GSM Air Interface Planning Guidelines

Planning Guideline: Air Interface Dimensioning
Issued by Communication Mobile Networks

Com MN PG NT NE 1 Munich
SIEMENS AG 2006
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Planning Guideline: Air Interface dimensioning
Contents
0 GENERAL INFORMATION..................................................................................................................... 3 0.1 0.2 1 2 HISTORY ............................................................................................................................................... 3 ABBREVIATIONS, DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS ............................................................................ 3
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 7 RADIO PROPAGATION ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................... 8 2.1 2.2 2.3 CLUTTER TYPES .................................................................................................................................... 8 CELL TYPES .......................................................................................................................................... 9 CHANNEL MODEL .................................................................................................................................. 9
POWER BUDGET PARAMETERS ....................................................................................................... 10 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.6 3.7 BTS TRANSMISSION POWER ................................................................................................................ 11 MS TRANSMISSION POWER.................................................................................................................. 12 BTS SENSITIVITY ................................................................................................................................ 12 Sensitivity reference ports ............................................................................................................. 14 TMA and noise figure of the system .............................................................................................. 15 MS SENSITIVITY ................................................................................................................................. 17 DIVERSITY TECHNIQUES ..................................................................................................................... 18 2 branch RX diversity.................................................................................................................... 19 4 branch RX diversity.................................................................................................................... 20 TX diversity Antenna Hopping ...................................................................................................... 21 TX diversity Time Delay................................................................................................................ 22 RX/TX ANTENNA GAIN....................................................................................................................... 24 COMBINER INSERTION LOSSES ............................................................................................................ 24
PROPAGATION RELATED PARAMETERS...................................................................................... 26 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 LOG-NORMAL FADING AND STANDARD DEVIATION ............................................................................. 26 INDOOR CASE ...................................................................................................................................... 28 INTERFERENCE DEGRADATION MARGIN .............................................................................................. 28 BODY LOSS ......................................................................................................................................... 29 EQUIVALENT ISOTROPIC RADIATED POWER EIRP ........................................................................... 30 POWER BUDGET CALCULATIONS ......................................................................................................... 30 (E)GPRS LINK BUDGET ...................................................................................................................... 34 POWER BUDGET BALANCE .................................................................................................................. 37
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PATHLOSS CALCULATION ............................................................... 30 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4
RADIO PROPAGATION PREDICTION .............................................................................................. 38 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 PROPAGATION SLOPE .......................................................................................................................... 38 ONE SLOPE MODEL .............................................................................................................................. 39 TWO SLOPE MODEL ............................................................................................................................. 41 CELL SIZE EVALUATION ...................................................................................................................... 42
GRID PLANNING .................................................................................................................................... 45 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 OMNI CELL.......................................................................................................................................... 45 3-SECTORS SITE................................................................................................................................... 46 6- SECTOR SITES .................................................................................................................................. 47 2- OR 1-SECTOR SITES (ROAD SITE) ..................................................................................................... 49
LINK BUDGET APPLICATION CASES .............................................................................................. 51
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0 General Information
0.1 History Version 1.0 Date Reason for Changes 26.06.2006 1st version of document
0.2
Abbreviations, Definitions and Explanations Definition, explanation 8 Phase Shift Keying Receiver diversity: 2 RX paths Receiver diversity: 4 RX paths Frequency dependent part Cell coverage Antenna Combiner Antenna Hopping Amplifier Coupler Area covered by one site Receiver bandwidth Broadcast Control Channel Bit Error Rate Block Error Rate BTS CU sensitivity BTS CU output power Peak RF power at CU Base Transceiver Station Classic BTS (e.g. BS20, BS60) Base Transceiver Station Second Generation (e.g. BS240) Clutter correction factor Carrier to noise and interference ratio Carrier to noise ratio Cumulative Distribution Function Circuit Switched Carrier Unit Site-to-site distance MS antenna height correction Digital Communication System Di - Amplifier Multi Coupler Downlink Dense urban
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Abbreviation 8PSK 2RX 4RX A1/2 Acell ACOM AH AMCO Asite B BCCH BER BLER BSRX sensitivity BSTX pwr BSTX pwr_max BTS BTSone BTSplus c C/(N+I) C/N CDF CS CU D d(hMS) DCS DIAMCO DL du
Abbreviation Eb Eb/No ECU ECU V3 EDGE EGPRS EIRP erf ERP ETSI f F BTS FDUAMCO FER FH FICOM FlexCU Fx GDL Antenna GDL TX div GMS antenna GMS antenna GMSK GPRS Gr GSM Gt GUL antenna GUL diversity Gx hb hBS hMS HPDU HT HT 100 HW IR IURS
Definition, explanation Energy of a single data bit Signal to noise ratio per bit EDGE Carrier Unit ECU version 3.0 Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution Enhanced General Packet Radio Service Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power Error function Equivalent Radiated Power European Telecommunications Standards Institute Frequency Noise figure of BTS at antenna port Flexible Duplexer Amplifier Multi Coupler Frame Erasure Rate Frequency Hopping Filter Combiner Flexible Carrier Unit Noise factor Propagation slope BTS TX antenna gain Downlink diversity gain MS antenna gain MS antenna gain Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying General Packet Radio Service Antenna gain Global System for Mobile Communications Transmitter antenna gain UL antenna (RX antenna) gain of the BTS UL diversity gain Power amplification factor Antenna height Height of base station Height of MS High Power Duplexer Unit Hilly Terrain Hilly Terrain at 100 km/h Hardware Incremental Redundancy Improved Uplink Receiver Sensitivity
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Abbreviation k L LA Lbackoff Lbody loss Lcombiner loss LDL cable_loss LHPDU Lincar Linterference deg Llog-normal margin LMS cable loss LNF LNF margin LOS Lpenetration LUL cable loss MAPL MCS MS MSRX sensitivity MSTX pwr max MUCO N n NF No P P Noise PCS PDCH Pr PRACH PS PSK Pt R r RA250
Definition, explanation Boltzmann constant System loss factor (e.g. cable and combiner loss) Link Adaptation Static power reduction Body loss Antenna combiners insertion loss DL cable loss HPDU loss Incar losses Interference degradation margin Log-normal fading margin RF cabling loss of the MS Low Noise Filter Log Normal Fading margin Line Of Sight Penetration losses BTS UL antenna cabling loss Maximum Allowable Pathloss Modulation and Coding Scheme Mobile Station MS sensitivity Peak RF power of the MS Multi Coupler Number of sites required to cover certain area Propagation model exponent Noise Figure Noise spectral density Area to be covered by sites Thermal noise Personal Communication System Packet Data Channels Power at the receiver antenna Packet Random Access Channel Packet Switched Phase Shift Keying Transmitter power Cell range Distance between the base station antenna and the mobile Rural Area 250 km/h
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Abbreviation RBER RF RLC RX si su T T bit TMA TRX TS TU3 TU50 TX U UL USF V-pol x0 X-pol LNF(i) LNF(o) LNF(o+i)
x
Definition, explanation Residual Bit Error Rates Radio Frequency Radio Link Control Receiver Distance dependent part Suburban Noise temperature Duration of the bit time Tower Mounted Amplifier Transmitter/Receiver Timeslot Typical Urban 3 km/h Typical Urban 50 km/h Transmitter Urban Uplink Uplink State Flag Antenna with vertical polarization plane Minimum RX input power for (x) % location probability Antenna with 45 polarization planes Wavelength Standard deviation Indoor standard deviation Outdoor standard deviation Standard deviation for both indoor and outdoor Minimum RX input power for 50% location probability
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1 Introduction
This document describes Air interface network dimensioning that is to be carried out in a very early phase of network implementation, i.e. prior to any installation or network elements. The purpose of Air interface dimensioning is to estimate how the available geographical area that is to be served by the GERAN radio network can and shall be covered, i.e. how the available geographical area can be subdivided into cells and areas served by particular sites. The following section contains the description of the link budget calculation. It starts with the discussion of the propagation environment in the chapter 2. Then hardware related link budget parameters are described (chapter 3). Afterwards parameters related to the propagation phenomena are outlined (chapter 4). The Maximum Allowable Pathloss can then be calculated based on the directions and formulas presented in chapter 5. With the Maximum Allowable Pathloss, the cell range can be estimated according to the propagation model equations given in Prediction Models description (chapter 6). After selection of an appropriate network layout, according to the information from the Grid Planning section (chapter 7), the site area and the number of required sites can be calculated.
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2 Radio propagation environment

Mobile radio communication takes place in an environment which varies substantially in the propagation characteristics. The most important propagation factors that define the mobile environment for a particular area are: Physical terrain structure (heights, morphology), Man-made structures (number, height, materials), Foliage and vegetation characteristics, Weather conditions.
Impact of these factors depends on the radio frequency at which the system operates. Moreover, it is influenced by the speed of the mobile. Propagation effects and their magnitude for slow-moving or stationary mobiles are quite different from those for mobiles that move with high speeds. The random nature of the radio propagation requires modelling of the radio channel in a statistical fashion, based on the measurements. Firstly, a propagation model which characterizes signal strength over large transmitter-receiver separation distances is applied. Then slow fading and multi-path fading is modelled. 2.1 Clutter types
Physical terrain structure impacts mobile radio signal propagation significantly. In order to distinguish different terrain morphology, special 'clutter types' are defined. During the dimensioning phase, these clutter types are reduced to the main classes: dense urban, urban, suburban, rural and road. Urban The clutter type 'urban' represents areas with high building density as found mostly in urban environments consisting of large buildings, offices, and shops etc. where adjacent buildings are clearly separated from each other by free space. The typical urban scenario should have a mean amount of streets with no distinct street orientation pattern, the major streets are visible on satellite maps. The buildings appear distinct from each other. Some small vegetation can be included. The average height of the buildings is below 40m. Dense Urban These are areas within the urban environment with highly concentrated building density. Single features (i.e. buildings, etc.) do not clearly appear distinct from each other e.g. on a satellite map. Heights of the buildings can be well above 40m. Suburban Areas of housing that include some vegetation, mostly found bordering the urban areas, spreading outwards from the city centre. The average height of the buildings is below 15m.
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Road - Quasi Open This clutter type corresponds to regions (rural areas) outside city areas without large development: villages, smaller vegetation, roads. Rural Open The rural clutter corresponds to areas without buildings, no vegetation and other obstacles. This is modelled explicitly as open area (Please check if applicable or if Road is more suitable for the area described as Rural in the requirements). 2.2 Cell types
In 2G networks different site types can be distinguished: macro, micro and pico sites. The division is based on the antenna heights with respect to the surrounding objects (e.g. buildings) and antenna locations. Macro antennas located above the rooftop level and outdoor Micro antennas located below roof level and outdoor Pico antennas located below roof level and indoor
A further distinction of Macro sites can be made depending on the antenna type: omni- or directional sectored. The layout of sectored sites is chosen among twosector, three-sector and six-sector configuration. 2.3 Channel model
The channel model is determined by the subscriber behaviour and location. Link budget parameters are impacted by selection of the channel model. The subscriber location is differentiated to indoor/outdoor. Indoor subscribers served by Macro sites receive a signal level which is attenuated by indoor penetration loss. Apart from that also indoor standard deviation has to be calculated. The subscriber perception of propagation phenomena depends on the subscriber velocity and surrounding environment. Thus the following different channel models, taking into account all the factors, are defined: Static TU3 TU50 RA250 HT100 no multipath Typical Urban at 3 km/h Typical Urban at 50 km/h Rural Area at 250 km/h Hilly Terrain at 100 km/h
Please note that channel model is related to the used band. Doubling of the frequency for the current channel model reduces the subscriber speed to the half, e.g. TU3 for 900/850 MHz is equivalent to TU1.5 for 1800/1900 MHz.
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3 Power Budget parameters

The term 'power budget' considers calculation of transmitting and receiving part of the radio link. At the transmitter side, transmitter output power and all the attenuations / gains in the transmitter path produces output power at the antenna output . At the receiver side, minimum sensitivity level and receiving path attenuations / gains produces minimum signal level at the receiving antenna input . Comparison of both results gives 'Maximum Allowable Pathloss' (MAPL) between transmitter and receiver at which the minimum sensitivity is met, i.e. the received signal after path attenuation must exceed the receiver sensitivity, i.e. the lowest possible receive level the receiver can still manage. Separate power budgets for each link direction shall be created downlink and uplink respectively. The following main factors shall be considered in downlink: BTS power (BSTX pwr ) Antenna combiners insertion loss (Lcombiner loss ) DL cable loss (LDL cable_loss ) BTS antenna gain (GDL Antenna ) MS sensitivity (MSRX sensitivity ) RF cabling loss of the MS (LMS cable loss) MS antenna gain (GMS antenna)
Factors for the uplink, respectively: MS power (MSTX pwr max) RF cabling loss of the MS (LMS cable loss) MS antenna gain (GMS antenna) BTS sensitivity (BSRX sensitivity) RX antenna gain of the BTS (GUL antenna) BTS UL antenna cabling loss (LUL cable loss )
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3.1
BTS transmission power
The output power of the BTSplus base station is determined by the output power of the transceiver modules (Carrier Units, CU), the loss of the combining units and the loss of the internal cabling. These power output values are related to the antenna port of the BTSplus base station.
Reference Port for TX Power Jumper Cable Jumper Cable
BTS Cabinet Antenna Interface Module
Feeder Cable
Antenna
Transceiver Modules
Figure 3-1: TX power reference port In GMSK, which is a constant envelope modulation type, the amplitude of the GMSK signal is constant over the whole burst. The power amplifier can operate on a nonlinear working point with high efficiency. In contrast, the 8-PSK modulation scheme does not have a constant envelope, which implies higher requirement for linearity in the power amplifier. The working point has to be moved to the linear area. Consequently, the maximum transmit power of a typical ECU (i.e. EDGE CU) is reduced when transmitting an 8-PSK signal (i.e. EDGE signal). ECU can of course transmit GMSK modulated signals (i.e. voice or GPRS). An average power capability reduction of 2-3 dB must be considered in comparison to GMSK. Please note that rule above is related to the maximum output power. If the CU operates below maximum power level (e.g. static power reduction of 2 or 4 dB implemented by a corresponding setting of parameter PWRRED in the TRX object) the ECU power capability reduction for 8-PSK is not relevant.
Maximum output power for GMSK [dBm] GSM 850 GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900 GSM 850 GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900 48,3 48,3 48,3 48,3 47 47 47 47
Maximum output power for 8-PSK [dBm] 46,3 46,3 45,3 45,3 44 44 44 44
ECU V3
FlexCU
Table 3-1 Example typical CU output power

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3.2
MS transmission power
MS transmission powers are given in the specification [45.005].

Power class 1 2 3 4 5 GSM 400 & GSM 900 & GSM 850 Nominal Maximum output 8 W (39 dBm) 5 W (37 dBm) 2 W (33 dBm) 0,8 W (29 dBm) DCS 1 800 Nominal Maximum output 1 W (30 dBm) 0,25 W (24 dBm) 4 W (36 dBm) PCS 1 900 Nominal Maximum output 1 W (30 dBm) 0,25 W (24 dBm) 2 W (33 dBm) -
Table 3-2 GMSK MS transmission power For 8-PSK mobiles power reduction due to linearity constraints, as outlined in chapter 3.1, is required. In general power reduction of 2-3 dB is applicable.
3.3
BTS sensitivity
Receiver sensitivity is determined by three components: RX Sensitivity (dBm) = P Noise (dBm) + F BTS (dB) + C/N (dB) Thermal noise: P Noise (dBm) = 10 log (k T B) + 30 k T B Boltzmann constant, 1,38 10-23 Ws/oK Noise temperature, 298 oK = 25 oC Receiver bandwidth, 190 kHz
The value of 30 in the above equation means: unit conversion from dB into dBm (equivalent of multiplication by 1000 in linear measure). P Noise = - 121.07 dBm Noise figure of the BTS at the antenna port: Friis formula is utilised for cascaded units: F BTS (dB) = 10 log ( F1 + (F2 - 1) / G1) F1 F2 G1 Noise factor of receiver front end (combiner antenna port) Noise factor of second stage (CU) Power amplification factor of first stage (combiner) (Rx-Gain Combiner (Ant / Rx-Out) - cable loss (DUAMCO/ CU)
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Combiner F1 G1
Carrier Unit F2 G2
Figure 3-2 Noise figures of cascaded units
Carrier to noise ratio required for performance defined by GSM standard:

E 1 C / N [dB ] = 10 log b N B T bit 0
(+ 8PSK [dB ])
Energy of a single data bit Eb No Noise spectral density Eb/No Signal to noise ratio per bit, simulated decoder sensitivity B Bandwidth T bit Duration of the bit time (3,69 s) 8PSK (dB)Bit rate / Symbol rate (for EDGE-8PSK only) = 3 10 log 3 = 4.77 [dB],
C / N [dB ] =
Eb Eb 1 + 10 log 190 kHz 3,69 s = N + 1,54 dB (+ 4,77 dB EDGE 8 PSK ) N0 0
When RX diversity features (chapter 3.5) are applied the sensitivity of the BTS receiving system is improved. This is reflected in sensitivity values of the Carrier Unit. Separate sensitivity values are reported for CUs in case of:
No diversity 2RX diversity 4RX diversity
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3.3.1
Sensitivity reference ports
RX Sensitivity values are referenced to the Antenna Port of the BTS system. For a BTS without TMA the reference port for RX sensitivity data is the antenna connector of the BTS equipment (i.e. Antenna Interface Modules of the BTS DUAMCO / FDUAMCO in BTSplus).
Reference Port for Sensitivity Jumper Cable Jumper Cable
Feeder Cable
Antenna
Transceiver Modules
Figure 3-3 Sensitivity reference port for a BTS without TMA Sensitivity of BTS without TMA, referred to the antenna, will be decreased by the loss of the feeder cable (and jumper cables). For the systems with TMA the reference port for RX sensitivity is the antenna connector of the TMA.
Reference Port for TX Power Jumper Cable Feeder Cable TMA Reference Port for Sensitivity Jumper Cable Antenna
Transceiver Modules
Figure 3-4: Sensitivity reference port with TMA
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3.3.2
TMA and noise figure of the system
As described in previous chapters receiver sensitivity is determined by three components: RX Sensitivity (dBm) = P Noise (dBm) + F BTS (dB) + C/N (dB) The BTS RX system consists of the number of cascaded devices (e.g. cable, duplexers, combiners etc.). Each device introduces noise caused by signal processing and thermal noise. In such a case system noise figure is calculated using Friis' formula. For a system without TMA:
Sensitivity Reference point
Feeder F1=3dB G1=-3dB
Combiner F2=1.9 dB G2=22 dB
RX input F3=12.5dB G3=0dB
Figure 3-5 System without TMA F BTS (dB) = 10 log (F2 + (F3-1) / G2) F2 F3 G2 Noise factor of combiner (linear units) Noise factor of CU (linear units) Power amplification factor of combiner (linear units)
NF w/o TMA Combiner gain Combiner NF TRX gain TRX NF System NF dB 22 1,9 0 12,5 2,19 linear 158,5 1,5 1,0 17,8 1,7
Table 3-3 Example of system noise figure calculations without TMA Please note that the sensitivity reference port is placed after a feeder, and feeder losses have to be taken into account during link budget calculations. In order to improve system performance in UL a Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) can be used. The purpose of the TMA is to amplify the received signal before it is further attenuated in the antenna feeder.
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For systems with TMA the sensitivity reference port is changed. Thus the formula for calculations of the system noise figure has to be modified accordingly.
Sensitivity Reference TMA F1=1,8dB G1=25 dB Feeder F2=3dB G2=-3dB Combiner F3=6.3 dB G3=-1 dB RX input F4=12.5dB G4=0dB
Table 3-4 System with TMA
F 1 F3 1 F4 1 + FBTS [dB ] = 10 log F1 + 2 + G1 G1 G2 G1 G2 G3

F1 F2 F3 F4 G1 G2 G3 G4 Noise factor of TMA (linear units) Noise factor of feeder (linear units) Noise factor of combiner (linear units) Noise factor of CU (linear units) Power amplification factor of TMA (linear units) Losses of feeder (linear units) Power amplification factor of combiner (linear units) Power amplification factor of CU (linear units)
NF with TMA TMA gain TMA NF Cable loss Cable NF Combiner gain Combiner NF TRX gain TRX NF System NF dB 25 1,8 -3 3 -1 6,3 0 12,5 2,20 linear 316,2 1,5 0,5 2,0 0,8 4,3 1,0 17,8 1,7
Table 3-5 Example of system noise figure calculations with TMA
Two aspects of the TMA utilisation have to be considered: the sensitivity reference port is moved to the TMA input, and the system noise figure includes the noise figure of the TMA. The former aspect helps to neglect feeder losses in the link budget calculations. The latter impacts the sensitivity, provided that the TMA noise figure is significantly different than that of the Antenna Interface Module (e.g. FDUAMCO) and the resulting system noise figure is different from the one of the no-TMA case.
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There are two modes of combiner RX path operation: AMCO mode with LNF Amplifier, and MUCO mode (Multi Coupler) without LNF amplifier. Each mode is characterised by different noise figure and attenuation. With the Siemens TMA (high gain), the combiner must be switched to the 'MUCO mode', which implies that the system gain remains unchanged (the TMA gain is equal to that of the LNF amplifier). Please note that the sensitivity is always related to a certain noise figure, which is resulting from all the elements present in the receiving path Combiner, CU etc. This means that changes of any element / noise figure (e.g. combiner type with different noise figure) impact the sensitivity figures. Always the system noise figure must be taken into consideration. 3.4 MS sensitivity
The reference sensitivity performance in terms of frame erasure (FER), bit error (BER), or residual bit error rates (RBER) (whichever is appropriate) is specified according to the type of channel and the propagation conditions. The sensitivity level is defined as the input level for which this performance is met. Sensitivity shall in any case be better than the specified reference sensitivity level (see table below).
Reference sensitivity GSM 900 MS for GSM 900 small MS for other GSM 900 MS DCS 1 800 MS for DCS 1 800 class 1 or class 2 MS for DCS 1 800 class 3 MS PCS 1 900 MS for PCS 1 900 MS for other PCS 1 900 MS -102 dBm -104 dBm -100 / 102 dBm -102 dBm -102 dBm -104 dBm
Table 3-6: MS reference sensitivity For (E)GPRS, the MS receiver reference sensitivity is defined as the minimum input signal level for which the reference performance in terms of BLER is met. Reference Performance Packet Data Channels (PDCH) Uplink State Flags (USF) Packet Random Access Channels (PRACH) BLER 10% BLER 1% BLER 15%
Table 3-7 (E)GPRS MS receiver reference performance BLER is the Block Error Rate, referring to all erroneously decoded data blocks including any headers, stealing flags, parity bits as well as any implicit information in the training sequence.
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For PDCH the BLER refers to RLC blocks, and hence there can be up to two block errors per 20ms radio block for EGPRS MCS7, MCS8 and MCS9. For USF, the BLER only refers to the USF value. Reference sensitivity figures are presented in the respective specifications [45.005] 3.5 Diversity techniques
Diversity techniques help to improve the link performance by using uncorrelated copies of the signal. Diversity can be used in both directions: uplink and downlink. RX diversity helps to mitigate fading effects by combining received paths at the receiver. Rx diversity gives benefits for uplink limited scenarios. When the size of site configurations increase, higher combiner losses may lead to downlink limited scenarios. In such cases, an improvement of the downlink part is required. A common method is to replicate downlink paths in order to obtain uncorrelated signal copies at the MS receiver. The problem is to de-correlate signals at the transmitter side in order to avoid interferences there. Two main methods are used: Antenna Hopping and Time delay.
Figure 3-6: TX diversity Please note that in case the diversity gain is already considered in the BTS receiver sensitivity, there is no need to count it separately in the Link Budget.
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3.5.1
2 branch RX diversity
Antenna diversity provides measures to compensate instantaneous fading phenomena of a single Rx-path by a second, equivalent, but non-correlated Rx-path. The efficiency of antenna diversity, i.e. the improvement of the up-link performance, expressed as 'diversity gain', depends on the obtainable grade of de-correlation of both diversity-RX-paths of the up-link. There are two possible solutions of RX diversity: space diversity due to differing Rx positions and polarization diversity due to differing polarization planes. Space diversity requires two V-pol antennas separated by distance D >10, where D means the distance between antennas and is wavelength for certain frequency.
Rx3 div Tx1/Rx1
Tx3/Rx3 Rx1 div
Rx2 div
Tx2/Rx2
Figure 3-7: Example 3 sector site layout with space diversity Polarisation diversity requires dual-polarized antenna with two antenna arrays within the same physical unit. The two antenna arrays are usually oriented in 45 polarization planes. The antenna is also referred to as 'X-pol' or 'cross-pol'.
Tx3/Rx3/ Rx3 div
Tx1/Rx1 Rx1 div
Tx2/Rx2 Rx2 div
Figure 3-8: 3 Example 3 sector site layout with X-pol antennas
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3.5.2
4 branch RX diversity
4-branch RX diversity utilises 4 separate antenna paths. Using a maximum ratio combining of all four receive branches gives an additional diversity gain of up to 2,5 dB, when compared with 2-branch receive diversity. Processing of 4 independent RX paths is performed by means of FlexCU. It requires 2 FlexCU halves working together, so only coverage mode (1 FlexCU acting as 1 TRX) of the unit is possible.
TX -0 R X -a R X -b TX -0 R X -c R X -d
T X -0 R X -N R X -D IV 1 T X -0 R X -D IV 2 R X -D IV 3 S ig n a l P ro ce ssin g
B a se b a n d S ig n a ls
R X -N ... m a in re ce ive r R X -D IV 1 /D IV 3 ... d ive rsity re ce ive r
Figure 3-9 FlexCU in 4 RX mode Please note that 4RX requires the double number of antennas and RX paths, however the increased site coverage for uplink limited cases may lead to significant site count reduction. 4RX may be realised on X-pol antennas, however space separation is required between antenna units.
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Xpol Ant 1
ACOM
RX 10 20 RX 13 23 RX 12
Xpol Ant 0
TRX 11
Space D
ACOM
22 RX 14 24
TRX 10
TRX 1
TRX 20
TRX 21
TRX 2
FlexCU-0
FlexCU-1
Figure 3-10 4RX realization with X-pol antennas For the most space-critical cases it is possibly to use an 'XX-pol' antenna which holds 2 separate X-pol antennas in one radome. In such a solution sufficient separation between the antenna ports shall be must be ensured by the manufacturer. 3.5.3 TX diversity Antenna Hopping
The idea of 'antenna hopping' idea is to transmit each burst on one antenna only, but to change antennas within the interleaving period. This helps to compensate the effects of fast fading, especially in deployments with limited spectrum. This feature can be used in combination with synthesized FH. The gain from antenna hopping can be seen as with frequency diversity where the number of virtual hopping frequencies is equal to the number of hopping antennas, multiplied by the number of really hopping frequencies. In particular, the frequency diversity gain would result from an equivalent number of frequencies given by the following relation:
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# Equivalent frequencies = # Frequencies # Antennas Where: # Antennas stands for the actual number of antennas used for antenna hopping # Frequencies stands for the actual number of frequencies used in the synthesised FH Please note that higher gains of the feature are expected for a limited spectrum. The reason is that the hopping gain tends to saturate for higher number of hopping carriers. Major benefits are expected for static and slow moving MS. The gain depending on terminal velocity is in the range of 0.5 2 dB. Voice and circuit switched data benefit well from additional diversity due to their strong forward error correction. High data rate coding schemes of GPRS (e.g. CS4) and EGPRS (e.g. MCS 9) have few forward error correction coding. I.e. these coding schemes perform better without additional diversity. Antenna Hopping is a pure software solution and doesnt require additional hardware to be added. 3.5.4 TX diversity Time Delay
With TX diversity Time Delay the same signals are transmitted simultaneously by two Carrier Units (CU) connected to two different antennas. They operate at the same frequency, one acting as master device and the other one as slave. Signals are decorrelated by a particular time shift between them. The gain is achieved by the doubled downlink paths and by an increased radiated EIRP output power as seen by receiver.
Figure 3-11: Time shift between signals
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Sector 0
Antenna 0
Sector 0
Antenna 0
Antenna 1
DUAMCO 2:2 TX -1 TX -0 TX -0 TX -2
DUAMCO 4:2 TX -1 Master TX -3 Slave CU 3
Master
CU 0
CU 3
CU 0
Slave
CU 1
CU 2
Figure 3-12 No TX diversity (left) and TX diversity Time Delay (right) As can be noticed in the picture above, apart from the double number of TRXs, TX diversity requires the double number of TX paths, which, in some cases, may lead to the necessity to use higher order combiners (e.g. DUAMCO 4:2 instead of DUAMCO 2:2 on Figure 3-12). These solutions, however, increase the losses in the TX path due to higher combiner losses and reduce gains coming from TX diversity. This can be avoided by using double number of combiners and number of antennas (e.g. 2 * DUAMCO 2:2 instead of one DUAMCO 4:2 - Figure 3-13).
Sector 0
Antenna 2
2:2 TX -1 TX -0 TX -2
Antenna 1
Antenna 0
2:2 TX -3
Master
Master
Antenna 3
CU 0
Slave
CU 1
CU 2
Figure 3-13 TX diversity with 4 antennas The solution with 4 antennas requires the double amount of hardware units, however, due to increased cell range in the DL, we can expect significant savings in the number of sites (examples in chapter 8).
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Slave
CU 3
Antenna 1
Additionally, the advantage of the '4-antenna-solution' is that it can be easily combined with 4RX diversity in order to match the ranges in UL and DL. Example configurations using different TX diversities are presented below.
Table 3-8 Example budget for different TX diversity options The figures below present the cell area increase when additional gains are achieved due to application of Transmit Diversity.
No TX diversity TX diversity 2dB DL gain TX diversity 2dB DL gain + 3dB EIRP
Figure 3-14 Cell ranges with different diversity options
3.6
RX/TX antenna gain
Since usually the same antenna is used for RX and TX, the same antenna gain can be used in downlink/uplink directions. Antenna gains depend on the type and are project specific. 3.7 Combiner insertion losses
Antenna combiner insertion losses shall be considered in downlink. They depend on the combiner type. Please note that after the capacity calculation the link budget has to be revised in order to check whether number of TRXs suits assumed combiner order.
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Antenna Jumper connector to antenna
Outdoor jumper cable
Jumper connector to TMA
Tower Mounted Amplifier
Feeder connector to TMA
Feeder cable Feeder connector to equipment of jumper cable Indoor jumper cable indoor
Jumper connector to BTS
Figure 3-15: Antenna system elements
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4 Propagation related parameters

4.1 Log-normal fading and standard deviation
A radio signal is subject of slow fading modelled by a Gaussian distribution. The received signal strength is a random process, and it is only possible to estimate the probability that the received signal strength exceeds a certain threshold. Log-normal fading effect is not considered in standard propagation models, thus the predicted thresholds are with 50 % probability at the cell edge. To consider the probability that more than 50% of the signal strength values are above the threshold, a log-normal fading margin has to be calculated. The standard deviation of the Gaussian distribution must be derived from measurements and depends on the clutter type. Calculations can be performed using Jakes formulas:
P(x x0 ) =
where
x= x0
1 x x 0 2
dx =
1 1 x x erf 0 2 2 2
P (x x0 ) Result. loc. prob. at all edge Standard deviation x Min. RX input power for 50% loc. prob. x0 Min. RX input power for (x) % loc. prob.
The LNF margin is calculated as x * , where x is the variable in the cumulative normal function (F(x)) when F(x) has the value of the border percentage given by Jakes formula. F(x) is usually tabularised.
Location probability at cell border [%] 50 60 70 75 80 85 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 LNF margin [dB] standard deviation x 0 standard deviation x 0.2533471031358 standard deviation x 0.524400512708041 standard deviation x 0.674489750196082 standard deviation x 0.841621233572915 standard deviation x 1.03643338949379 standard deviation x 1.2815515655446 standard deviation x 1.34075503369022 standard deviation x 1.40507156030963 standard deviation x 1.47579102817917 standard deviation x 1.55477359459685 standard deviation x 1.64485362695147 standard deviation x 1.75068607125217 standard deviation x 1.88079360815125 standard deviation x 2.05374891063182 standard deviation x 2.32634787404084
Table 4-1 LNF margin calculations
26
A higher location probability decreases the maximum cell radius. The reason is that, with constant transmitted power and receiver sensitivity, the addition of a fading margin causes the decrease of the cell radius in order to maintain a signal level at the sensitivity threshold.
Location probability 50% LNF margin=0 dB Signal level at the cell edge -102 dBm =-102 dBm - 0dB
Location probability 90 % LNF margin=10.5 dB Signal level at the cell edge -102 dBm =-91.5 dBm - 10.5 dB
Figure 4-1: Impact of the location probability on the cell radius Conversion of the cell edge probability into cell area probability can be obtained by Jakes formula. It gives a relation for the probability that a certain value P at the cell boundary at radius R is exceeded and the corresponding probability for the whole cell. It is based on the log distance path loss model. The area coverage probability: 1 2 ab + 1 ab + 1 Fu = 1 + erf (a ) + exp 1 erf 2 2 b b where 10n log10 (e ) x x b= a= 0 2 2
erf (a ) =
v =0
v 2
dv
hb x x0 n
Standard deviation Antenna height Min. RX input power for 50 % loc. prob. Min. RX input power for (x) % loc. prob. propagation model exponent
27
erf 4.2
error function Indoor case
A Mobile radio signal from the macro station inside the building is attenuated by building structures. The difference between an outdoor and indoor signal level is characterised by the penetration losses. They can be seen as the difference between the average signal strength in the free space next to the building and the average signal strength over the ground floor of the building. The building penetration loss for different buildings is log-normal, distributed with a standard deviation ( LNF(i) ). Apart from the fluctuation coming from log-normally distributed penetration losses, the indoor signal is subject to outdoor log-normal fading. In order to take into account both effects, a joint standard deviation has to be calculated. The following formula covers both deviations:
LNF(o+i) = LNF (o) 2 + LNF (i) 2

Where:
LNF ( o+i ) LNF (o ) LNF (i )
Standard deviation for both indoor and outdoor Outdoor standard deviation Indoor standard deviation
Penetration losses depend on many factors as building materials, structure and environment. Similar to building penetration loss is in-car penetration loss. The margin is added to compensate signal decrease when MS is located inside the car. 4.3 Interference degradation margin
Receiver sensitivity estimation is based on a noise-limited scenario where the required carrier to noise ratio (C/N) is taken into account. Interference is not an issue. In interference limited cases C/N is degraded to C/(N+I). In order to take additional interference into account, the required signal level must be increased to combat both noise and interference. Thus, an interference margin is defined for interference limited systems. It can , however, be assumed that the cell coverage is dimensioned in such a way that constant BCCH coverage is assured, which is typically a noise limited scenario. In such a case the noise typically overrides interference and the interference margin can be neglected.
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In case of interference limited scenarios, the cell range is typically limited by the capacity of the network resulting in a cell size which is usually much lower than the one that comes from pure link budget calculations. 4.4 Body loss
The proximity of the human body during the call affects the MS performance. There are well known effects, such as absorption of energy by the human head, and deterioration of the antenna efficiency. In order to consider such phenomena, a body loss margin was introduced. The body loss is smaller for higher frequencies than for lower ones. The body loss recommended by ETSI is 3 dB. For handheld data terminals a body loss of 0 dB is assumed.
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5 Maximum Allowable Pathloss calculation

5.1 Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power EIRP
EIRP stands for the power radiated by an isotropic antenna. The radiated power transmitted by a directional antenna is transposed into the power radiated by an isotropic antenna by consideration of the antenna gain and the power at the antenna input. Comparison to the dipole antenna gives ERP; the difference between EIRP and ERP is 2.15 dB. The power at the antenna input considers all the losses: static power reduction, connectors and feeder loses. EIRPBTS = BSTX pwr_max - Lbackoff - LDL cable_loss - Lcombiner loss + GDL Antenna EIRPMS = MSTX pwr_max - LMS cable_loss + GMS Antenna Where Lbackoff Lcombiner loss LDL cable_loss LMS cable loss GDL Antenna GMS antenna BSTX pwr_max MSTX pwr max 5.2 static power reduction (corresponds to parameter PWRRED in TRX object) antenna combiners insertion loss DL cable loss RF cabling loss of the MS BTS TX antenna gain MS antenna gain peak RF power at the CU peak RF power of the MS
Power budget calculations
The purpose of the power budget calculations is to determine the maximum allowable path loss over the air interface between the antennas of BTS and MS. The maximum Allowable Pathloss (MAPL) is calculated according to the formula: Downlink: MAPLDL = BSTX pwr_max MSRXsensitivity LossDL Margins DL + GainsDL Where BSTX pwr_max MSRX sensitivity LossDL MarginsDL GainsDL peak RF power at CU MS sensitivity losses of the system margins coming from the propagation phenomena system gains
30
Margins: Margins= Linterference deg margin + Llog-normal margin Linterference deg margin Llog-normal margin Loss: Loss= Lbackoff + Lcombiner loss + LDL cable_loss + Lbody_Loss_for _handhelds + LMS cable loss Lbackoff Lcombiner loss LDL cable_loss LMS cable loss Lbody loss Lpenetration Lincar static power reduction antenna combiners insertion loss DL cable loss RF cabling loss of the MS body loss penetration losses incar losses interference degradation margin Log-normal fading margin
Lpenetration and Lincar losses should be also used in above equation if applicable. Gains: Gains= GDL Antenna + GMS antenna + GDL TX div GDL Antenna GMS antenna GDL TX div Uplink: MAPLUL = MSTX pwr max - BS RXsensitivity - LossUL + GainUL - MarginUL Where MSTX pwr max BSRX sensitivity LossUL MarginsUL GainsUL Margins: Margins= Linterference deg margin + Llog-normal margin Linterference deg margin Llog-normal margin interference degradation margin Log-normal fading margin
31
BTS TX antenna gain MS antenna gain downlink diversity gain
peak RF power of the MS BTS sensitivity losses of the system margins coming from the propagation phenomena system gains
Loss: Loss= Lbody_Loss_for _handhelds + LMS cable loss + LUL cable loss If HPDU is used additional LHPDU loss shall be taken into account. In case a TMA is used LUL cable loss shall be omitted. Lbody loss LMS cable loss LHPDU LUL cable loss Gains: Gains= GUL Antenna + GMS antenna + GUL diversity GMS antenna GUL antenna GUL diversity MS antenna gain UL antenna (RX antenna) gain of the BTS UL diversity gain body loss RF cabling loss of the MS HPDU loss BTS UL antenna cabling loss
Power budget elements are roughly presented in the picture below, together with the signal variations.
32
Signal level (dBm)
Max TX output power minus TX Loss plus TX gains Max TX output power
Max allowable Pathloss
Max TX output power minus TX Loss
RX power
RX power plus RX Gains
RX Loss
RX power plus RX Gains minus RX Loss
RX sensitivity
Interference degradation margin Min SNR requirement Noise figure
RX system Noise power Thermal noise power
Figure 5-1 Power budget elements Bars in the picture above represents signal variations starting from the transmitter output, TX path gains and losses, pathloss of the propagation path and corresponding receiving path items. In the following table example Link Budget calculations for UL and DL are provided:
33

MS data Max. output-power of MS MS sensitivity MS cable loss MS antenna gain EIRP MS BTS data BS Peak Power at PA output Backoff Combiner loss DL-Cable Loss DL-Antenna Gain Receiver Sensitivity UL-Cable Loss UL-Antenna Gain Diversity Gain in Uplink Diversity Gain in Downlink EIRP BTS Planning data Standard deviation (outdoor) Standard deviation (indoor) Joint standard deviation Loc. prob. at edge Loc. prob. at cell area Log-normal fading margin (indoor) Log-normal fading margin (outdoor Body loss for handhelds Incar loss Indoor penetration loss Interference degradation margin dBm dBm dB dBi dBm dBm dB dB dB dBi dBm dB dBi dB dB dBm dB dB dB % % dB dB dB dB dB dB 33,0 -105 0 0 -105 47,0 0,0 4,30 1,0 18,5 -114,0 1,0 18,5 5,0 5,0 60,19 urban 7,0 9,0 11,4 90 96 14,6 9,0 3 6 15,0 3,0
MSTX pwr max MSRX sensitivity LMS cable loss GMS antenna EIRPMS = MSTX pwr_max - LMS cable_loss + GMS Antenna BSTX pwr_max Lbackoff Lcombiner loss LDL cable_loss GDL Antenna BSRX sensitivity LUL cable loss GUL antenna GUL diversity GDL TX div EIRPBTS = BSTX pwr_max - Lbackoff - LDL cable_loss - Lcombiner loss + GDL Antenna outdoor indoor i = sqrt(outdoor + indoor) Probedge Probarea Llog-normal margin i = f (Probedge, i ) Llog-normal margin o = f (Probedge, i ) Lbody loss Lincar Lpenetration Linterference deg margin
Max. DL PL outdoor (50 %)
dB
Max. UL PL outdoor (50%) Max. DL PL outdoor Max. UL PL outdoor Max. DL PL indoor Max. UL PL indoor Max. DL PL incar Max. UL PL incar
dB dB dB dB dB dB dB
MAPLDL50 = BSTX pwr_max MSRXsensitivity LossDL Linterference deg margin + GainsDL LossDL = Lbackoff + Lcombiner loss + LDL cable_loss + Lbody_Loss_for _handhelds + LMS cable loss 164,2 GainsDL = GDL Antenna + GMS antenna + GDL TX div MAPLUL50 = MSTX pwr max - BS RXsensitivity - LossUL + GainUL - Linterference deg margin Loss= Lbody_Loss_for _handhelds + LMS cable loss + LUL cable loss 163,5 Gains= GUL Antenna + GMS antenna + GUL diversity
155,2 154,5 134,6 133,9 149,2 148,5
MAPLDL o = MAPLDL50 - Llog-normal margin o MAPLUL o = MAPLUL50 - Llog-normal margin o MAPLDL i = MAPLDL50 - Llog-normal margin i - Lpenetration MAPLUL i = MAPLUL50 - Llog-normal margin i - Lpenetration MAPLDL incar = MAPLDL50 - Llog-normal margin o - Lincar MAPLUL incar = MAPLUL50 - Llog-normal margin o - Lincar
Figure 5-2: Example general link budget
5.3
(E)GPRS link budget
With (E)GPRS, the coverage planning becomes more complicated because the reference sensitivity levels of MS and BTS vary with CSs / MCSs. It means that in the (E)GPRS coverage planning process it is necessary to check in which area of the radio cell the signal strength is high enough to support a particular coding or modulation and coding scheme. In this way it is possible to determine in which area
34
of the cell which the maximum data rate can be offered. This approach refers to a noise limited scenario where interference is not an issue. Below the GPRS link budget for TU50FH is presented. Link budget assumptions (examples): Band Channel model outdoor standard deviation cell area probability cell edge probability Log-normal fading margin
Uplink
Transmitter (MS) MS Output Power [dBm] Ms Antenna Gain [dBi] Body Loss [dB] EIRP [dBm] Receiver (BTS) BTS Receiver Sensitivity [dBm] BTS Antenna Gain [dBi] Diversity gain [dB]* Cable loss [dB] Indoor loss [dB] Interference degradation margin [dB] Log-normal fading margin [dB] Allowed Uplink Path Loss [dB] * Diversity Gain included in sensitivity
900 MHz TU50FH LNF(o) = 8 dB 95% 86% 8,7 dB

Voice CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4
33,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0 -116,2 18,0 0,0 -3,0 -15,0 -2,0 -8,7 135,5
33,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0 -116,2 18,0 0,0 -3,0 -15,0 -2,0 -8,7 135,5
33,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0 -113,7 18,0 0,0 -3,0 -15,0 -2,0 -8,7 133,0
33,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0 -112,2 18,0 0,0 -3,0 -15,0 -2,0 -8,7 131,5
33,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0 -107,0 18,0 0,0 -3,0 -15,0 -2,0 -8,7 126,3
Downlink
Transmitter (BTS) BTS Output Power [ECU V3] [dBm] BTS Antenna Gain [dBi] Combiner loss (DUAMCO 4:2) [dB] Cable loss [dB] EIRP [dBm] Receiver (MS) MS Receiver Sensitivity [dBm] MS Antenna Gain [dBi] Diversity gain [dB] Indoor loss [dB] Body loss [dB] Interference degradation margin [dB] Log-normal fading margin [dB] Allowed Downlink Path Loss [dB] * Diversity Gain included in sensitivity
Voice
CS1
CS2
CS3
CS4
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0 -104,0 0,0 0,0 -15,0 -3,0 -2,0 -8,7 134,3
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0 -102,0 0,0 0,0 -15,0 -3,0 -2,0 -8,7 132,3
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0 -99,0 0,0 0,0 -15,0 -3,0 -2,0 -8,7 129,3
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0 -97,0 0,0 0,0 -15,0 -3,0 -2,0 -8,7 127,3
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0 -88,0 0,0 0,0 -15,0 -3,0 -2,0 -8,7 118,3
Table 5-1 Link Budget calculation for GPRS For the EGPRS case the difference is that for 8-PSK MCSs the maximum CU transmit power is decreased. Link budget assumptions (examples):
35
Band Channel model outdoor standard deviation cell area probability cell edge probability Log-normal fading margin
EGPRS Link Budget Frequency 900 Mhz, TU50, outdoor Uplink
Transmitter (MS) MS Output Power 8-PSK power decrease MS Antenna Gain Body Loss EIRP Receiver (BTS) BTS Receiver Sensitivity (2RX div) BTS Antenna Gain Diversity gain* Cable loss Indoor loss Interference degradation margin Log-normal fading margin Allowed Uplink Path Loss
* Diversity Gain included in sensitivity
900 MHz TU50 LNF(o) = 7 dB 95% 85% 7,3 dB
Voice
MCS1
MCS2
MCS3
MCS4
MCS5
MCS6
MCS7
MCS8
MCS9
dBm dB dBi dB dBm
33,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0
33,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0
33,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0
33,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0
33,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 30,0
33,0 -3,0 0,0 -3,0 27,0
33,0 -3,0 0,0 -3,0 27,0
33,0 -3,0 0,0 -3,0 27,0
33,0 -3,0 0,0 -3,0 27,0
33,0 -3,0 0,0 -3,0 27,0
dBm dBi dB dB dB dB dB dB
-116,1 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 151,8
-115,4 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 151,1
-113,9 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 149,6
-110,6 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 146,3
-107,3 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 143,0
-108,9 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 141,6
-107,0 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 139,7
-103,3 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 136,0
-99,4 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 132,1
-97,9 18,0 0,0 -3,0 0,0 -2,0 -7,3 130,6
Downlink
Transmitter (BTS) BTS Output Power [ECU V3] BTS Antenna Gain Combiner loss (DUAMCO 4:2) Cable loss EIRP Receiver (MS) MS Receiver Sensitivity MS Antenna Gain Diversity gain Indoor loss Body loss Interference degradation margin Log-normal fading margin Allowed Downlink Path Loss
* Diversity Gain included in sensitivity
Voice
MCS1
MCS2
MCS3
MCS4
MCS5
MCS6
MCS7
MCS8
MCS9
dBm dBi dB dB dBm
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0
48,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 59,0
46,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 57,0
46,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 57,0
46,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 57,0
46,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 57,0
46,3 18,0 -4,3 -3,0 57,0
dBm dBi dB dB dB dB dB dB
-104,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 150,7
-100,5 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 147,2
-98,5 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 145,2
-94,5 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 141,2
-89,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 135,7
-93,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 137,7
-91,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 135,7
-84,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 128,7
-83,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 127,7
-78,5 0,0 0,0 0,0 -3,0 -2,0 -7,3 123,2
Table 5-2 Example Link Budget calculation for EGPRS
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5.4
Power budget balance
The maximum range of a two-way radio communication system is restricted by the weakest transmission direction. Difference in coverage for uplink and downlink direction gives any benefit since additional transmit power does not mean any improvements in the coverage area but generates additional interference and costs. A balance of uplink and downlink is required to assure that cell ranges in DL and UL are the same. In other words, the sensitivity limit of the MS is reached at the same point as the sensitivity limit of the BTS. Since the antenna gain is symmetrical, the balance is independent of the BTS antenna. Please note that link budget parameters (e.g. penetration losses, log-normal fading) are clutter specific, hence balancing is related to the specific environment and MS class. Moreover it also depends on the service, so even if for voice service the link budget is balanced, for (E)GPRS the system becomes unbalanced. The following actions are possible for an uplink limited scenario: static decrease of the BTS power (by a corresponding PWRRED parameter setting) RX diversity improvements on the BTS side (2RX as standard, improved to 4RX diversity) TMA employments IURS feature activation Downlink limited: TX diversity at the BTS side Combiners of lower attenuation
37
6 Radio propagation prediction

A propagation model gives relations between the path loss L and distance r between the base station antenna and the mobile, the frequency f, the heights of the base station antenna and MS antenna and the clutter type. 6.1 Propagation slope
The 'free space propagation model' [6] is used to predict the signal strength when a LOS (Line Of Sight) is between transmitter and receiver. This scenario is rather rarely applicable for a real mobile radio environment. However, the free space propagation model shall be treated as a first step of expected signal strength evaluation.
Pr ( r ) =
Pt Gt G r 2 ( 4 ) 2 r 2 L
Where: Pr power at the receiver antenna Pt transmitter power Gt transmitter antenna gain Gr antenna gain wavelength r distance between transmitter and receiver L system loss factor (e.g. cable and combiner loss) The equation above shows that the received power falls off as the square of the transmitter-receiver separation distance. Expressed in terms of dB this means that the received power decays with distance at a rate of 20 dB/decade. This power decay is represented by the path loss, which is a positive quantity of signal attenuation. The path loss in the free space propagation model is represented by:
P PL[ dB] = 10 log t P r
2 = 10 log (4 )2 r 2
The free space propagation model is insufficient for a real mobile radio environment, where is no LOS. The Log-distance Path Loss Model takes into account different propagation environments by using a specific path loss exponent (propagation slope) for a particular type of propagation environment. The propagation slope is determined by field measurements. The equation below describes the power decay in dependency of .
38
r Pr ( r ) = Pr ( r0 ) 0 r
Pr(r0)
reception power level in a close-in reference distance r0 which ensures far field conditions.
Pr(r0) can be obtained by measurements or by prediction of the free space propagation model. The resulting path loss is given by
r PL[ dB] = PL( r0 ) + 10 log r 0

The table below shows propagation slopes for different propagation environments:
Propagation environment free space urban area shadowed urban in building LOS in building obstructed Path loss exponent 2 2,7 to 3,5 (3,5) 3 to 5 (3,8) 1,6 to 1,8 4 to 6
Table 6-1: Propagation slopes
6.2
One slope model
The Okumura and Hata formula is based on empirical data measured by Okumura in 60s. Hata developed a formula with correction terms for different environments. The model assumes a quasi flat surface i.e. obstacles like buildings are not explicitly taken into account. Different types of surfaces are distinguished by different correction factors. The model is best applicable for cell ranges of 5 ...20 km. Below a range of 1 km it becomes very rough and unreliable, due to fact that obstacles in the close vicinity of receiver and transmitter are not taken into account in the formula. Okumura Hata model
L = 69.55 + 26.16 log( f ) 13.82 log(hBS ) d (hMS ) c + [44.9 6.55 log(hBS )] log(d )
Where: L f hBS hMS pathloss frequency: height of base station height of MS
39
d c d(hMS)
distance clutter correction factor MS antenna height correction
3.2[log(11.75hMS )] 2 4.97 d (hMS ) = [1.1 log( f ) 0.7]hMS [1.56 log( f ) 0.8]

du u su dense urban urban suburban
du, u su
Clutter correction factors:
0 10 2 f 2 log + 5.4 c= 28 4.78[log( f )]2 18.33 log( f ) + 40.94 4.78[log( f )]2 18.33 log( f ) + 35.94
du , u forest suburban open quasi
This model is applicable in the following range of parameters: Frequency: Height of base station: Height of MS: Distance: COST 231 Hata model Due to fact that Okumura Hata model is not applicable for frequencies >1500 MHz extended version of Hata model has been developed for the frequency range 1500 - 2000 MHz. f = hBS = hMS = d = 150 .. 1500 MHz 30.. 200 m 1.. 10 m 1.. 20 km
Where: L f hBS hMS d c pathloss frequency height of base station height of MS distance clutter correction factor
40
d(hMS)
MS antenna height correction
The MS antenna height correction formula remains the same as in the previous case. Clutter correction factors:
du 3 0 u 10 forest 2 c = f 2 log + 5.4 su 28 4.78[log f ]2 18.33 log f + 40.94 open 4.78[log f ]2 18.33 log f + 35.94 quasi
This model is applicable in the following range of parameters: Frequency: Height of base station: Height of MS: Distance: f = hBS = hMS = d = 1500 .. 2000 MHz 30.. 200 m 1.. 10 m 1.. 20 km
6.3
Two slope model
To improve the unreliability of a 1-slope model in the closer distances, a 2-slope model was introduced, which has different characteristics in the area close to the transmitter. Usually the transition point is set at distance of 1 km. HATA COST 231 HATA two slope model If the equations predict a radio range smaller than 1 km, a transition model is applied.
L = A1 / 2 d (hMS ) c + si log(d )
Where: A1/2 frequency dependent part:
A1 = 69.55 + 26.16 log( f ) 13.82 log(hBS ) f 1500 MHz

A2 = 46.3 + 33.9 log( f ) 13.82 log(hBS ) f > 1500MHz
si distance dependent part:
s1 = [44.9 6.55 log(hBS )] log(d )

41
d 1km
s
s 2 = ( A1 / 2 (32.4 + 20 log( f ) + 20 log(0.02 )))

6.4 Cell Size evaluation
1 log 50
d < 1km
The output from the power budget calculations is the Maximum Allowable Pathloss (MAPL). Comparison of the MAPL to the pathloss calculated by assumed propagation model gives the maximum cell size. For instance, for the Okumura-Hata (f<1500MHz) 1 slope model the propagation loss at distance d is:
As for maximum cell size L=MAPL we can deduct the maximum cell range: d=10 where =
MAPL (69.55 + 26.16 log f 13.82 log hBS d ( hMS ) c ) 44.9 6.55 log h BS
For frequency >1500MHz, the modified Hata formula is used and thus the maximum cell range is:
MAPL ( 46.3 + 33.9 log f 13.82 log h BS d ( hMS ) c ) 44.9 6.55 log h BS
Please note that the cell size depends on the clutter characteristics and expected coverage targets (indoor, outdoor etc.). For the 2 slope model, if the cell ranges are higher than the intercept point (e.g. 1 km), the formulas as above can be applied, however, if the distance is less than the intercept point, the modified formula shall be used. In the table below the cell ranges for EGPRS are calculated. The 2 slope model is used with the intercept point at 1 km, urban outdoor coverage.
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MCS
Max allowed UL pathloss [dB] 160,40 158,90 155,60 152,30 150,90 149,00 145,30 141,40 139,90
UL coverage radius [km] 5,74 5,20 4,19 3,38 3,08 2,72 2,14 1,66 1,50
Max allowed DL pathloss [dB] 156,70 154,70 150,70 145,20 147,20 145,20 138,20 137,20 132,70
DL coverage radius [km] 4,50 3,95 3,04 2,12 2,42 2,12 1,34 1,26 0,95
MCS1 MCS2 MCS3 MCS4 MCS5 MCS6 MCS7 MCS8 MCS9
Table 6-2 EGPRS cell ranges in dependency on MCS
The balancing of the system is strictly related to the service. Even if for one service the system is well balanced (e.g. voice) it remains unbalanced for data services. The difference in the uplink/downlink coverage radius depends mainly on the difference between the receiver sensitivity values of the MS and the receiver sensitivity values of the BTS. The cell radius decreases with the MCS index for UL. For DL the same tendency can be observed; however, due to better sensitivity of 8PSK MCSs, the cell range is slightly increased for MCS5-9. But in general high data rates are available only close to base station (e.g. based on calculations, MCS9 can only be used in areas whose distance to the base station does not exceed 1030 m. According to the link budget it can be defined at which distance from the BTS which modulation and coding scheme is supported. In the table below the minimum signal level assuring the availability of the individual coding scheme has been calculated. The received signal thresholds for outdoor environment listed in the table are calculated from the assumed values for MS receiver sensitivity, log-normal fading and body loss. Indoor environment requires penetration loss and indoor standard deviation to be taken for calculations. Please also note that body loss shall be considered only for handheld terminals (not for data terminals). The calculated thresholds define the minimum level at certain pixel of the coverage plot that has to be provided to meet the requirements for the corresponding MCS.
Frequency 900 Mhz - Urban Areas - TU50
Voice
MCS1
MCS2
MCS3
MCS4
MCS5
MCS6
MCS7
MCS8
MCS9
MS Receiver Sensitivity [dBm] Indoor loss [dB] Body loss [dB] Log-normal fading margin [dB] Threshold [dB]
-104,0 0 -3 -7,3 -93,7
-100,5 0 -3 -7,3 -90,2
-98,5 0 -3 -7,3 -88,2
-94,5 0 -3 -7,3 -84,2
-89,0 0 -3 -7,3 -78,7
-93,0 0 -3 -7,3 -82,7
-91,0 0 -3 -7,3 -80,7
-84,0 0 -3 -7,3 -73,7
-83,0 0 -3 -7,3 -72,7
-78,5 0 -3 -7,3 -68,2
Table 6-3 MCS thresholds
43
In the picture below visualisation of different MCSs ranges is depicted. Please note that, as far as noise-limited scenario has been considered, the utilization of given MCS is determined only by the signal level. It should be kept in mind that the reachable throughput for GPRS and EGPRS data depends also on the interference situation. Thus for a precise network planning it is necessary to consider both restrictions: min signal level and interference situation.
Figure 6-1 EGPRS MCS ranges
44
7 Grid planning
Based on the determined cell range, the corresponding cell area and site-to-site distance can be calculated. Calculations depend on the selected cell layout. A traditional hexagonal cell model is mainly used. Further steps depend also on sectorisation. Sector cells generally improve the coverage since in this case higher antenna gains are used which are achieved due to the directional diagram of the antenna. In this case the antenna characteristic shall be adjusted to the cell pattern, which is going to be applied to the area to be covered. Sectorisation additionally helps to cope with interferences since the number of interfering signals per cell is theoretically reduced. The overall C/I distribution is improved, what resulting in a lower clutter size and a higher frequency reuse and, consequently, in a higher total capacity of the network. In fact, many factors have to be considered when deciding about the cell pattern:
Traffic density in the area to be covered In this case coverage or capacity is the limiting factor during grid planning Available frequency band frequency reuse to be achieved with assumed cell layout Required coverage and structure of the area to be covered: urban area, road, etc. Costs and possibilities of the site installation Expected network development path
The number of sites N required to cover certain area P is as follows:
N=
Where Asite is area covered by one site.
7.1 Omni cell
P Asite
Omni-cells may be chosen in low traffic areas with good radio propagation (open area), especially dedicated for isolated sites. The antenna gain must correspond to an omni-directional antenna. The rhomboidal cell layout has to be applied for omni scenario in order to calculate the required site-to-site distance.
Figure 7-1 Cell shape for omni cell
45
Respective site to site distance:
Site-to-site Distance D = 1,732 * R
Cell range R
Figure 7-2 Site to site distance for omni cell
And cell area:
Acell
7.2 3-sectors site
3 3 * R2 = 2
In case of commonly used 3-sectorized sites, a different cell layout can be built depending on the assumed geometrical representation of each cell of the site: hexagon or rhomboid.
Hexagonal cells
Rhomboidal cells
Figure 7-3: Cell shape of 3-sectorized site
Depending on the assumed cell model, a different site-to-site distance has to be calculated when planning the homogenous network layout.
46

Site-to-site distance of hexagonal sites D = 1.5 * R
Cell range R
Figure 7-4: Cell range and site-to-site distance for hexagonal cell
Cell range R
Figure 7-5: Cell range and site-to-site distance for rhomboidal cell
The site coverage can be calculated as follows: Hexagonal cell shape:
Acell =
3* 3 * ( R)2 8
Asite = 3 * Acell
where R is the cell range.
Rhomboidal cell shape:
Acell =
3 * Rmax 2
Asite = 3 * Acell
7.3
6- sector sites
47
The network layout containing 6-sectors site can be modelled in the same way as it is for 3-sector rhomboidal cells. Higher sectorisation allows the usage of higher antenna gains than for 3-sector rhomboidal cells.
Figure 7-6 6 sector cell layout
Cell range R
Figure 7-7 Cell range and site-to-site distance for 6 sector site
Cell area:
Acell =
3 * Rmax 2
Asite = 6 * Acell
The cell range is estimated from the link budget parameters and the propagation model. With the same parameters and cell ranges, a 6 sectors site provides significantly higher coverage area compared to the standard 3 sector cloverleaf structure.
48
9,2 km
9,2 km R*1.5 = 13.8 km R*1.732 = 16 km
Figure 7-8 3 sector and 6 sectors cell layout comparison
S3 =
3* 3 * R 2 8
*3
3 * R2 S6 = *6 2
S6 R2 4 = 6 2 S3 R3 3
Cov_gain = S6/S3 = 1.33
Thus, 6-sector stands for a solution where relatively high coverage per site can be achieved.
7.4 2- or 1-sector sites (road site)
Sites along roads can be specified as two- or one-sector sites. In the latter case the cell illumination will be obtained by a combination of two splitters connected to directional antennas. The subsequent reduction (about 3dB) of the resulting overall antenna gain must be taken into account.
Figure 7-9 2 sector road site
Site area:
49
Acell
3 R = * 2 3
Asite = 2 * Acell
where R is the cell range.
50
8 Link budget application cases

As outlined in the previous chapters, various link budget enhancements can be used in order to increase the cell range or to balance the link. Gains expected from the features are summarized in the table below.
Table 8-1 Coverage enhancements features
Respective gains can be entered to the appropriate cells of the budgetary calculation tools.
Figure 8-1 Relation of sensitivity and RX diversity
If the RX diversity is already considered in sensitivity figures, there is no need to consider the diversity gain separately. Gains of TX diversity features can be entered to the appropriate cells.
51
Figure 8-2 TX diversity gain
The impact of the coverage enhancement features was evaluated for scenarios with different feature set activated. General settings:

Urban + outdoor environment Frequency band: 1800 MHz Network layout: 3-sectorized clover leaf HW configurations: BS 240 w/ 4/4/4, FlexCU / FDUAMCO
With basic configuration (no coverage enhancements) we can obtain the following results:
Table 8-2 Basic configuration results
The basic scenario is uplink limited: i.e. the path loss difference calculated by MPL DL - MPL UL[dB] establishes a positive result clearly above 0. Thus, in order to enhance the cell range in uplink UL diversity feature shall be used. At first let us utilize 2 RX diversity.
52
Table 8-3 2RX diversity configuration
Result: the cell's UL range is increased, but we are still UL limited (MPL DL - MPL UL[dB] >> 0 ). The solution is to use TMA.
Table 8-4 Configuration with TMA
Now the link is well balanced (MPL DL - MPL UL[dB] 0 ), further DL cell range improvements may utilize TX diversity antenna hoping (AH). As this is a pure software feature, no additional hardware changes are required.
Table 8-5 Configuration with Antenna Hopping
There is no big difference in the performance the reason is that after AH was switched on the cell configuration is now uplink limited and the full advantage of the increased DL range can not be exploited. The solution is to improve UL coverage. As we already utilized 2RX and TMA the only next step is 4RX diversity. This requires additional antennas to be installed and the RX path to be reconfigured. Please note that such a solution is feasible only for FlexCU.
53
Table 8-6 Configuration with Antenna Hopping and 4RX diversity
The scenario is now again DL limited (MPL DL - MPL UL[dB] << 0 ), and the AH gain produces an additional increase of cell range. However, please note that we are still able to improve our DL coverage by the TX diversity Time Delay feature. In order to use the feature we have to use the double number of CUs.
Table 8-7 Configuration with TX diversity Time Delay and 4RX diversity
Please note that advanced configurations require additional hardware: CU, combiners, antennas etc. which significantly increases site cost. Nevertheless, such a configuration provides big coverage and the number of sites can be substantially reduced. For each case the cost calculations have to be performed. The cell ranges increase and site count reduction is visualized in the picture below.
54
6 5 4
UL (4 RX+ TMA) ; DL (Time UL (4 RX+ TMA) ; DL (Ant. Hop.) UL (2 RX+ TMA) ; DL (Ant.
3.73 3.73 3.15 3.15 2.76 2.31 3.56 3.56 3.13 3.13 3.13
4.48 33 / 58 %
31 / 61 %
43 / 45 % 43 / 45 % 55 sites / 30 % site 79
3 UL (2 RX+ TMA) ; DL (no TX boost) 2

UL (2 RX) ; DL (no TX boost)
1 basic scenario (no RX, TX boosts)
Downlink
Uplink
Cell
Figure 8-3 UL/DL Cell ranges and site counts
55

GSM Air Interface Planning Guidelines

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GSM Air Interface Planning Guidelines

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Planning Guideline: Air Interface Dimensioning

Issued by Communication Mobile Networks

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PATHLOSS CALCULATION ............................................................... 30 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

LINK BUDGET APPLICATION CASES .............................................................................................. 51

Planning Guideline: Air Interface dimensioning

Planning Guideline: Air Interface dimensioning

Planning Guideline: Air Interface dimensioning

2 Radio propagation environment

3 Power Budget parameters

BTS transmission power

BTS Cabinet Antenna Interface Module

Table 3-1 Example typical CU output power

MS transmission powers are given in the specification [45.005].

Figure 3-2 Noise figures of cascaded units

Carrier to noise ratio required for performance defined by GSM standard:

Eb Eb 1 + 10 log 190 kHz 3,69 s = N + 1,54 dB (+ 4,77 dB EDGE 8 PSK ) N0 0

No diversity 2RX diversity 4RX diversity

Sensitivity reference ports

BTS Cabinet Antenna Interface Module

BTS Cabinet Antenna Interface Module

Figure 3-4: Sensitivity reference port with TMA

TMA and noise figure of the system

Feeder F1=3dB G1=-3dB

Combiner F2=1.9 dB G2=22 dB

RX input F3=12.5dB G3=0dB

Table 3-4 System with TMA

F 1 F3 1 F4 1 + FBTS [dB ] = 10 log F1 + 2 + G1 G1 G2 G1 G2 G3

Table 3-5 Example of system noise figure calculations with TMA

Tx3/Rx3 Rx1 div

Tx3/Rx3/ Rx3 div

Tx1/Rx1 Rx1 div

Tx2/Rx2 Rx2 div

Figure 3-8: 3 Example 3 sector site layout with X-pol antennas

R X -N ... m a in re ce ive r R X -D IV 1 /D IV 3 ... d ive rsity re ce ive r

Figure 3-11: Time shift between signals

DUAMCO 4:2 TX -1 Master TX -3 Slave CU 3

Figure 3-14 Cell ranges with different diversity options

RX/TX antenna gain

Antenna Jumper connector to antenna

Outdoor jumper cable

Jumper connector to TMA

Tower Mounted Amplifier

Feeder connector to TMA

Jumper connector to BTS

Figure 3-15: Antenna system elements

4 Propagation related parameters

Table 4-1 LNF margin calculations

Planning Guideline: Air Interface dimensioning

error function Indoor case

LNF(o+i) = LNF (o) 2 + LNF (i) 2

LNF ( o+i ) LNF (o ) LNF (i )

5 Maximum Allowable Pathloss calculation

Power budget calculations

BTS TX antenna gain MS antenna gain downlink diversity gain

Signal level (dBm)

Max allowable Pathloss

Max TX output power minus TX Loss

RX power plus RX Gains

Interference degradation margin Min SNR requirement Noise figure

RX system Noise power Thermal noise power

Max. DL PL outdoor (50 %)

155,2 154,5 134,6 133,9 149,2 148,5

Figure 5-2: Example general link budget

(E)GPRS link budget