Resistance temperature transducers Two main Groups: a. Metal resistance temperature transducers E.g.

. platinum, copper, tungsten, and nickel It exhibits a small increases in resistance as the temperature rises i.e they have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance ( ) Where: = temperature coefficient of resistance in 1/ degree celcius = resistance in ohms at the reference temperature = 0 degree celcius Platinum resistance thermometer -259.35 deg Celsius to 630.5 deg Celsius based on International practical temperature scale b. Thermistors ( Semi conductor Resistance Temperature Transducers) E.g oxides of manganese, cobalt, chromium, or nickel These exhibit large non-linear resistance changes with temperature variation and normally have a negative temperature coefficient. For small temperature increment the variation in resistance is reasonably linear. But, if large temperature changes are experienced special linearising techniques are used in the increasing circuit to produce a linear relationship of resistance against temperature. It is normally made in the form of semiconductor disc or beads enclosed in glass envelopes or vitreous enamel. Since, they can be made as small as 1mm, quite rapid response times are possible. Photoconductive cells Uses a light-sensitive semiconductors material. The resistance between the metal electrodes decreases as the intensity of the light striking the semiconductor increases. Common semiconductor material used for photoconductive cells: o Cadmium sulphide o Lead sulphide o Copper-doped germanium The useful range of frequencies is determined by the material used Cadmium sulphide is mainly suitable for visible light.

 Lead sulphide has its peak response in the infrared region and most suitable for flame-failure detections and temperature measurements. Photoemissive cells Also called variable conduction or inverse resistance When light strikes the cathode of the photoemissive cell electrons are given sufficient energy to leave the cathode. The positive anode attracts these electrons, producing a current which flow through resistor and resulting in an output voltage. Although the output voltage give a good indication of the magnitude of illumination. The cells are more often used for counting or control purposes, where the light striking there cathode can be interrupted. Capacitive transducers

The capacitive transducer is used extensively for the measurement of displacement, pressure etc. Let us see the principle of working of capacitive transducer or sensor also called as variable capacitance transducer. What is Capacitve Transducer? The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor with variable capacitance. The capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated by the material such as air, which is called as the dielectric material. In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is fixed, but in variable capacitance transducers the distance between the two plates is variable. In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the capacitance changes due to change in the value of the input quantity that is to be measured. This change in capacitance can be measured easily and it is calibrated against the input quantity, thus the value if the input quantity can be measured directly.

The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducers is given by: C = o x r x A/ d Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor or the variable capacitance transducer o is the absolute permittivity r is the relative permittivity The product of o & r is also called as the dielectric constant of the capacitive transducer. A is the area of the plates D is the distance between the plates It is clear from the above formula that capacitance of the capacitive transducer depends on the area of the plates and the distance between the plates. The capacitance of the capacitive transducer also changes with the dielectric constant of the dielectric material used in it. Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer can change with the change of the dielectric material, change in the area of the plates and the distance between the plates. Depending on the parameter that changes for the capacitive transducers, they are of three types as mentioned below. 1) Changing Dielectric Constant type of Capacitive Transducers In this capacitive transducer the dielectric material between the two plates changes, due to which the capacitance of the transducer also changes. When the input quantity to be measured changes the value of the dielectric constant also changes so the capacitance of the instrument changes. This capacitance, calibrated against the input quantity, directly gives the value of the quantity to be measured. This principle is used for measurement of level in the hydrogen container, where the change in level of hydrogen between the two plates results in change of the dielectric constant of the capacitance transducer. Apart from level, this principle can also be used for measurement of humidity and moisture content of the air. 2) Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive Transducers The capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer also changes with the area of the two plates. This principle is used in the torquemeter, used for measurement of the torque on the shaft. This comprises of the sleeve that has teeth cut axially and the matching shaft that has similar teeth at its periphery. 3) Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive Transducers In these capacitive transducers the distance between the plates is variable, while the area of the plates and the dielectric constant remain constant. This is the most commonly used

type of variable capacitance transducer. For measurement of the displacement of the object, one plate of the capacitance transducer is kept fixed, while the other is connected to the object. When the object moves, the plate of the capacitance transducer also moves, this results in change in distance between the two plates and the change in the capacitance. The changed capacitance is measured easily and it calibrated against the input quantity, which is displacement. This principle can also be used to measure pressure, velocity, acceleration etc. Note: unlike the potentiometer, the variable distance capacitance transducer has an infinite resolution, making is most suitable for measuring small increments of displacement or quantities which may be changed produce a displacement. Inductive transducers There are two common type inductive transducers: simple inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type. Both have been described below along with their circuits. Inductive Transducers The inductive transducers work on the principle of the magnetic induction of magnetic material. Just as the resistance of the electric conductor depends on number of factors, the induction of the magnetic material depends on a number of variables like the number of turns of the coil on the material, the size of the magnetic material, and the permeability of the flux path. In the inductive transducers the magnetic materials are used in the flux path and there are one or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in change in the inductance of the circuit and in most of the inductive transducers it is used for the working of the instrument.

There are two common type inductive transducers: simple inductance type and two-coil mutual inductance type. Both have been described below along with their circuits.

1) Simple Inductance Type Inductive Transducers In the simple inductance type of the inductive transducers simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the mechanical element whose displacement is to be measured is moved, it changes the permeance of the flux path generated by the circuit, which changes the inductance of the circuit and the corresponding output. The output from the circuit is calibrated directly against the value of the input, thus it directly gives the valve of the parameter to be measured.

2) Two-Coil Mutual Inductance Type Inductive Transducer

In the two coil arrangement there are two different coils. In the first coil the excitation is generated by external source of the power and in the second coil the output is obtained. The output is proportional to the mechanical input. Measuring techniques used with capacitive and inductive a. A.C excited bridges using differential capacitors

or inductors b. A.C potentiometer circuits for dynamic measurements c. D.C circuits to give a voltage proportional to velocity for a capacitor d. Frequency-modulation methods Important features of capacitive and inductive transducers are follows: a. b. c. d. Resolution: infinite Accuracy: 0.1% of full scale is quoted Displacement ranges; 25x10 -6 m to 10x10 -3 m Rise time: less than 50 microsecond possible

Typical measurands are displacements, pressure, vibration, sound, and liquid level. Linear variable-differential transformer
In this figure, A high-frequency excitation voltage is applied to the primary winding and due to transformer action, voltages are induced in the secondary coil. The amplitudes of these secondary voltages are dependent on the degree of electromagnetic coupling between the primary and secondary coils and hence on the core displacement.

Since the secondary coils are connected in series opposition, the displacement of the

core which produces an increase in voltage 1 will produce a corresponding decrease in voltage 2. It works on the principle of differential transformer that has one primary winding and two secondary windings. The voltage output from the LVDT is proportional to the movement of the core whose displacement is to be measured. Advantages of LVDT 1) The biggest advantage of the LVDT is that the output obtained from it is proportional to the displacement of the mechanical member whose displacement is being measured. 2) LVDT cannot be overloaded mechanically since the core is completely separated from the other parts of the device. 3) Another important advantage of LVDT is that the output obtained from it is fairly high and it can be measured easily without requiring the need of the intermediate amplification. 3) LVDT is insensitive to the temperature and the changes in the temperature. Some important characteristics and features of the lvdt are as follows: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. Infinite resolution Linearity better than 0.5% Excitation frequency 50Hz to 20kHz Null voltage less than 1% of full scale output voltage Maximum displacement frequency 10% of the excitation frequency No wear of moving parts Displacement ranges available from 2x10 -4m to 0.5m Amplitude modulated output

Typical measurands are any quantities, which can be transduced into a displacement,, e.g pressure, acceleration, vibration, force and liquid level.