic Gases Diatomic Gases E.g. Noble Gases E.g. O2, H2, Cl2 It contains full outer shell and they dont Two atoms bonded covalently combine with other atoms. Exists as single atoms.

Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons


Bonding: The forces that hold an atom together is known as bonding. Bonding is of different types: 1. Ionic Bonding 2. Metallic Bonding 3. Covalent Bonding. Ionic bonding the attractions between the positive and negative ions due to electrostatic attraction Metallic bonding attractions between the positive ions and the sea of delocalised electrons Covalent Bonding The sharing of electrons between non-metal atoms (negative ions, cations)

Construct formulae for compounds formed from:


Ions

- Atoms sharing electrons Ionic bond: Na+ + Cl- NaCl (s)


Covalent bond: 2H2+ + O2 22H2O

4. Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring sources


Identify the difference between physical and chemical change in terms of the rearrangement of particles
Physical change is a change of state, with no new product made. It can be easily reversed, and less energy changes are involved. The particles in a physical change are not rearranged. Chemical change is the formation of a new substance, with a new product made. It is difficult to reverse, and high energy changes are involved. The particles in a chemical change are rearranged Indications of physical changes include 1. Melting lead 2. Boiling water 3. Solid dissolving in a liquid. Indications of chemical changes include: 1. New gas formed 2. Precipitate (solid formed)

to form new substances.

3. 4. 5. 6.

Colour change Significant change in temperature Disappearance of a precipitate Odour is produced

Summarise the differences between the boiling and electrolysis of water as an example of the difference between a chemical and physical change
Boiling of water No new substances are formed Change of state from liquid to gas through process of boiling Less energy is required Easily reversible via condensation Electrolysis of water New substances formed (O2 and H2) as old bonds between oxygen and hydrogen are broken and new bonds have been established Requires much more energy than boiling More difficult to reverse

Identify light, heat and electricity as the common forms of energy that may be released or absorbed during decomposition or synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes occurring in everyday life.
Decomposition reaction: is a reaction which involves the breakdown of a complex substance into its simpler constituent elements and/or elements A decomposition reaction occurs only if energy is added (i.e. heat, light and electricity). Application of decomposition reaction in the real world:

A decomposition reaction only occurs if energy is added (i.e. heat, light and electricity). Everyday example

Type energy Heat Light Electrical

of Industrial example

Decomposition of limestone to form lime. Lime Decomposition of baking soda to form can be used to form cement and glass. carbon dioxide in baking. Decomposition of photographic paper silver bromide in Production of sugars and oxygen during photosynthesis

Electrolysis of water. Oxygen can be used in Synthesis of nitrogen oxide by lightning rocket fuel and in hospitals for patients with strikes respiratory problems. The hydrogen can be used in ammonia for cleaning products and

Explain that the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or bond between them
Strength of the attractive or bonding forces between oppositely charged ions in an ionic compound or atoms within a covalent molecule. The stronger the forces of attraction holding the atoms in a compound together the more energy is needed to break these bonds.

Usually the more reactive an element is the stronger the bonds formed will be. Multiple covalent bonds (i.e. double, triple bonds in organic chemistry) are stronger than single bonds.

Plan and safely perform a first-hand investigation to show the decomposition if a carbonate by heat, using appropriate tests to identify carbon dioxide as the products of the reaction

Test for gases: Carbon dioxide: Limewater turns cloudy/milky white Hydrogen gas: makes a high pitched pop sound Oxygen gas: use a glowing splint and it will reignite

Gather information using first-hand and secondary sources to: Observe the effect of light on silver salts and identify an application of the use of this reaction Observe the electrolysis of water, analyse the information provided as evidence that water is a compound and identify an application of the use of this reaction
Physical change Chemical change

Boiling of water No new substances are formed Change of state from liquid to gads through process of boiling Less energy is required Easily reversible via condensation

Electrolysis of water New substances formed (O2 and H2) a sold bonds between oxygen and hydrogen are broken and new bonds have been established Requires much more energy than boiling More difficult to reverse

Applications Produce oxygen and hydrogen for fuel cells Hydrogen cleaning products Oxygen hospital equipment + rocket fuel

AgCl (s) +NaNO3 (aq)

AgNO3(aq) NaCl(aq)

2AgCl (s)

(Light) Ag (s) + Cl2(g)

Applications This reaction has an application in photography, where the photographic film is coated with gelatine emulsion containing silver halides (usually silver bromide). Exposure to light darkens the film due to the formation of silver grains.

5. The properties of elements and their compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of elements, compounds and mixtures
Physical properties are those related to changes of state and physical changes, including lustre, hardness, ductility, conductivity etc. Chemical properties include relating to chemical changes, including reactivity and valency, which bonds will work and which wont etc.

Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network
Ionic compound Eg. NaCl, Na2SO4 Conduct electricity when molten or when aqueous if soluble due to having mobile ions in these states High MP, BP Hard Solid at room temperature o Covalent molecular compound Eg. CO2, H2O, CH4 Never conducts electricity since in never has mobile ions Low MP, BP Hard Gas/ liquid at room temperature Covalent network compound Eg. SiO2, SiC, C Never conducts electricity since in never has mobile ions (except graphite) Extremely high BP, MP Hard Solid at room temperature

Note: melting points less than 500 C are called low, those between 500-1500 C are called high, and those greater than 1000 C are called very high. However, there are exceptions to this.

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds


Metallic bonds are held together by a sea of delocalized electrons, with positive ions (cations) Ionic bonds are held together by the electrostatic attraction of positive and negative ions Covalent bonds are held together between anions (negatively charged ions) with weak intermolecular forces

Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons


Metallic bonding results in an orderly 3D array of positive ions held together by a sea of delocalised electrons (valence electrons only). These electrons move freely throughout the lattice, holding it together and causing the metal to be a conductor of electricity. These delocalised electrons also hold the metal together when distorted thus making metals malleable and ductile. The lattice formation makes metals hard.

Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions


Ionic bonding forms crystals; the electrostatic attraction between the opposite charges extends throughout the entire lattice. This strong attraction makes ionic substances hard, but also brittle; distorting the crystal bring opposite charges together they repel each other causing the crystal to shatter. This orderly array means that in solid form, ionic substances do not conduct electricity; the ions are not free to move towards a charged electrode. However, when melted or dissolved in water, the arrangement of ions is broken up, allowing the ions to move towards an electrode, hence conducting electricity.

Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula


In ionic compounds, there are no discrete molecules, just an infinite three-dimensional array of cations and anions. In other words the size of the lattice is unknown, hence the simplest repeating unit of the crystal lattice is taken into account and the simplest ratio of ions present in that unit determines the empirical formula of an ionic compound.

Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices


Molecules: H2, F2, Cl2, O2 and N2 are diatomic gases Br2 (liquid) and I2 (solid) P4 and S8 Covalent lattices: Carbon Semi-metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb and Te

Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures.
IONIC LATTICE Structural feature Strong ionic bonds throughout the crystal. A lot of energy is needed to break these bonds. Heating makes the ions vibrate. This breaks the bonds and the ions are then free to move and carry the current. Water moves between the ions, pushing them apart and breaking the ionic bonds. The ions are then free to move and carry the electric charge. Ions are held in fixed positions by strong ionic bonds that extend throughout the lattice. The ions can only vibrate, Physical property determined by structure High melting and boiling points. Hard. Crystalline Good electrical conductors when molten Good electrical conductors when in solution

Poor electrical conductors when in solid.

they are not free to move and carry out the charge.

COVALENT MOLECULAR Structure features No free electrons, no free ions present Weak dispersion forces between molecules result in low boiling points so usually gases at room temperature Physical property determined by structure Poor conductors of electricity in all states Not hard

COVALENT NETWORK Structural feature No free electrons, no ions present Strong covalent bonds that extend throughout the lattice Physical property determined by structure Poor conductors electricity in all states Hardness

METALLIC LATTICES Structural feature Outer shell electrons are delocalised (not held in place by an atom) and thus they are mobile and free to carry charge Strong metallic bonds between the positive metal ions and the sea of negatively charged delocalised electrons. A lot of energy is needed to break these metallic bonds The mobile, delocalised outer shell electrons can carry heat The rows of metallic ions in the lattice can slide over each other without coming apart or disrupting the bonds The sea of delocalised electrons reflect light Physical property determined by structure Good conductor of electricity

High melting and boiling points. Hard

Good conductor of heat Malleable and ductile

Shiny lustre

Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the limitations of models of ionic lattice. Covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices
A model is a physical device (animation or diagram) that depicts/predicts how an object/phenomenon functions These analogues help us to visualise and conceptualise abstract ideas, that may otherwise be difficult to understand Benefits Models can be used to represent complex phenomena Models help represent structures that are too small or too large to study Models help us visualise and conceptualise abstract ideas, which may otherwise be difficult to understand. E.g. globe of earth Limitations Most models cannot incorporate all the detail of s concept or phenomena Models are only accurate as the data used to construct it if the data is no longer valid, the associated model becomes redundant E.g. a globe of the earth cannot sufficiently describe the depths of the earth

Ionic lattice model Advantages Shows the alternating ions found in an ionic compound Enables us to visualise the 3-D structure Disadvantages Does not show the vibrational energy that exists between ions Presents ionic bonds as physical links when they are actually electrostatic forces Doesnt explain the physical properties

Covalent molecular Advantages Shows that there is an interaction between the molecules Shows the difference between the intermolecular and intramolecular forces (orange lines and black lines distinguish these forces) Disadvantages Suggesting that the intermolecular forces are solid where as they are forces acting upon one another Suggesting that they are in a fixed position when they contain vibrational energy Doesnt depict the sharing of electrons Doesnt explain the physical properties

Covalent network Advantages Illustrates the continuous/repeated covalent bonds throughout the network Depicting the structure of diamond appropriately Disadvantages Suggesting that they are in a fixed position when they contain vibrational energy Doesnt depict the sharing of electrons misleading as it shows that they are bonds/links Cant determine the properties based on the structure doesnt show the physical properties of the structure Doesnt show the 3-D nature of the structure

Metallic lattice Advantages Shows that they have ions present Shows the delocalised electrons no definite pattern Disadvantages Suggesting that they are in a fixed position when they contain vibrational energy Cant determine the properties based on the structure doesnt show the physical properties of the structure Doesnt show the 3-D nature of the structure

METALS
1. Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years
Outline and examine some of the uses of different metals through history, including contemporary uses, as un-combined metals or as alloys Describe the use of common alloys including steels, brass and solder and explain how these relate to their properties Gather, process and analyse and present information from secondary sources on the range of alloys produced and the reasons for the production and use of these alloys Analyse information to relate the chronology of the Bronze Age, the Iron Age and the modern era and the possible future developments
Dates 50003000BC Name of Metal Copper Uses of metal Properties of Metal

Age Copper Age

Ornaments Tools Weapons Cooking implements Electrical Wires Water pipes

Easy to work Good conductor of electricity Nice and shiny Corrosion resistant

Bronze Age

30001000BC

Bronze an alloy of copper

Iron Age

From 1000BC

Iron

Cutting tools shields & armour statues church bells bearings Weapons and tools Magnetic application Converted into carbon steels (iron-carbon alloys) used in building construction framework cars machinery household appliances

Lower melting point yet harder than Copper quite malleable and ductile

Very malleable and ductile reasonably hard abundant in the crust quite heavy very magnetic

Modern Era

Present day

o o o

Aluminium Titanium Gold

- Aluminium: saucepans, drink cans, cooking foil - Titanium: alloys used in spacecrafts and aircrafts - Gold: jewellery, electrical connections

- Aluminium:

Low density high thermal conductivity very high corrosion resistance very malleable and ductile - Titanium: Quite strong Quite malleable/ductile - Gold: Very malleable/ductile Good electrical conductor Shiny and lustrous Corrosion resistant
Use(s) Nails Cables & chains

Alloy Steel

Composition 99.8% Fe, 0.2% C

Properties Hard but easily worked

Brass

65% Cu, 35% Zn & small amounts of other elements eg. Pb, Sn & Al 33% Sn, 67% Pb

lustrous gold appearance, hard but easily machined, polishes well Low melting point Adheres firmly to other metals when molten

Plumbing fittings, musical instruments, decorations.

Solder

Joining metals together (plumbing and electrical)

Stainless steel

74% Fe, 18% Cr, 8% Ni

Resists corrosion

Sinks, cutlery

Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore
1. Many metals are so strongly bound to other elements in their ores that considerable energy is required to break the chemical bonds and release the metal. The more reactive the metal, the more energy is required to release it from its compounds. 2. Energy has to be supplied: To mine the ore. To purify or concentrate the ore. To maintain the high temperatures needed to make the extractions go. To purify the raw material or to form it into useful alloys.

Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200 years ago
The discovery of metals is related to the technological development of societies. Some metals were not discovered until the 19th century because heat energy alone was not sufficient to decompose their compounds. The invention of electrolytic decomposition led to the discovery of active metals such as sodium, potassium and magnesium. The discovery of active metals such as sodium and magnesium resulted in discoveries of other metals using the process of reduction. These active metals could remove oxygen or other non-metals from the compounds of other metals, leading to the release of the free metal. For example, titanium is produced commercially today by reacting magnesium with fused titanium chloride. Also due to the new discovery of metals, meant that more alloys could be developed and able to be used by people etc etc etc. Over the last 200 years, metals have become readily available due to ongoing improvements in mining, smelting techniques and transportation. Much of this change has been driven by the needs of our technological society.

2. Metals differ with their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences their uses
Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen
Metal + water metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Reactivity of metals with water


K, Na, Ca Mg Al, Zn, Fe Sn, Pb Cu, Hg, Ag, Au Reacts with cold water to form hydroxide ions and release hydrogen gas Reacts with hot water to form hydroxide ions and release hydrogen gas React with steam at red heat to form oxide ions and release hydrogen gas No reaction

Sodium + water Sodium + water -> sodium hydroxide solution + hydrogen gas 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) -> 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) Iron + steam iron metal + steam -> iron oxide solid + hydrogen gas Fe (s) + H2O (g) -> FeO (s) + H2 (g)

Metal + Acid salt + hydrogen

Reactivity with oxygen


K, Na, Ca Mg, Al, Zn, Fe Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg Ag, Au Burn rapidly to form oxides or peroxides Burn readily if powdered or as fine fibres to form oxides Become coated with oxide layers during heating No reaction

Calcium + oxygen calcium metal + oxygen gas -> calcium peroxide solid Ca (s) + O2 (g) -> CaO2 (s) Mercury + oxygen mercury metal + oxygen gas -> mercury (II) oxide solid 2Hg (s) + O2 (g) -> 2HgO(s)

Metal + Acid salt + hydrogen

Reaction with dilute acids


K, Na Ca, Mg Al, Zn, Fe, Sn, Pb Foam very rapidly producing hydrogen gas, which may ignite Bubble rapidly releasing hydrogen Bubble moderately to very slowly as hydrogen is released; reaction is fast in warm acid; lead stops reacting when coated with insoluble PbCl2 or PbSO4 No reaction

Sodium + dilute sulfuric acid sodium metal + sulfuric acid -> sodium sulfate solution + hydrogen gas 2N(s) + H2SO4 (aq) -> Na2SO4 (aq) + H2 (g) Zinc + dilute hydrochloric acid zinc metal + hydrochloric acid -> zinc chloride solution + hydrogen gas Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) -> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Cu, Hg, Ag, Au

Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids
Cold water K Na Li Ba Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu Ag Pt Au Ease of oxidation of metal decreases down the column. Ease of reduction of metal ions increases down the column.

Steam & oxygen

Dilute acids Oxygen

The activity series of metals is the order of metal reactivity. The activity series is the combined result of many other experiments including thermal decomposition reactions of compounds of these elements.

Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons
The reaction of metals with acids requires the transfer of electrons. The transfer of reactions is brought upon by half equations: Oxidation: loss of electrons to become a positive ion. Easier for more reactive metals Reduction: ion gains electrons to become stable. Easier for less reactive metals as they are unreactive and wish to stay stable

Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals
Gold Gold is the least reactive of all metals. It readily keeps its lustre which makes it excellent for jewellery. Because it is not reactive, and has excellent electrical conductivity, computers and electronic circuits. Gold has also been used in the space area as it has excellent reflective properties.

Aluminium Aluminium is suitable for use in areas like the construction industry. Not only because of its strength and lightness of weight, but also aluminium forms and impervious oxide layer which it prevents further corrosion.

Magnesium Magnesium is a highly reactive metal which makes it suitable for some very specific applications. Magnesium is attached to the steel hulls of ships. Since magnesium is more reactive than the iron in the steel, hence it will corrode before the steel, protecting the ship from corrosion. In this instance the magnesium is called a sacrificial anode.

Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on the Periodic Table
Group 1 metals most reactive followed by group 2 metals. Then group 3 (Al) followed by some transition metals (Zn, Fe) then metals in group 4 (Sn, Pb). At the end of the series are more transition metals (Cu, Ag, Pt, Au). As you move from left to right activity decreases.

Identify the importance of first ionization energy in determining the relative reactivity of metals
The first ionization energy of an element is the energy required to remove an electron form an atom of the element when the element is in the gaseous state It is the energy change for the process: M(g) M(g)+ + E- where M is any element. Ionization energy can be measured in joules per atom; it is more commonly measured for a mole of atoms and reported as kilojoules per mole of atoms. [A mole is a name for a particular number of atoms (6.02 x 1023 atoms) just as a dozen means 12] The first ionization energy measures the ease of removing an electron from an atom. The lower the ionization energy the easier it is to remove an electron.

Construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer reactions occurring when metals react with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acid
Cu(2+) + SO4 (2-) + Fe Fe
(2+)

+ SO4 (2-) + Cu

Cu(2+) + Fe Fe(2+) + Cu (sulphuric acid is a spectator ion remains the same) Oxidation: Fe Fe(2+) + 2eReduction: Cu(2+) + 2e- Cu Copper becomes stable as 2 electrons have been added. Iron becomes a positive ion as two electrons have been removed.

3. As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that patterns in their physical and chemical properties could be used to organise the elements into a Periodic Table

Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure
Model of atomic structure: Bohrs model features: The nucleus is the central part of the atoms which contains the protons and neutrons. The electrons move through a relatively large space outside the nucleus. The electrons are kept moving around the nucleus by electrostatic forces between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons.

Outline the history of the development of the PT including its origins, the original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction

Dbereiner 1829 (German)


pointed out that there were several groups of 3 elements with remarkably similar properties: Lithium, sodium and potassium was one "triad" and chlorine, bromine and iodine formed another "triad"

Newlands 1834 (English)


Proposed "Law of Octaves" If the elements were arranged in order of relative weights, Newlands found that every 8th element (an "octave") was similar in properties. Some of these elements included Dobereiner's traids.

Mendeleev 1869 (Russian)


proposed the periodic law, "The propertiesof the elements vary periodically with their atomic weights." Organised the elements according to atomic weight and grouped elements of similar properties unde

Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and:
electrical conductivity ionisation energy atomic radius melting point boiling point combining power (valency) electronegativity reactivity

Relationship
Electrical Conductivity Ionisation Energy

Trends
Decreases from left to right Increases down a group Increases from left to right as more electronegative Decreases down a group as less electronegative (electrons further away from nucleus Increase down a group as each successive element has one more electron shell Decrease left to right as more electronegative, the charge in the nucleus increase so the electrostatic force between the nucleus and the outer electrons is stronger holding it closer to the nucleus

Atomic Radius

Melting and boiling points Combining power (valency) Electronegativity Reactivity

Same down a group Left to right, increase to group 4 then decreases. 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+- 3- 2- 1Increases across a period as atomic radius decreases Decreases down a group as atomic radius increases Metals: reactivity decreases from left to right, increase down a group Non-metals: when forming ions, reactivity increases from left to right and decreases down a group. When forming covalent compounds the trend is similar but there are some exceptions

4. For efficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of each reactant
Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12
A mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12. Chemists have determined that the number of atoms in 12g of carbon-12 is 6.02214 X 1023 (Avogadros constant). One mole of any substance contains 6.02214 X 1023 particles

Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen
Metal Mg Na Ca Al Formula 2Mg (s) + O2 (g) -> 2MgO (s) 4Na (s) + O2 (g) -> 2Na2O (s) 2Ca (s) + O2 (g) -> 2Ca2O (s) 4Al (s) + 2O2 (g) -> 2Al2O3 (s) Mass of metal (g) 48.62 91.96 80.16 107.92 Mass of metal oxide (g) 80.62 123.96 112.16 203.92 Mass oxygen used (g) 32 32 32 96

When metals combine chemically with oxygen they gain mass. The oxide formed during the reaction has a mass equal to the metal and oxygen Law of Conservation of Mass (mass of reactants = mass of products)

Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept
Gay-Lussac found that there was a simple relationship between the volumes of gases involved in a chemical reaction. At constant temperature and pressure, the volume of gases partaking in a chemical reaction can be measured in whole number ratios.

Recount Avogrados law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept
When measured at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same number of molecules OR equal number of molecules of different gases occupy the same volume at the same temperature and pressure From this basic principal he could create a relative scale of weights between elements (relative formula weight MM) which is essential in determining the amount of moles Avogadros number: eventually it was found that 12g of C-12 contained 6.02x1023 atoms and this is Avogadros number (NA). This number became known as the mole. As there was a relative scale of masses of all the elements compared to carbon-12 the number of moles within any sample of a substance could be found. Molecular formula = exact

Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae


Empirical formula = ratio If you are given the masses of each element that makes up a compound, the empirical formula of the compound can be calculated E.g. a 30g sample of a compound of Carbon and Hydrogen is found to contain 24g of carbon, find its empirical formula Hydrogen Mass = (30-24) = 6g MM = 1 N = 6/1 = 6 mols

Carbon

Mass = 24g MM = 12 N = 24/12 = 2 mols

Therefore ratio C:H 2:6 1:3 Empirical formula = CH3

5. The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and breadth of use in the community
Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and noneconomic deposits of natural resources
A mineral is a pure crystalline compound that occurs in the earths crust An ore is a compound or mixture of compounds from which it is economic (or commercially profitable) to extract a desired substance as a metal.

Ore Mineral Gangue

Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their actual abundances and relative cost of production
The higher the abundance the lower the price commercial of a metal. Thus, as the scarcity of a metal increases, so does the commercial price (as it becomes a rarity). The higher the production costs (i.e. costs of extraction and processing) the higher the commercial price of a metal. In this sense, the lower the production costs the lower the commercial price. The ease of transport also plays a role: the easier it is to transport the more likely it is to be cheaper to purchase, vice-versa.

Explain why ores are non-renewable resources


Ores are non-renewable resources as ore bodies were formed when the Earth was formed and there is no way of forming any more of them. It is also impossible to mine indefinitely as there is a limit to how much ore can be mined.

Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ore

Mine
There are several different minerals of copper. Australian mines mainly consist of copper ores and sulfides.

Crush
the copper ore is crushed into smaller particles in preparation for froth flotation

Froth Flotation
A specific type of oil is added to the ore which causes the sulfide particles to be not wetted. The ore is then immersed in a solution where tiny jets blow air through creating bubbles. The air bubbles then collect the nonwetted particles (sulfides) and pull them to the surface. The layer of froth containing the copper and sulfide is now skimmed from the surface.

Roasting
The copper concentrates are heated with sand (SiO2) which produces two immiscible liquids, one containing copper sulfide and the other iron silicate (FeSiO3).

Reduction with Oxygen


after separating from the iron silicates the Copper Sulfide is further heated on its own, but with air being bubbled through the molten salt. The oxygen reduces the Cu into metal. The reaction between sulfur and oxygen produces a significant amount of heat, which keeps the reaction going on its own.

Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium


Preparation: Remelting & refining:

Discuss the importance of predicting yield in the identification, mining and extraction of commercial ore deposits
Mining operations cost millions of dollars to set up. To do so, the operators need to be sure that the ore contains enough metal to be profitable. Chemical analysis in the laboratory is used to measure the mineral content of the ore body, to predict the final yield of the material.

Sorting & Separation:

Aluminium products, such as drink cans and car parts are collected through local council initiatives, as well as from organisations, e.g. Planet Ark

Aluminium does not contain magnetic properties; however steel does, so steel can be removed from the products using a powerful magnet separation technique. To ensure that the alloys of aluminium remain the same, aluminium cans are separated from other aluminium products manually.

The aluminium products are then compressed to form bales; separate bales used for cans, and are then transported to plants for the last part of recycling

Baled aluminium is fed separately into a rotary Furnace, which reaches temperatures of around 780 C, which melts the aluminium. Molten aluminium is then cast into Ingots, which are then sent to create new drink cans, kitchenware and other aluminium products.

Collection:

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