CAPACITANCE

Condensers. Consider two solid conductors, a and b, which may be of any shape and separated by any insulating medium (see fig. below).

If the two conductors are connected to a cell, with positive terminal of the cell connected to a, electrons are immediately drawn from a, and these electrons are piled up on the other conductor. The two conductors acquire equal and opposite charges Q. Condenser is a pair of conductors constitutes an electrical device. The charge Q depends on the geometry of the conductors, on the EMF of the cell V, and on the nature of the medium between the conductors. The geometry of the conductors refers to the size and shape of the conductors and how they are placed with respect to each other. Capacitor is an electrical device for temporarily storing electrical charge. is another name for condenser. In the above figure, if the potential difference between the two conductors is increased by replacing the cell with a stronger battery, the charge acquired by either conductor is likewise increased. On the other hand, with a given cell, the charge on either conductor is increased when they are brought closer to each other. The most common type of capacitor is the parallel-plate type where a and b are in the form of conducting plates placed parallel and close to each other. Let us again consider two plates a and b (see fig. below) with plate a grounded.

1. Plate b is given a positive charge Q and is then connected to an electroscope, with the casing of

the electroscope also grounded. 2. The plate b and the electroscope are insulated from the rest of the system, and the charge on the b system (the plate b and the electroscope) is constant. 3. Since the casing of the electroscope is grounded, the potential of the casing is zero. 4. The divergence of the leaves indicates the potential of the b system with respect to ground (which is at zero potential). 5. In the arrangement, plate a is negatively charged, electrons having been drawn from the ground.
a. Let us then imagine that a is gradually moved toward b. b. As a approaches b, the leaves of the electroscope gradually drop and we say that the potential

of the b system has dropped with the approach of a.

c. Or if the area of the plate b is very large compared to the area of the leaves of the electroscope,

we can consider the charge on b as remaining constant and that the potential difference between a and b has dropped with the approach of a toward b. d. Actually, the charge on plate b has slightly increased as shown by the dropping of the leaves; which means that some (+) charges have been transferred from the leaves to the plate b. To raise the difference in potential between the two plates to the original value, some more charges may be piled up on the b system. Thus, the capacity of the system to hold, or to store, charges has been increased by bringing the two plates closer to each other. Because of this fact, the word capacity is sometimes a misnomer. We have always associated capacity with size or volume. It appears that the capacity of the pair of parallel plates has been increased by decreasing the volume. If the distance between the plates a and b is fixed, it is found that the potential difference between them is proportional to the charge Q on either plate, or Q C= V Capacitance of the capacitor (C) is the constant of proportionality between Q and V. The capacitor is one of three well-known types of circuit elements, the other two being the resistor and the inductor. The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor depends on the size and spacing of the plates and on the nature of the insulating medium between the plates. It may be defined as the amount of charge on either plate per unit difference of potential between the plates. MKS system of units: Charge (Q) is in coulombs, Difference in potential between the plates is in volts, and Capacitance is in farads, a unit named after Michael Faraday. 1 coulomb per volt = 1 farad The charges which have been stored on either plate are equal in magnitude, since a unit charge of 1 coulomb is just transferred from one plate to the other. Although we have grounded a, it is not really necessary to ground one plate of a condenser. The plates a and b could have been connected to a battery and this would have resulted in the transfer of electrons from the plate connected to the (+) terminal of the battery to the other plate. The transfer will continue until the difference in potential between the plates becomes equal to the EMF of the battery.

In figure below, if the switch is closed, the electrons are removed from b and are transferred to a until the difference in potential between a and b is exactly equal to the EMF of the battery, V.

1. The number of electrons transferred in establishing this difference in potential between the

plates depends on how close the plates are to each other and on the medium between the plates. 2. After the plates have been charged, which happens in a very short fraction of a second, the plates may be brought closer to each other. 3. Bring them closer together will result in a lowering of the difference in potential between the plates. 4. More electrons are immediately transferred from b to a through the battery until the voltage across ab is the same as before. 5. Thus, a larger charge can be stored in the condenser by decreasing d. Parallel-Plate Capacitor. When one tunes in his radio set to his favorite station, he selects the station by turning the knob connected to a combination of parallel-plate condensers inside the set. In figure above, let A be the area of either plate and d be the distance between the plates. a. If the plates exactly project on each other, the capacitance of this parallel-plate condenser is obtained by assuming that the electric field between the plates is uniform. This assumption is good only if the plates are sufficiently close to each other. Figure below shows the same two plates a and b with the lines of force drawn parallel to each other in between the plates.

1. These lines of force are directed from b to a.

2. Note that there is fringing of the lines near the edges of the plates. 3. When the parallel plates are sufficiently close to each other, however, the fringing of the electric field lines may be disregarded.

From previews topic, we have shown that the electric potential difference V between any two points in a uniform electric field is V = Ed. The region between the parallel plates of figure from previews page is such a field (provided the region being considered is far from the edges). Let us now find an expression for E in this region. We shall make use of the discussion presented from previews topic. Imagine a gaussian surface of thickness t, length L and cross-sectional area A. We note the fact that the total charge enclosed by this imaginary surface is Q. Hence, using Gausss law, o E.ds = net charge enclosed = Q

There will be no contribution from the sides of the gaussian surface parallel to the field E , since E.ds over these sides is zero. Therefore, o Eds cos 0 = Q E is assumed to be uniform, and that fringing of the lines near the edges is disregarded. Hence, o Eds = Q or o E(A) = Q E= Q A o

Using equations V = Ed and E = V Q = d A o C=

Q , A o

Q oA = V d

Equation above shows that the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is directly proportional to the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. A is in square meters, d is in meters, C is in farads, and o (the permittivity of free space) is equal to 8.85 10-12 coul2/N.m2. The permittivity may also be expressed in farads per meter. Also, note that Q A equation C = = o holds only for a parallel-plate capacitor in vacuum. The capacitance generally V d depends on the kind of material sandwiched between the plates.

The farad is a very large unit of capacitance. Commercial capacitors are usually rated in smaller units, namely, the microfarad and the micro-microfarad. 1 farad = 106 microfarads (f) = 1012 micro-microfarads (f) Example no. 1: A parallel-plate capacitor in a vacuum consists of two aluminum sheets, each of area 400 cm2 separated at a distance at 4 mm. The plates are charged to a potential difference of 500 volts. Find (a) the capacitance of the condenser, (b) the charge pile up in either plate, and (c) the force on an electron which is introduced anywhere between the plates. Soln.: A 8.85 10-12 f m 0.04 m 2 a. C = o = = 88.5 f Answer d 0.004 m Note that the capacitance of this (large) capacitor is of the order of only a few micro-microfarads. A capacitor of this size will have plates with an area about as large as that of this page. b. Q = CV = 8.85 10-11 f 500 V = 4.425 x 10-8 coul Answer c. Force on electron = E (charge on the electron) 500 V -19 N coul 1.6 10-19 coul = 20 10 -15 N Answer 1.6 10 coul = 0.004 d Since the electric field is uniform, this force on the electron is constant as long as the electron is between the plates. Effect of a Dielectric.

A o is the capacitance of the capacitor if the plates are in a vacuum. It is d approximately correct if the plates are in air. It is then said to be an air condenser, and this is the type we have in radio-tuning circuits. For many other purposes, however, the space between the plates is filled with some solid material or even some electrolyte. Among the more common fillers used are mica, glass, paraffined paper, and plastic. All these fillers, called dielectrics, are nonconducting. Sometimes a very thin sheet of paper or even a nonconducting oxide is used to separate the metallic foils, which are then rolled up to provide very compact condensers. The expression of C = Besides acting as mechanical separators, dielectrics also allow the application of higher voltages without breakdown; that is, without any flashover across the plates. This is because dielectrics have larger dielectric strengths than air. Dielectric strength is the voltage per unit length of the dielectric (in volts/meter) which will just produce a rupture of the insulator as shown by an electric discharge through it. Table below gives typical values of dielectric strengths and dielectric constants of some common materials.

Another reason for the use of dielectrics for capacitors is that the capacitance of a capacitor is increased by a factor equal to the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the dielectric. These values are given in column 2 in table from previews page. For instance, if a glass sheet is inserted to fill the air gap between the plates of a parallel plate condenser, the capacitance is increased by five to ten times. Consider a parallel-plate condenser as shown in figure below.

The plates are in a vacuum and are charged to a difference of potential V, the charge on the plate being (+) or (-) Q. Let Eo be the field when the plates are in a vacuum or when there is air between the plates, and let Ed be the field between the plates when there is a dielectric between the plates as in figure (b) above. Due to the presence of the dielectric, Ed will be found to be less than Eo. Before introducing the dielectric, Q + Eo = = A o o Q where: is or the surface charge density A When the dielectric is introduced between the plates, the atoms will be polarized; that is, there will be a rearrangement of charge within the atoms. The field exerts a force on the charges in the atoms. There is a slight displacement of the negative charge toward the (+) plate and of the positive charge toward the (-) plate. The atom is said to be polarized. Inside the dielectric, there will be no net charge since the positive charge is neutralized by the negative charge of the adjoining atom. At the edges of the dielectric near the plates, there will be polarization charges which are usually called bound charges. The total of these polarization charges is Q [see fig. (b) above]. The polarization charge density is p, which is proportional to Ed, or p = XEd where: X is the proportionality constant The field Ed within the dielectric material is just the superposition of the fields due to and p. Hence,

p X = Eo - Ed o o o Eo Ed = X 1 + o
Ed =

or

 X The quantity 1 + is a constant called the dielectric constant of the medium. For most o dielectrics, its value ranges from 1 to about 10 as shown in the second column in table from previews Eo Ed = X page. From equation 1 + , o X E o = 1 + E d = E d o X where we have replaced 1 + by the new symbol o Since Vo, which is the difference in potential between the plates without the dielectric, is equal to Eod, Co = Q Q = Vo E o d

Similarly, Vd, which is the difference in potential between the plates with the dielectric in between them, is equal to Edd, the new capacitance of the condenser with the dielectric is Q Q Cd = = Vd E d d Taking the ratio of Cd to Co, we have Cd E o = = Co E d Cd E o = = shows that the capacitance of the condenser is increased by a factor equal Co E d to the dielectric constant of the dielectric used. Equation Other writers use the symbol for the product of the dielectric constant of the medium and the permittivity of free space. In their notation, if is the dielectric constant of the medium, then = o, and represents the permittivity of the dielectric used. In the notation used by these writers, stands for the dielectric constant and the permittivity of the medium is o. Thus, the permittivity of paraffined paper given in table from previews page is 28.8510-12 farad per meter. Our is a pure number, and we can consider it as the ratio of the capacitance of a parallel-plate condenser with the dielectric to its capacitance when there is a vacuum between the plates. Other writers call the dielectric constant the relative permittivity.

Combinations of Condensers. Like resistors, condensers may be connected in series, in parallel, or in series-parallel. The usual symbol for a capacitor is IC while IC represents a variable capacitor. In figure below, three capacitors are connected in parallel, the capacitors having capacitances C1, C2, and C3, respectively.

The combination is connected to a battery of EMF V. All the positively charged plates are connected to the positive terminal of the battery, and all the other plates are connected to the negative terminal of the battery. The potential difference across each capacitor is the same as V, the voltage across the combination. The combination may be considered a single capacitor having a capacitance Ct, the joint capacitance of the combination. Assuming that there is no leakage of charge, the total charge is divided among the different capacitors, or Qt = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 But Q1 = C1V; Q2 = C2V; and Q3 = C3V Therefore, Qt = CtV = C1V + C2V + C3V or Ct = C1 + C2 + C3 For capacitors in parallel, the joint capacitance is equal to the sum of the separate capacitances. This is to be expected because to connect capacitors in parallel is equivalent to increasing the area of the plate over which the charge is to be piled. Capacitors are usually connected in parallel to hold a very large charge at a moderate potential. When the voltage across the capacitor is too large for the capacitor to withstand, it has to be connected in series with another capacitor. Capacitors are connected in series to divide the large voltage among the different capacitors. Figure below shows three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2, and C3, respectively, connected in series.

The total voltage across the combination is Vt. This total voltage is the sum of the separate voltages across the different capacitors, or Vt = V1 = V2 = V3 Applying the basic relation to the whole combination, Q t Q1 Q 2 Q3 = + + C t C1 C 2 C3 When the combination is charged, the positive charge on the left plate of C1 is equal to the negative charge on the negative plate of C3. There is no electrical connection between the conductors connecting C1 and C2 or between C2 and C3 and the rest of the circuit. There is only a separation of charges in the portion between C1 and C2, and the same is true in the portion between C2 and C3. Hence,

the charge stored in any condenser of a series combination is equal to the charge in any other condenser of the group, or Qt = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 From equations Q t Q1 Q 2 Q3 = + + and Qt = Q1 = Q2 = Q3, we get C t C1 C 2 C3 1 1 1 1 = + + C t C1 C 2 C3

For capacitors in series, the reciprocal of the joint capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the separate capacitances. It is instructive to compare these relations for capacitances with those for resistances. If we take the charge Q as corresponding to the current I in a combination of resistors and we take the capacitance C as corresponding to the conductance of resistors, then we will have the same equations for parallel combination of resistors and parallel combination of capacitors. The laws for series combination of capacitors and series combination of resistors will also be found to be similar. One must be careful, however, with the quantities which correspond; that is, we use the conductance instead of the resistance in the above analogies. Capacitors may also be connected in a series-parallel arrangement as shown in figure below.

In the figure above, C1 and C2 are in parallel and this parallel combination is in series with C 3. The total charge given to the combination is equal to the charge in C3, and this total charge is divided between C1 and C2. Example: Three condensers are arranged in a series-parallel combination as shown in figure above. C1 = 0.01 f, C2 = 0.02 f, and C3 = 0.02 f. The whole combination is charged to a difference of potential of 24 volts. Find (a) the capacitance of the combination, (b) the charge stored in each capacitor, and (c) the voltage across each capacitor. Soln.: Let C be the joint capacitance of C1 and C2. a. C = C1 + C2 and C is in series with C3 = 0.03 f. Let C be the capacitance of the group. Then 1 1 1 1 1 = + = + C C' C3 0.03 0.02 C = 0.012 f Answer b. For the whole combination, Qt = Q3 = CVt = 0.01210-6 f 24 V = 28.810-8 coul But Q3 = C3V3

Answer

28.8 10 -8 coul = 14.4 V 0.02 10-6 f Hence, the voltage across the parallel combination is 24 volts - 14.4 volts = 9.6 volts. Q1 = C1Vl = 0.0110-6 f 9.6 V = 9.610-8 coul Answer -6 -8 Q2 = C2V2 = 0.0210 f 9.6 V = 19.210 coul Answer As a check, Ql + Q2 = Q3 (9.6 + 19.2)10-8 = 28.810-8 c. Vl = V2 = 9.6 V Answer V3 = 14.4 V Answer V3 = Air Condensers. The air condensers used for tuning radio sets are usually of the variable parallel-plate type shown in figure below.

A set of plates a is attached to a fixed shaft Sl and another set of plates b is attached to another shaft S2 which can be rotated by means of the knob. The capacitance of the arrangement is maximum in figure above where the set of plates a fully projects on the area of the other set of plates. At any given instant, one set is charged positively and the other set negatively. To vary the capacitance of the combination, the knob is rotated; this varies the area of projection of one set of plates over the other. All other factors being equal, the capacitance of the condenser is proportional to the area of projection of the plates over each other. In figure above, the knob has been rotated so that the plates of set B do not project on the other set; the capacitance for this position of the plates is zero or minimum. If the spacing between the plates is uniform and the plates are all identical, the capacitance of each pair of plates may be considered as equal to the capacitance of any other pair. The capacitance of the whole combination is, therefore, equal to the capacitance of one pair multiplied fay the number of condensers connected in parallel. For N plates, the number of condensers connected in parallel is equal to (N - 1). Let C1 be the capacitance of a pair of plates. The capacitance of the whole combination is C = Ct (N - l)

Example: The radio-tuning capacitor consists of 26 plates of area 24 cm2. The distance between plates when set for maximum capacitance is 2 mm. Assuming that the area of projection at maximum capacity is equal to the area of the plates, find the maximum capacity of this condenser. Soln.: Since there are 26 plates, the number of parallel capacitors = 26 - 1 = 25 condensers. Let C1 be the capacitance of a set of plates. A o 0.0024 m 2 8.85 10-12 f m C1 = = = 10.6 10-12 f d 0.002 m Hence, the capacitance of the combination is C = 25 10.610-12 f = 2.6510-12 f = 0.265 f Answer If the capacitor is charged to a certain potential difference between the set of plates and it is disconnected, there is a danger of large differences in potential or large voltages if the capacitance of the condenser is decreased without allowing the charge to leak. In the above example, for instance, if the condenser is charged to a potential difference of 220 volts at maximum capacity, then the charge stored will be equal to Q = CV = 26.510-11 f x 220 V = 58.310-9 coul When the condenser is disconnected and the knob is rotated without allowing the charge to leak, the difference in potential between the plates will be increased. Suppose the knob is turned so as to decrease the capacitance from 0.265 milli-microfarad to 0.05 milli-microfarad without any charge leaking. Then the new voltage will be Q 58.3 10-9 coul V1 = = = 1,170 V C1 5 10-11 f Since the new voltage is higher than before, the stored energy in the condenser is also larger. What is the source of this added stored energy? It is the work done in turning the knob of the condenser while it is in a charged state. It is, therefore, dangerous to be touching condensers in TV sets which have just been turned off. One should wait until some of these residual charges have leaked. Energy Stored in a Capacitor. The difference in potential between two points in an electric field has been defined as the work done in transferring a unit charge from one point to the other. Referring to figure below, when the switch is closed, the battery does work in transferring electrons from b to a.

While the charge is being transferred, the difference in potential between the plates of the condenser is also increasing from 0 to its final value, which is the EMF of the battery. The work done by the battery in charging the condenser is equal to the total charge transferred multiplied by the average difference in potential between the plates. The difference in potential between the plates increases linearly with the charge, and the average difference in potential is 1 V where V is the EMF of the battery. 2

The total work done is obtained by summing up all the small increments of work done in transferring the electrons against an increasing difference in potential between the plates. The sum of all small increments is W = QVave 1 1 1 Q2 W = QV = CV 2 = 2 2 2 C The work done in charging the condenser is also the energy stored in the charged condenser. This energy may later be converted into useful work when the condenser is discharged. MKS system of units: Q is in coulombs, V is in volts, C is in farads, and W is in joules The work done in charging a condenser is stored in the electric field between the plates of the condenser. Example: A capacitor of capacitance 20 micro-microfarads consists of two parallel plates each having an area of 200 cm2, separated in air a distance d apart. This condenser is charged to a difference in potential of 200 volts and it is then disconnected from the source. Find (a) the distance of separation d, (b) the charge stored in the condenser, (c) the work done in storing this charge, and (d) the work needed to pull the plates apart to a distance of 3d. A o A o or d = Soln.: a. C = d C 2 A o 0.02 m 8.85 10 -12 f m d= = = 8.85 10 -3 m = 8.85 mm Answer -12 C 20 10 f b. Q = CV = 2010-12 f 200 V = 4010-10 coul Answer 1 1 -10 -7 Answer c. W = QV = 40 10 coul 200 V = 4 10 J 2 2 d. If the plates are pulled farther apart, the capacitance of the capacitor is decreased. Assuming that the charge is constant, the voltage across the plates will increase. The new voltage will be three times as much when the capacitance is decreased to 1 its 3 original value by increasing the distance between the plates from d to 3d. The new stored energy will be 3 3 W = QV = 40 10 -10 coul 200 V = 12 10 -7 J Answer 2 2 The difference between the former stored energy and this new stored energy is equal to the mechanical work done in pulling the plates farther from each other. Hence, the work done is Work done = 810-7 J

Discharge of a Condenser through a Resistor. When a resistor is placed in series with a capacitor and the combination is connected to a battery, it takes some time before the condenser becomes fully charged. In figure below, a resistor is shown in series with a capacitor, the combination being connected through a switch to a battery.

When the switch is closed, the charge flows into the capacitor in a manner shown in figure below.

The relation between the charge q at a time t after the closing of the switch and t is given by the equation -t q = Q1 - e RC where: q is the charge at a time t after the closing of the switch, Q is the final steady value of the charge, C is the capacitance of the capacitor, and e is the base of natural logarithms. The rate at which the charge flows into the capacitor is rapid at first, as shown by the steep slope of the q-vs-t curve at the start. As the charge approaches its steady value Q, the growth decreases. The curve is asymptotic to the line q = Q. Theoretically, the steady value of the charge Q is reached at t = .
-t 1 - e RC shows that If t = RC, equation q = Q 1 q = Q1 - e

1 is about 0.37, the charge q is about 63% of its steady value at this instant. RC is the time e 1 constant of the R-C circuit, and it may be defined as the time when the instantaneous charge is th e short of its steady value. If the resistance R is very small, the time constant is also small and the charge rises to its steady value almost instantaneously. Since

When the charged capacitor is discharged through the resistor by short circuiting the RC portion of figure below (left) while removing the battery, the charge in the capacitor will decay in a manner shown in figure below (right).

The two curves are complementary, that is, if they are superposed on the same time axis, the sum of the ordinates of the two curves at any time is always equal to Q. Again the time constant is the time 1 elapsed before the instantaneous charge is th short of its steady value. The time constant is also equal e to RC. Thus, the greater the resistance placed in series with the capacitance, the slower is the decay of the charge in the capacitor.