Civilazatia Egiptului Antic

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THE
CIVILIZATION ANCIENT
BY
"THE MAGIC
OF EGYPTIANS
THE
A.
AUTHOR
BOTHWELL
OF
"THE
GOSSE
"
KNIGHTS
AND THE
TEMPLARS
"
OF
THE
PYRAMIDS
MYSTERY
OF
THE
SPHINX
ETC.
ETC.
THRJOUGH
ZOT"
Tublished by T. C. "
E. C. JACK W.C.
67 LONG
AND
ACRE, AT
LONDON,
EDINBURGH
1915
THE
"
EYE
Printed
in
Great
Britain
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
The
Egyptians,
their
I
PAGE
Temperament
and
Domestic II
Life
CHAPTER
Education
.........
14
CHAPTER
Professions
and
III
.
. .
.
Occupations
-23
CHAPTER
Amusements
.........
IV 47
CHAPTER
Architecture
"
V
.
.
Pyramids
and
Temples
.64
CHAPTER
Sculpture
and
VI
.
Painting
.89
CHAPTER
Science
"
VII
99
Engineering
Skill
CHAPTER
Medicine
VIII
CHAPTER
Science
"
IX
Astronomy
115
CHAPTER
Government
and
X
.
Laws
.121
CHAPTER
Religion
. .
. .
XI
. .
.
..127
CHAPTER
Literature
XII
151
163
Vll
Index
"
History
You
no
longer
shall
feel
be
dull
book.
.
.
shall lived."
make
me
what
periods
you
have
Emerson.
"
The
Archaeologist
to
has
admittance
added
the
to
the
magical
of
kingdom,
which
is
freedom
the
City
of
Remembrance."
Battiscombe
Gunn.
THE
CIVILIZATION
OF
THE
ANCIENT
EGYPTIANS
CHAPTER
THE
"
I
AND
DOMESTIC LIFE
EGYPTIANS,
THEIR
TEMPERAMENT
Oh, Egypt, Egypt ! fables alone will be thy future history, wholly incredibleto later generations, and nought but the letter
of thy stone-engraved monuments willsurvive." The later generations are realizingthe value of these stonetoo, are found to be very sugThe fables, engraved monuments. gestive indeed, frequently they embody the essence the truth, ; of history recounts only the external. whereas A sympathetic understanding is the antidote to incredulity, and will infuse the spiritinto the letter of the stone-engraved
monuments.
striking characteristicof the civilizations the of West, is their evanescent nature. A State, of world, especially the to some to the front, evolves rapidly, extent primitive, comes reaches itszenith and then declines. A few hundred years covers have their day the whole process. Carthage, Greece and Rome On the no and cease to be." There is no stability, permanence. contrary, however, the most notable quality of the Egyptian is civilization its permanent character. Instead of lastingonly a few hundred years, it endures for thousands ; and whereas in be can other countries the entire evolution of the civilization traced from its primitive beginnings, through infancy, maturity, old age and death, in Egypt there appears to be no beginning, the civilization apparently starts mature ; and although within it
most
''
The
The
there
are
Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

''
the initial minor cycles of decline and renaissance,still the recedes down starting-point has not been found ; it ever into the night of time. arches of the years But however distant,there must have been a starting-point, i tives. and the problem requiring solutionresolvesitself nto two alternaDid this magnificent civilizationevolve in Egypt from it transplanted in an infinitely primitive beginnings, or was
''
other land ? epoch from some isprovided by the traditionof the race, stating that An answer the Divine Kings, who rul^d over theirancestors in the Nile Valley tens of thousands of years ago, taught them all the arts and
remote
sciences. This answer

race
were the questions. Who presents two more or of another Egyptians, and were these Divine Kings of the same
from all points of view leads Careful study of the subject two predynastic races : one to the conclusion that there were built,with slightly small and allied to the negro ; the other tall, aquilinefeatures,coming from the West, and alliedto the Libyan. There was also the dynastic race which was very similar in physique down the Nile from the South. to this last,and which came This is in accordance with their own account, which speaks of three races. The language shows Semitic affinitiesbut this in nowise con; tradicts the evidence of scienceas to the race-type,indeed itaffords further proof. For the parent stock of the Egyptian and Semitic In prehistoric races originated in North Africa, west of Egypt. times a portion migrated to Arabia and evolved the Semitic ; characteristics the portion remaining in Africa gave riseto those races of which the Egyptian became the most important and the most characteristic,nd which, migrating from the West into the a Nile Valley, evolved the most magnificent civilization record. on The personal appearance and physique has been preserved for posterity on the monuments and tomb decorations ; the annals add details of their private life,customs and character. The tall and slender, and had a noble and dignified aristocrat was
Their Temperament
and Domestic Life
carriage; he had broad shoulders, muscular limbs, slight hips, and fine hands and feet. The shape of the face is marked by the length and breadth being nearly the same ; the nose is straightor aquiline,the eyes large and dark, the hair wavy, and the teeth small, even and very white ; the whole expression is charming, but had the gracious and yet proud. The peasant was not so tall, characteristicproportions of face,the broad shoulders,and the slighthips that distinguishedthe race. They were a light-heartedpeople, simple in theirways, gay and irresistible. Full of naivete that was nonchalant, with a childlike wit and humour, they seasoned the cares of life with laughter. They were industriousby nature and capable of very hard work, and being endowed with a buoyant dispositionthey preserved a contented cheerfulness,even amid poverty and strenuous toil. The picture would not be complete without mentioning their genial and courtly manners and the kindly gratitude for even triflingervices,that caused the ancients to remark, that s of all Egyptians retain the highest sense of a favour conpeople the ferred to upon them, deeming it the greatest charm of life make a they have received.'* suitablereturn for benefits They were essentially the lovers of the beauty of the of music and the dance, the perfection world. The rhythm of form, delicate perfumes, glowing and harmonious colouring, all this appealed to their imaginations and invested lifewith a glamour. The artistic temperament of the race found an" outlet in a gorgeous ceremonial which combined and utilized these forms all beauty ; and at the same in time it expressed itself an art, of individual and strong, which in its own been surlinehas never passed.
''
*' No country glowing enthusiasm Herodotus says : possesses so many wonders, and has such a number of works which defy description. The people also, in most of their manners the common practice and customs, exactly reverse The last part of this remark alludes chiefly to of mankind." the position of women, who enjoyed all the privileges of men.
With
The
This
was
entirely contrary to the custom in Greece, where they kept in an almost Oriental seclusion. In fact,their privileges were that the Greeks went so far as to say that evoked so much surprise, was woman ence promised obedisupreme in Egypt, and that the man It was the custom to have to her in the marriage ceremony. only one wife, and both in the palace and the cottage the wife of with her husband, appears to have shared the responsibilities life is coupled with the King's in edicts The Queen's name as equal. If the King died, the Queen continued as sole and documents. women. ruler. Several of Egypt's notable sovereigns were Descent was traced through the mother. Property in land belonged to the woman, and was inheritedthrough her. The Land of Egypt no was exception, it wâs the property of the Royal Daughter, who became King acquired the kingdom through marriage with the Princess. Foreign to modern ideas was the frequent custom in the royal family of marriage between brother and sister it was considered ; It must, indeed, have as the most suitableand fitting alliance. been a general custom, especially where there was landed property for in the literatureand love songs, the words brother and ; significance as beloved and lover, or as sister bear the same
and the
man
husband and wife. to Affectionateand faithfulby nature, the domestic lifeseems have been unusually successful The wife accompanied her husband on his fishingand shooting expeditions. At home they are seen ^' in Egyptian sittingarm in arm on the double chair so common houses (Fig. ; the children sitat their feet, the youngest on the i) mother's knee, the eldestat the father'sside, a delightful picture family ! The terms of endearment which a united and happy of they used in addressing each other, and the pet names of the children, Pretty Kitten, Little Sweetheart, Eyes of Love, show forth a sweetness and tenderness that draws them very near, and, spanning the gulf of countless years, proves humanity to be one at heart in every age and clime. house is the best thing," one ancient writer^ A man's own
.
"
''
Gunn's
translation of Ptah-hotep
and Kegemni.
Their Temperament
''
and Domestic Life

for himself
hand
over a
is wise who founds the young man house and loves his wife." The ambition of every Egyptian father was to followed the trade, office to a son, for the sons is also said about profession of the father. Much the children to the parents. In old age,
urges, and
his
occupation or the duties of
if the
son
was
not
prepared to help them, the daughter was obliged

to support them
This seems curious ; but as she inherited the estates it was, after all,quite The son had nat ural
by
law.
.
; other responsibilities to he was obliged his father's cause

''
name
to
live," to
perform the elaborate ceremonial, to offer the necessary sacrifices,
and to maintain the tomb in a style the appropriate to rank of the family. Although he fulfilled
these duties to his father,his love and devotion
to his mother
were
Museum. {B?-iiisk
PîG. I.
"At home they sitarm in arm on the double chair." Both wear robes of fine linen wigs, and 1328 B.C.). elaboratelygoffered (1587"
great ; and very frequently when he died, a statue of his mother, proving his descent, was placed in his tomb. I gave thee A father is represented as saying to his son, She thy mother, she that bore thee with much suffering. placed thee in the House of Instruction for the sake of thine instruction in books ; she was constant to thee daily, sending
''
.
The
loaves and beer from her house. When thou art grown up, and hast taken to thee a wife, being master in thy house, cast thine eyes on her who gave thee birth and provided thee with allgood things, as did thy mother. Let her not reproach thee, lest she lift her hands to God and He hear her prayer." up The mother brought up her children,maintained and educated them in their youth, and passed on the property to the eldest daughter. The father superintended their moral education (to Instructions that remain !), by arranged the judge the many occupations of the sons, and handed over his position to his eldest knit together,not only by affection, but son : thus the family was
''
"
by mutual duties and responsibilities. LIuch of their life was spent out of doors. The rich had spay"^ cious balconies. The rooms gardens, cool verandahs, and shady cool North opened off courts or corridors arranged so that the could circulate freely. The houses, generally of brick, wind were stuccoed over and gaily painted. Very large houses in the capitalwere four or five storeys high, and covered a considerable The palace of Amten, one of the Princes of the South, was area. a great square building 300 ft. each way. Very frequently a the nobleman's wall enclosed a large estate, within which was dwelling, stables,granary, storehouses, ponds, game preserves, and servants' quarters a villagein itself. Many houses were of wood, and of these several models remain, as at one time it was the fashion to have a sarcophagus made likethe exteriorof a house. Three doors on the long side,lattice windows, a handsome cornice, and a flatroof were the distinguishingfeatures of this style. Mery-ra was so proud of his house that he had two views of itpainted in his tomb (Figs.and 2 structed. 3). From this it can be reconThere isa great central gate flanked by two small doors in the surrounding wall ; these lead into a court where servants are sprinkling water to lay the dust ; immediately opposite the great gates is a pillaredvestibulewhich led into a porch ; on each : and allthree open into a large hall, side there is a smaller room the roof of which is supported by twelve columns. This is the dining-hall, and it is prepared for a banquet, for the long centre
''
'*
"
Their Temperament
and Domestic
Life
table is laid. It is adorned with flowers and fruit, and there are loaves of bread, roast meat and birds on smaller tablesat each side.
%%
1
'WJ^
1
HJF
2^
Lepsius, Denknidler.']
Fig.
2.
"
Mery-ra's House.
W
^
1
ea
%^
1
M"E
Lepsius, Denkmdler.'\
Fig. 3.
"
Mery-ra's House, another view.
The
A
row
Two luxurious stands ready at the back. chairs are placed at the head and foot of the table ; near one is a in those basin and ewer for the perfumed water which was, even days, poured over the hands before and after meals ; another stand bears the garlands of flowers that were always bestowed on the guests. Passing from thisfestive chamber, a corridorisreached of
jars wine of
Lepsius, Denkvialer.'\
Fig. 4.
"
Elaborate Royal Dress
(New Kingdom).
from which two doors lead into spacious storerooms. A third door opens into a good-sized lobby which leads into the two kitchens : the family took care to have the odours of cooking well shut off from the dining-room ! The corridor leads also into a small hall, perhaps a dressing-room, beyond which is a large bedroom. This contains a carved bedstead with a soft down bed and pillows, and two toilettables. Splendid rugs were always used for the floors and frequently for door hangings ; so,
Their Temperament
although
the
rooms.
and Domestic Life
in the pictures,such rooms they are not seen would have them. Chairs and stoolsof elegant shapes furnished certainly
These were frequently covered with leather,stamped or painted ; down cushions, handsomely embroidered, or covered with gold and silver tissue,lay about on the couches. The toilet ivory boxes, and tables were adorned with ornamental fittings, alabaster pots for khol, highly polished metal mirrors,exquisitely coloured and cut-glass bottles for perfumes, indeed everything
that could possibly be required for an elaborate toilet. The costume of both men varied slightly from and women at all times simple, although frequently of age to age, but was rich material (Fig. The favourite stuffwas pure finewhite linen,
4)
.
and sometimes this wâs starched and goffered most elaborately. Although the dress of the men show^s greater variety than the to have been the most a plain kilt seems clothes of the women, popular. This often had an embroidered end and a beautiful jewelled girdle. Sometimes the upper part of the body was bare, or a fine gauze vest was A broad handsome worn. and .necklace
After Wilkinson, ii
Fig. 5. I. Ceremonial Dress of the King. 2 and 3. Kiltswith ornamental beltshaving embroidered ends, such as were worn by kings and princes.
"
The
The King's dress (Fig. only bracelets completed the costume. 5) or embroidered with, gold, and differedin being either woven of, kiltwas further adorned with a lion'stail! the times A loose robe with large sleeves was worn occasionally. Somebut the pictures like a skirt, the kilt is quite long, more suggest that this was
worn
over
the kilt(Fig. 4).
L. D., Ab. iii. Bl. I.]
Fig. 6.
"
Princess Sedet and Prince Nereb of the IVth Dynasty showing the simplicity royal dress. of
(4748-4556 B.C.),
The poor people wore short linen drawers or merely a fringed girdle(Fig.7A, p. 21). 1 The women's dress consisted of a tight gown from the waist to the ankles ; itwas high waisted and kept in place by braces which passed over the shoulders (Fig. 6). A loose cloak without sleeves is seen in some pictures; also sometimes an overdress, not so
^
Lepsius, Denkmdler,
hereafter referred to
10
as
L. D.
Their Temperament
and Domestic Life
tight and with large sleeves,was worn (Fig. Every one went 4). barefoot or wore Some sandals as they pleased. either sandals, are exquisitelyembroidered. Others are very like modern shoes. The children very rarely wore any clothes a most hygienic
"
fashion for infancy in

they
were
hot climate !
As they grew
little older
promoted to a girdle,and the ordinary after that they wore dress of the period. The race had a passion for cleanli-
î^^^ ^^^^^
Scottish Miiseutn. \_Royal.
[Royal Scottish Museum.
Fig. 7.
"
Handsome Bracelets" heavy of a twisted pattern.
"
Fig. 8." Beautiful Gold Ring belonging to Nefertiti, he wife of t Akhenaten (i 383-1 365
B.C.).
ness
; dirt of any
Egyptian. this last was
kind This led them
abomination to the ancient to shave both face and head ; but as Some of these worn. very unbecoming, wigs were
was an
{Royal Scottish Museum,
Fig. 9. Jewellery.old Ear-rings, Bracelets, Necklace, and Girdle. The girdle G is of electrum (an alloy of gold and silver) is of exquisite workmanship and (about 1600 B.C.).
"
festiveoccasions. The on very elaborate,with curls to wear to have adopted the custom also,but sometimes they seem women hair curled and braided. wore their own
are
II
The Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

Indeed the priestsbathed twice day and twice during the night ! Cosmetics, ointments and a To increase the beauty of the eye, the Hd in use. perfumes were
Frequent baths
were
taken.
[Royal Scottish Museutn.
Fig.
io.
"
Two
Black Combs
with
Painted Design.
or
eyebrow
was
darkened
by
too, the fingerswere
quently moist black powder, kohl ; frestained red with henna.

a
After the bath, a scented ointment was applied to the head and body, the e3êswere enlarged and darkened with kohl, and the hair
After Wilkinson, i. i6o.]
Fig.
1.
2.
II.
Toilet Box being borne by a Girl swimming. A Fox seizinga fishby the tail. The fish revolves b and forms the lid of the little ox.
on
pin
combed out, curled,braided, and fastened in place with a golden fillet and golden pins ; a flower, generally a lotus, was pinned in donned, and, finally, the hair ; a spotless white linen gown was : and then the silver mirror reflectedthe finished the jewellery picture of an Egyptian woman of fashion !
After Wilkinson
ii.
344.]
Fig.
12."
Toilet Boxes for holding for the fingers, and Perfumed
Cosmetics, such as Kohl for the eyes, Henna Oils to anoint the body after the bath.
After Wilkinson,
ii.346.]
Fig.
13.
"
The
Mirrors were of silver and other metals, with ornamental often inlaid with coloured paste or polished stones.
handles
13
CHAPTER
EDUCATION
"
II
'Tis only the learned
man
who
rules himself."
''
In Egypt every one was three R's." At at least taught the four years old the child became a writer in the house of books." Writing was the foundation of their education, just reading is as We possess many of their childishefforts, the basis of ours. copybooks
''
The daily task with the teacher's corrections in them. was find sums we generally three pages, and often on the reverse metic scribbled down, or delightfullittledrawings of animals. Arithin the modern way by was taught games/ which the children learn as a pleasure and amusement. They have to distribute
**
. . .
"
they arrange pugilistsand wrestlers apples and garlands, as they pair together by lot or remain over" this reminds us of the modern system of casting lots for the pairs of players in tennis Apparently also they did practice" and croquet tournaments. sums, gotten, was ; domestic economy not forand had object-lessons for ''another way of amusing them isby distributing vessels, in which gold, brass and silver,and the like are mixed ; some
''
they adapt to their amusement use, the numbers in common and in this way make more intelligible their pupils the arrangements to hold of armies and movements and in the management of a housethey make people more useful to themselves and more
. . .
and the sacred songs and dances, completed the elementary education ; but attention was paid to manners and as well as to the mind and the body. morals, Lessons were over at noon, and then the children rushed off,
1
awake." Swimming,
Plato.
Education
^ w shouting for joy." Disciplineas enforced : Spend no day in ^ idleness, thou wilt be flogged." or After this elementary schooling, the boy was next instructed by his father in a handicraft. Those children, however, who were destined for the learned professionspassed from the Writing School to the University. Sometimes, indeed,a childbegan work a special school attached to some department of the Civil at Service. We have a lettershowing this,written by a youth, in life,o his master : I was with thee since I was brought t after up as a child; thou didstbeat me, into my and thy instructions went The favourite profession of all was ear." that of Scribe. It a title, however, of very wide import, and embraced all was grades, from the obscure little strative clerk to the great heads of the Adminidepartments, and of the Army and the Navy ; it was the open door to success in life, and there was nothing to hinder boy from attaining fame, riches any and rank. At one time the School for Scribeswas attached to the Court, and whoever entered for this princelyprofession," whatever his brought up with the children princes." Of was original rank, of course, lives, the majority remained obscure alltheir and occupied insignificant as Registrarsin villages. The ambitious posts and boy was told to set to work and become a scribe, then for clever thou shalt be a leader of men he who isindustrious and does his books, he may become a prince,or perhaps attain not neglect to the Councilof Thirty ; and ifthere is a questionof sending out an ambassador, his name isremembered at Court." ^ To enter the Diplomatic Service and be sent on an embassy was, indeed, position to be coveted ! No otherwalk in life a opened for promotion, so we are not surprisedat the up such possibilities As a somewhat sarcasticoet * says enthusiasm forthiscareer. p
"
''
"
''
''
"
"
...
"
"
I have never seen the smith as an Or the goldsmith carry tidings!

"
ambassador
|t
There was a militaryschool for boys intended for the Army ; Royal Stable for Education its somewhat obscure the was
'' "
^
^
SalHer papyrus.
Anastasi papyrus.
^ *
Anastasi papyrus. Sallier papyrus.
15
The
name

we
certain Beken Khonsu who, having been entered as a cadet when four years of age in such a school, became, Captain in the Royal Stable for at the age of sixteen years, Education." The young Princes frequently entered the Army and became *' To be admitted to the chief charioteers to his Majesty."
; and
read of
''
After Wilkinson,L 371.]
Fig. 14.
"
War Chariot of the young Prince, the son of Rameses him. The charioteer is apparently instructing
no
li.
Chariot Force was a delight that describeshis duties and his joy
"
boy could resist. A poem
"
He hastens to lay hold of the horses In the stable before his Majesty. He receives beautiful horses, And and rejoices exults, And returns with them to his town."
cadet did not work hard and distinguish himself at the frequent manoeuvres and he was treated to a hundred stripes." The reviews, children of frequently became soldiers, but prince and peasant alike peasants had the same training. Their bodies were made strong, agile,
''
But it was
not all play, and if the young
and supple by athleticexercises of various kinds drill, gymnastics Even in this profession a scholarly and wrestling (Fig. 15). was necessary for the higher appointments, and the education to have been recruited from among Diplomatic Service seems
"
Anastasi papyrus.
16
17

''
as the Officers well as the Scribes. There are a number of letters extant from a distinguished man of rank, a chief charioteer/* besides being a general, was also a royal ambassador to all who, countries, the governor of foreign countries and peoples." to have been equally The Army and the Civil Service seem
''
popular with the public ; one poem compares their merits, or rather, extols the life of the Scribe to a partizan of a military
career
"
"
Oh, what does it mean that thou sayest : ' The officer has a better lot than the scribe ? Come, let me relate to thee the fate of the officer,so
'
full of trouble."
Then followsa descriptionof the

campaign, ending with
"
"
woes
and discomforts of a military
Therefore, O Scribe, Reverse thine opinion about

were
the happiness of the scribe and
of the officer."
apparently two systems of education in Egypt ; in departmental trained for special careers children either were began in the ordinary Writing schools from childhood, or they first There
School and then passed to one of the Universities. Clemens of Alexandria tellsus that the Egyptians possessed From forty-two Sacred Books. his description of these we gather that one section dealt with the Art of Education, or, in their own parlance, the Art of Causing to become," which was in the idea of the hands of one class of priests. It also gives us some immense scope of the University curriculum in those days, which included writing, both hieroglyphic and hieratic, geography, cosmography, astronomy, geometry both practicaland theoretical,
''
sculpture and painting, ritualdancing and surveying, architecture, music, law and medicine. There were several centres of learning,each being pre-eminent in a special
subject.
The great ecclesiastical collegewas at Khmunu (Hermopolis). Tahuti, the God of Wisdom, was very appropriately worshipped here, and, assisted by the Goddess of '^Literature and the Library," the patron and protector of allseekers after wisdom. Tahuti taught men the science of arithmetic and mensuration ;
was
i8
Education
the laws of music, oratory pure mathematics; and drawing; botany; the 'îngenious art of painting in words and speaking to the eyes" ; a system of medicine, and a theologicalcode. It seems, therefore, that this great University was the seat of learning,while the applied sciences theoretic were more studied at Memphis and Heliopolis. The Faculty of Medicine was a branch of the priesthood,and the Egyptians boasted that they were although the healthiest the professionseems to have flourished. of all mortals," There were in vast numbers, for diseases oculists of the eye were Dentistry had made great progress, for rife then as now. have been found at Thebes mummies
''
with their teeth neatly stopped with gold ! Each complaint was treated by a specialist, and it is interesting to note
that the gynaecologistswere nearly always The medical student women. therefore had
a
vast choice before him,

i/'-ôrence.
he was and after a preliminary course branch and supposed to select one make himself perfect in it. Indeed, by law no one was permitted to practise ^
"^
.
^'%riest'^f^"iph
crosses
more
than
complicated collarof discs and of his office (see no). p.
one
section.
"
If the youth displayed artistic tion, talent,Memphis was his destinato become a votary of the great God Ptah, he who creates works of art." But the most famous University of antiquity was at Heliopolis, the City of the Sun. As a seat of learning it was the most popular of all, and it was noted for the profound wisdom of the priesthood. They were called the mystery teachers of heaven." The High Priest was the Astronomer Royal (Fig. ; he wore over his robes 17) nate desigthe sacred leopard skin, spangled with stars. All his titles '' his high office, he who is great in regarding ; ''he who sees the secret of heaven"; and ''Privy Councillor of heaven." The Applied Mathematics, in its great of this college was
'' "
subject
19
The
two
and Physics. The student chief branches of Astronomy devoted his attention firstto geometry ; this was tested by mensuration; ; surveying, and volumetric problem.s only afterwards did th^ higher branches claim,his attention. The Temple courts were crowded- with foreigners eagerly seeking the benefits of the magnificent library and the thorough scientific training. to All the master minds of antiquity seem have been educated here, and the University rolls present a brilliantgalaxy of names. Moses there became learned ''in all the Solon, the of the Egyptians." wisdom his system to the great lawgiver, owed teaching of the priests. Plato followed, and has left the records of his debt for us his Alma to judgehow great indeed was
Mater.
^
"
-ciL/^
=
^^
Ctesibus who and Hero the Amen'anen, Fig. 17. the Royal, the Astronomer to Egypt pioneer of the stcam-enginc, came High Priestof Hehopolis, for lustruction in mechauics ; Hypatia, and second Prophet of Amen Amenhotep under ^00, who dividcS with them the rCUOWU of III. (1414-I383 B.C.). introducing the hydrometer, studied there, and afterwards rose to fame as a lecturer. And who can relate half the wonderful inventions that emanated from the mind of Archimedes, who is considered the greatest mechanical genius of
*
'
^j^^^
"
f
.
Thales of Miletus received his education in science here, and as a result tricity. gave to the world the knowledge of elecLater on, the library and the University were transferred to Alexandria, and then we find Euclid in charge of the mathematical department. invented the force-pump, r r"
^
T.,^
"
"
"
tt
^"
'
that, or any other, age ! He was very young when he arrived at this University, but there he learned the fundamental principles on which his inventions were based. The hydraulic press, cog-wheels, pulleys, etc., are all attributed to him. Considering the marvels displayed by this race in hydraulic engineering,and
20
Education
in the transport and erection of gigantic masses of stone, we but think that all this mechanical knowledge was in excannot istence only carried the inventions to and that these great men the outer world, no doubt improving and developing them. Had have heard of they remained in Egypt we would probably never It is their work at the Courts of other nations,whither them.
they carried the learning of the Egyptians, that has handed down their fame to posterity.
After Wilkinson.]
Fig.
I 7A."
Costumes
of the Labouring
Classes.
21
22
CHAPTER
PROFESSIONS AND
III
OCCUPATIONS
The military professionranked high, not only among the nobility, but also among the peasantry. No doubt this was because every soldierwas allowed, free of all charge, eight acres of land. This
1
After Wilkinson, 1. 367.]
[Thebes.
Fig. 19.
1.
2.
Corselet richly embroidered in colours. (RamesesIII. at Thebes.) The metal plates are fastened together with bronze pins. Coat of Scale Armour.
was
and wise decree, as it increased the feelingof responsibility, a stake in the country they were asked to defend. gave the men Special military schools existed, and the training began in childa
23
The
hood.
All kinds of gymnastics were taught, so as to strengthen the muscles and cultivate hardiness and endurance ; when older, the boys practised archery, and learned to wield the battle-axe regiments. ; and to throw a javeHn they then entered different Perhaps the archers were the most important part of the Army ; they were divided into companies of foot and chariotarchers (Figs.iS Regiments of light infantry carriedthe javelin, lance the and
20).
and a dagger, or a short straight sword ; the heavy infantry bore spears and a curved sword. The other weapons, cavalry, among were armed with the battle-axe. of the regiments carried shields of bulls' hide (Fig. 18). There seem to have been several one very lightand small, varieties, and others huge, pointed at the top, and entirelyor half protecting the man who bore it ; the latterwere confined to the heavy infantry.
After Wilkinson, i.403.]
"
Most
[Thebes.
worn tassels. Coats of mail were but the light infantry by the bowmen and the heavy foot soldiery, had quilted vests which could not impede rapid movement. The chariot force was very important. Each car contained
Fig. 20. A Body of Archers going into over battle, with their quivers oured shoulders ; quilted helmets, with colThe tassels, protect the head. are arrows about thirty-four inches long, and are of wood or reed tipped with metal.
sometimes file the rank and covered the head with a thick quilted cap, the colour of which varied with the regiments ; some of these had fringes and some
worn,
Bronze
helmets
were
but
of various kinds, a charioteer,and one or two soldiers. In some cases the archers dispensed with a charioteer, and had the reins round their waists ; a great tribute to theirtraining of the horses, which no doubt were then driven by the voice. This, of in the car ; and it was a for rapid movement left room course, frequent ruse of the archer, relying on the strength and flexibility
arms
24
Professions and Occupations

of his bow, to lean forward suddenly and dexterously entangle his enemy in it as in a noose, then drawing him forward he would dispatch him with a sword (Fig. 105). The cavalry, of course, was popular ; the nobilityand princes
[Theies.
Fig.
21.
"
The Standards of the Regiments.
in the chiefofficers the regiments. When Sheshonk i.^marched he against Jerusalem sacked it, had sixty thousand horsemen in and his army ; but the number seems to have varied at different times. Each company had its own garded standard (Fig. which was re21), The standard-bearer love and veneration by the men. with
were
1
952-930
B.C.
25
The

was
always
an
officer proved of valour ; he had a special badge
with a device on it. The Army led into was battle

to
the
sound of music, the trumpet and the drum being

Fig.
castle War Galley in Action. The sail is furled. The foreand stern are raised and are occupied by archers ; the slingersare aloft. Some captives secured with handcuffs may The heads of the rowers be seen. appear above the bulwarks.
22.
"
conspicuous in The the band.
regiments briskly, a fierce the archers performing war-dance en route. marched When drawn up in battlearray the heavy infantryformed the centre. Ten thousand strong, in close formation, a hundred men to a face,
they constituted a solid phalanx which nothing could break. Xenophon recounts a terrible battle between Croesus, who had
allies on his side, and the Persians. Cyrus routed the army of Croesus, but found the vincible Egyptian phalanx absolutely in-
Egyptian
so
he
was
forced to
conclude peace with honourable terms, assigning them largetowns for settlement. Round this massed square the light infantry and archers disposed in open formation, were
the archers being in the wings ; were regiments lightly armed also leftfree for skirmishing.
26
After Wilkinson, 5.346.]
[Tkebes.
Fig. 23.
"
A Soldier springing; the attack to from the prow of a boat.
Lepsius, Denkindlcr,
Ab. ii. Bl
Fig. 24.
"
Medium-sized Vessel.
rowers
Five
on
men are steering, and there each side.
are
thirty
The Egyptians were a essentially maritime people ; theirboats navigated the Red Sea and the Mediterranean as well as the Nile. It is not then a matter of surpriseto find they had battleships, and the enemy in naval encountered
22 engagements (Figs. and 23). The men-of-war were not so high at the head and stern as
the river vessels. They had a stout wooden bulwark to protect the rowers, and raised platforms for the archers, and were provided
with grappling irons to drag the to close quarters. They enemy

comcarried standards, and were manded by admirals. The flagship
apparently had Rameses 11. had
coloured sails. fleet of four a
hundred
on
the
Arabian
Gulf.
Some of the vessels were very large. He built one of cedar feet long ; another, wood, 488 built much later, was 300 feet long, 45 feet wide, and 60 feet high. As well as a mast and sail, the boats were constructed to
27
{BritishMuseum.
Fig. 25.
"
Peasant hoeing the Ground.
The
carry rowers arranged in banks ; one ship carried 4000 rowers, 400 sailors, and 3000 soldiers. Ships were used extensively in to bring the precious woods, spices,slaves, ivory and commerce gold that enriched Egypt. Honourable and popular as was the profession of arms, the was art of agriculture really the mainstay of Egypt. As soon as the Nile fell the husbandman
^gîHM^
Î^^P*" ^^m.^ wKf .^^' ^PTdiil^
set about
harvest.
his preparations for the future The low-lying lands, which re-
tained the water for a long time, were so soft that ploughing wâs quite unnecessary broadcast, and sown were ; these fields branches dragged along to scrape the moist dried quickly, and The plough was a The of wood. very simple affair made shod with metal. point of the share was It had two handles and a pole to which were yoked two oxen ; no reins were used, but a man with a short stick drove the beasts while the ploughman attended to his furrow (Fig. 7). 2 Grain in large quantitieswas produced
the seed. The higher ground had to be ploughed.
earth
over
the below was cut just Muscmn. [Brtiisk the men the ear with a short sickle, Fig. 26. Peasant Woman working carrying a basket on in rhythm to the music of a pipe,while her head. a singer keeps time by clapping his hands. A farm servant carriesround beer in mugs, and the heated reapers
scenes
in Egypt, and many harvest. The wheat
show
"
The master's beer is better pause and say, Is it not good ? however, isallowed ; than a cake of durrah ! (Fig. 27). No idling, is on them, as he moves the sharp eye of the overseer up and down the field. When cut, the corn isbound in sheaves and piled in panniers and carriedon the backs of asses to the threshing-floor.
"
*'
"
''
28
Wilkinson. fter J
After Wilkinson.]
1^
14
13
12
"
11
10
joins
[Thches
Harvest Scene. Fig. 27 The reapers. 2. A reaper drinking from a cup. 3, 4. Gleaners ; the first theseasks of the reaper to allow him to drink. 5. Carryingthe ears in a rope basket, the length of the stubble showing the ears alone are cut off. 8. Winnowing. 10. The tritura to 12. (answering our threshing). Drinks from a water-skinsuspended in a tree. 14. Scribewho notes down the number of bushels measured from the heap. 16.Checks the account by noting those taken away to the granary.
29
?^r"Mfm
After
Wilkinson,
i.
41.]
Fig.
Vritebes.
Vines 28.--The in baskets, while
The men a fourth
are man
picking the grapes and laying them takes them to the wine-press.
AfterWilkinson,
i.
45.]
[Bcni-Hassan.
Simple
grapes are put into a bag suspended on a bag is twisted by a rod turned by the on three men the left. The man m the centre regulates is the pressure ; the juice received in a large bowl.
Wine-press. frame. The
The
After
Wilkinson,
"
i.
46.]
[Thedfis.
Fig.
from the roof, and, holding on hang Ropes Wine-press. 29. to these, the pressers on dance the piled energetically up and down is The juice collected in a reservoir, and then pours out by two grapes. full of large jars. It On the right is the storeroom pipes into tanks. is protected an by a small shrine containing asp, before apparently are a libation jar. which offerings and
Large
The

are
very trying,and itis only with much shouting the and cracking of whips that the panniers are adjusted, drivers '' Those who quit the ranks will crying to the unruly creatures, be tied, those who roll on the ground will be beaten ! Gee-up, Sometimes, instead,two labourers carry the grain in gee-up 1 was great nets hung on a long pole. The threshing-floor circular,
The donkeys
''
and the grain was thrown down in a great pile allround the edge. A layer was strewn over the area, and more was thrown in by large
After Wilkinson, ii. 86.]
Hassan. \_Bcniman
Fig. 30.
"
Men
Spinning ; below, a
is Weaving
on
Loom.
wooden forks,while the oxen ran round and round treading out the seed, the driverssinging meanwhile
"
"
! Thresh for yourselves ! Thresh, oh ye oxen Oh ye oxen, thresh for yourselves ! Thresh straw for your fodder, thresh grain for your Take ye no rest, cool is the air this day." ^
master
Several others with wooden implements tossed the seed into the ubiquitous Scribe was there, the air, winnowing it. Of course of corn carried from the carefullynoting the number of measures to threshing-floor the granary.
1
Wiedemann's
translation.
32

reaped ; itwas torn up by the roots and then the bundles were dragged through an instrument with teeth which tore off the heads of grain (Fig. 27). Some of the crops needed constant watering, so a party of labourers was told offto the shadoof, otherwise the work radishes lettuces, French beans, peas, lentils, and other vegetables would have been ruined.
was
never
Durrah
After Wilkinson, ii. J 85.
[Beni-Hassan.
Fig. 31. Women

"
Spinning the Flax and Weaving the wonderful Linen for which Egypt was famed.
Egypt
were
was
many
famed for itswine allover the ancient world. There both red and white. The vines were trained varieties,
in bowers (Fig. or on trellisork, and no garden was complete w 28) its vineyard and orchard. After the bunches had been \vithout in gathered, they were put into a bag which was t\\dsted opposite being caught in an directionsby means of two poles, the juice by the earthenware bowl (Fig. 28).Large quantitieswere trodden feet,the men holding on to ropes as they danced energetically up
c
33

ran down ; the juice out from the press,and was in collected large vats (Fig.
and
29)
.
When
the process was
C
CO
the wine was decanted into large earthenware jars,

over,
"
sealed up and which were stored away. The perfumed of the and delicate aroma reEgyptian marked wine was on by many authors. A kind of beer was also called much liked, it was was considered zythos, and ''scarcely inferior to the juice the grape"; the of smell was like wine, not at alllikethe beer of to-day. Many farmers bred sheep and cattle. The herds were taken down to the Delta
yearly to grass. It
rich exciting for the drivers moment when the inundation came down ; the flocksand herds
was an
enjoythe
as removed quickly as possibleto higher In some scenes ground. boatmen are towing the beastsacross the waters ; the shepherds splash through
were
then
the shallows singinggaily

"
In the water walks your shepherd with the fishes. With the cat-fish talketh he, With- the fish he change th greeting From the West ! Your shepherd is a shepherd from
the West
!"
34

Their great love of animals is over shown even the prosaic feeding of the oxen. A conversation takes between the place His oxen shepherd and the beasts. to him, Here and said there the herbs are good.' And he heard what they said and drove them to the place of herbs ; and the good cattlewhich he kept throve excellently and calved very often." Horse-rearing was also very profitable chargers and chariot ; horses were in great demand, and large exportations were sent to
" '
Jhtsaon. [British
Fig. 33." Wooden
Table.
Syria. King Solomon large quantities.
preferred Egyptian horses,and purchased The lower classeswore
woollen garments, and wraps and cloaks made of wool also. To a certain extent wool was looked on as impure, and garments of this in the temples, neither might the dead material could not be worn be buried in such.
were
Sheep
were
kept for the wool.
Flax and cotton were extensively cultivated. Cottons and muslins were used for household things, and for clothes to some linen, extent ; but every one who could afford itpreferred to wear
very fine and beautifully white. 30 weaving linen (Figs. and
Both
men
31).
35
The
are seen and women fineness achieved is in-

without the flaws which and the threads are quite perfect, credible, One piece found near Memphis are seen to-day in our finest work. in the woof I has 540 threads to the inch in the warp, and no Tradition makes mention of a wonderful corselet of linen, each ! thread of which was composed of 365 fibres The garments of
Miisetun, [Briiish
Fig. 34. inlaidwith Ivory. 1. Stool of Ebony 2. Shows the inlaidparts of the legs. in 3. Of ordinary construction, the same
collection.
the rich were embroidered and dyed. The thread was often dyed before the cloth was woven, and thus a pattern was worked in. The bandages used for the mummies were always of linen,and
it is
noteworthy fact that every kind of bandage known in modern surgery has been found on the mummies, the limbs and bodies of which are exquisitely bandaged.
a
or
The leather workers formed an important part of the community. Many articles were made of leather : bottles for water for bows and arrows, cases wine, shields, upholstering of the
36

chariots or of the household furniture,girdles, shoes and sandals Some of the work was very ornamental, the (Fig. 32) skins bein^ dyed first and then stamped and cut.
.
Museujii. [British
Fig. 35.
The
kept busy manucarpenters and cabinetmakers were facturing the' ordinary household furniture (Figs. 33-38).The
Museum. [British
Fig. 36.
2.
A Stool. in which the leather seat Shows the manner A similarone cushioned. 3.
1.
was
fastened.
the legs of the tables and chairs being designs were very artistic, or sometimes likethe carved in imitation of those of lions or goats,
37

thongs necks and heads of geese. The seats were made of interlaced of leather,or upholstered in skins painted with flowers,or dyed. Various woods were used, and the expensive articles fully beautiwere
inlaidwith costly woods of a differentcolour, or with ivory. Ebony and ivory was a favourite combination. Common woods to simulate even were cleverly veneered and sometimes painted
[Thebes.
are
Fig. yj. Chairs.

"
The frames are carved in ebony inlaidwith ivory,the cushions stuffedwith down and covered with tapestry. (Ramesesin.)
the rarer varieties. Another curious substitute,especiallyused for coffins, was cartonnage, a kind of papier-mache or pasteboard, made of layers of linen pasted together and covered with stucco ;
it was then painted and gilded. The shops in which all the commodities were sold were apparently a square room not unlike the modern bazaars entirelyopen in front ; the goods are allvisible the passer-by, and the owner to
"
38

sitsamong
raised seat, gossiping and sipping sherbet or The provision coffee with prospective customers. shops have fowls, allready plucked for rows of geese and times sale (Fig. 39) Somethe sellers on the ground with their wares, squat vegetables fish perhaps, in baskets, while people and wander up and down
.
them
on
After Wilkinson, i. 31.]

"
[Thebes.
Fig. 38. Arm-chair Captives are represented ignominiwith Carved Lions for the Arms. ously chained below. The seats were covered with painted or stamped leather or with embroideries.
bargaining and exchanging necklaces for fish,or ointment for onions and melons ! In olden times the craftsmerged into the arts, and itwas very difiicult o tellwhere the craftsman ended and the artistbegan. t The beautifuljewellery, work and glass,should undoubtedly metal be included among the artistic roductions of thisage. p
39

extraordinarily skilful,and wrought goldsmiths were inlaid with brilliant enamels, wonderful necklaces, and jewels cloisonne work. Sometimes instead of enamels between the fine the inlay was of precious stripsof gold that formed the outlines, This kind of work was stones. especiallyused for the larger breast jewels, jewels office,erhaps. The ear-ringsand fingerof p frequently display great variety of design, and pearls were rings used in the former. on allthe fingersand on both hands, but the Rings were worn frequently adorned than the to have been more lefthand seems right, and the ''ring finger was more often
"
The
"
ornamented
as
with us. ringswere generally of gold, set with a scarab or an engraved The less fortunate stone.
and wealthy themselves contented with a blue porcelain
with them Their signet
Shop. Two men Fig. 39. A Poulterer's are plucking the birds,a row of which are hanging up for sale.
"
seal-ring. Like most Oriental races, they loved gorgeous jewelnecklaces, bracelets.
lery, and
men
and
women
equally
wore
rings and anklets. The goldsmith's art, even in the earliest times, had been brought to great perfection ; the designs are beautifuland unique,
and the workmanship exquisitelyfine. On festiveoccasions,gold and silvercups graced the table ; in the royal household and the temples, gold plate seems to have been extensively used. The cups are beautifullyengraved, and often studded with rare gems ; many have lids or covers, and have one or two handles or none at all. In grace of form, the vases are equal to those of the ancient Greeks, but are infinitely The artists older (Fig. who pro-
40).
40

duced them show a fertihty of imagination both in the shape and in the ornamentation. At Thebes many vessels of bronze They
are
have
been
discovered.
highly polished and of good metal. The metal workers knew how to impart elasticity to bronze weapons and tools They had some method, now unknown, of tempering bronze, so that it became as hard as steel. The
.
is edge of modern chisels turned on the hard stone on at once, which they engraved with ease. The bronze weapons of the inlaid princes and nobles were with gold. The handles of the were weapons very beautiful, ivory inlaid with gold and precious stones. Iron
was undoubtedly
used; also there are butchers representations of sharpening their knives on a blue metal bar. From itscolour this can only be steel. All the processes of metal
working were known : smelting, forging, refining, tempering, soldering,alloying,inlaying,engraving and even gilding. The occupation was in high repute, smiths and '^The Chief of the Gold"
After Wilkinson,
"
C50']
[Thebes.
is often mentioned ; and one superintendent states knows all the secrets of the Houses of Gold ! that he Egypt abounds in suitable clay for pottery. Thousands
''
"
Fig. 40. Vases with Ornamental Handles. The second one was apparently of gold.
of
41
The
Civilizationof the Ancient
Egyptians
[Royal Scottish 3fuseum.
Fig. 41.
"
Collection of Ancient
Wooden
Mallets used by the Egyptian
stone-masons.
[British Museum
Fig. 42 Bronze Halbert. The blade is riveted to the shaft, into which a handle is fitted. wooden Worked Bronze Axe representing a soldier galloping. Leather thongs bitumen bind the head to the wooden handle. covered with Another Worked Axe- head representing bulls fighting. two Bronze Axe-head fastened to the handle by thongs of gazelle skin. On III., 148 1the blade is Men-Kheper-Ra, the prienomen of Tahutimes
1449
B.C.
42

years ago the potter kneaded the clay with his feet; when itreached a suitable consistency,he placed a lump on a wheel and moulded It with his hand as the wheel spun round. The ornaments were then cut into the soft clay and the pots placed to dry, after which they were removed to an oven and baked. Beautiful vases and bowls for the table or for toiletarticleswere of faience, and in
Mtneum. [British
Fig
43.
"
Metal-workers using Blow-pipe and Drill.
bowls, vases, cups, this art they were pre-eminent. Statuettes, and beads show a mastery of brilHantcolour and glazing. Blue and green were the favourite colours,although yellow and a fine red were also used. They did not confine their attention to pottery only, by some process they could glaze cut unknown
stone.
Sometimes
even
be covered by sarcophagus would

43
deep

and translucent green glaze through inscriptionstood out clearly.
which
the hieroglyphic
alliedart in which they were equally expert, was that of were enamelling, generally on gold ; amulets and jewels made in this kind of cloisonne. Glass mosaics were made in brilliant
44
An

designs going right through. Glass-blowers are busily working at their trade furnaces for fusing represented ; the men on material are seen, with the ground using squatting the blowpipe (Fig, Glass vases, cups, bottles 45). (Fig. and 46), beads are not only seen in the but have been found in pictures, the tombs. Hieroglyphics were engraven on the glass vases, and even on the beads. It is supposed that they sometimes used the diamond for this purpose, and for engraving on precious stones. The lapidarieswere certainly experts at their work ; their tools
colours, the
"kU
After Wilkinson, ii.58.
[T/ieês.
Fig. 45.
"
Glass-blowers at work.^ The glass to be blown, at end of the blowpipe is coloured green.
have had graving points of some stone harder than quartz, for no tool,even can cut quartz. The jewel points were set in of steel, bronze ; and as nothing but the diamond can cut such deep grooves
must
as are
47),
found, itispresumptive evidence that the diamond was used. Circularsaws were used for hollowing out alabaster vases (Fig. the cores were then removed; these have been found by the
vase
hundred. Sometimes the rubbish heap. The reason

^
fractured, and
no
a
was
thrown
saws
on
the
why
as
diamond-pointed
men
remain
the
Professor Petrie interprets this charcoal to heat the crucible.
furnace, the jeweller's
blowins up
45
The
to-day is obvious, the stones would be continuallyreset until they worn were away.
Alusejîii. yiioyalCicottis/i
Fig. 46.
"
Glass Bottles from Egypt.
[Royal Scottish Museum.
Fig. 47.
"
Alabaster Pots,
some
with Covers.
Many precious stones were cleverly imitated in coloured fusiblepastes ; pearls, amethysts, and emeralds being so skilfully made as to deceive an expert. Pliny says that the imitationswere '' so good that itwas difficult distinguishfalsefrom real stones/' to
46
CHAPTER
AMUSEMENTS
"
IV
Celebrate the joyful day ! Cast behind thee all cares,
and
mind
thee of pleasure."
of the Egyptians were suitableto the gaiety of Music and dancing were very popular. The their temperament. wall paintings show many differentinstruments, and apparently it was customary to entertain the guests at a party by a concert, at which the most famous singers of the day performed, accompanied by an orchestra.
amusements
The
Museum. \_British
Fig. 48.
"
f Instrument ditTerentrom the harp, lyre,or guitar.
some There were several varietiesof harps (Figs. very 48-50), large, with twenty-two strings,and others again were small, with only four strings. The very large ones were generally played by Their lyres varied as much, having from three to eighteen men. The strings; they were played with and without a plectrum. often beautifullyornamented or gaily stringed instruments were
painted. The flute was
very long and

47
was
generally played by
men
(Fig. and 51),
so was
played by women a melodious air. Tambourines and drums
the pipe ; but the double pipe was frequently (Fig. who danced gracefullyas they piped 53),
completed the orchestra ; cymbals,
After Wilkinson, i.
108-9]
[Thebes.
Fig. 49." Large Harp with ten strings. The frame is painted gailyand finishedby a carving of the King's head. (Rameses iii.)
shaken in rhythm to the crotala,and the sistrum (Fig. were 55) music of the other instruments. It is no longer known how the music was written down, but no doubt there was some method, as itmust have been complicated owing to the innumerable variety of instruments composing the
48
Amusements
orchestra. One author mentions that six hundred took part in a musical festival. At Memphis there
performers
was
a
school of music, and been trained there. Many
women
great singers especiallyseemed to have classic authors praise the extra-
FiG. 50. Another

"
Harp with fourteen strings.
musicians, and state that the Greeks and barbarians were taught by Egyptians. It formed important part of the education of children,as the study of it an had an upliftinginfluence on their morals and emotions. It was both an art and a science, the laws of which were studied by the priests; no innovations were allowed, at least in the temple
D
ordinary skill of the Egyptian
49
The
music. It has been said that Gregorian chants were derived from the Egyptians, also singing without words, "carolling,"^ which was used in the serviceof the gods. At private entertainments, dancing was most almusic. Both men were professional dancers. and women There were solo performances, but generally danced together. The figures were two often
names. The complicated, and they had definite imitation of the an apparently was wind waving of reeds in the wind ; in another, called dancer seizes her vis-d-vis one under the feet/' [Thebes.
" '' "
the
inevitable
adjunctto
the
W (Afterilkinson, i.127.)
Fig. 5 Flute.
Very long
and women for the more There

was
by the hair, who sinks to the ground on one j^nec. The costume was always light,to allow ; and both men of free and graceful movements wore either a kilt or short drawers above the knee active dances. Children are seen in girdles dancing
as
to castanets.
as
corps
great varietyin the costume in the dance itself and in one case the ; de ballet clad in transparent gauze-like ,
performing graceful undulating to the sound of the tambourine. movements As in Oriental races, gesture and pose -all important features, but there were were trodden by certainly more active measures these dancers of old, and even thousands of years ago the high leap into the air, and the skilful pirouette,excited the admiration and the applause of the onlookers (Fig. 60). Wrestling was After Wilkinson, i. very popular ; many 124.] [T/iedes. defence can be seen Fig. 52. Musician playmodes of attack and ing a Guitar slung round the ^ in the pictures. In another scene two men neck with a ribbon. are playing at single-stick.The stick has a guard to protect the knuckles, the men and on the left arm
"
robes,isseen
Chappell's History
ofMusic. 50
Page
17.
Amusements
shield made of a straightpiece of wood bound to the arm three or four straps. Intricate games were Vvîth played with ball, chiefly by women, who balls in juggledith several w
wear
a
the air while they stood on foot or leapt upwards one 6 (Fig.i). Part of this game
played by girls mounted on each others' backs (Fig. 62). No doubt the losers in the game became the beasts
was
Fig. 53. Girl playing the Double Pipes of burden in the next game, and dancing. the the taking of part ''asses'' in the similar Greek game. The feats of agilityperformed by the gymnasts and tumblers All the tricks which are known to-day seem were remarkable.
"
After Wilkinson, i. 123-4.]
IThebes.
Fig. 54.
1. 2.
A Guitar with three catgut strings. A Girl dances while playing on a Guitar.
to
have
been
practised then
was
for the
amusement
seem
of
the
populace. Great pleasure
taken in bull fights; but they

51
to have
The

a
been carefully conducted in toreadors or picadors. The
fairly humane prize bulls were
manner,
without
names
given
Museum. [British
Fig. 55." Sistra.
Fig. 56. A Temple Orchestra of Flutes, Harp and Guitar plays, while the Priest,in his ceremonial dress, offersincense.
"
''
Striker and '' Favourite here having seen are (Fig.4). The owner of the winner received the prize. 6
Broad
''
''
duel
.'52
Amusements
The Egyptians
ample
keen sportsmen, and their country provided opportunity and material for the chase. Stags,
were
IAfter Wilkinson,i.87.]
[Thebes.
a
Fig. 57. A small Orchestra of a Harp,

"
Guitar,and the Double Pipes.
abounded in the mountains, while gazelles, wild goats and oxen hyaenas, foxes and jackals prowled about the desert plains.
iTkebes.
uses The girlon the left
Fig. 58." Two
differentypes of Lyres. t
a
Plectrum.
forbig game shooting found the hippopotamus, The nobles inclined They extremely pugnacious and restless,"in the marshes.
''
53
54
After Wilkinson,
i.
198.]
[Beni-Hassan.
Fig. 61.
"
Girls jugglingith Balls, keeping w
several in the air and using both hands.
After Wilkinson,
i. 198.]
[Beni-Hassan.
YiG, 62.
"
Ball Game
in which
the winners ride
on
the backs
of the losing side.
After Wilkinson, i.
201.]
[Beni-Hassan.
Fig. 63." Using

men
the heel
body pivot and holding the the girls round and round. whirl
as
t stiff, he
55
The

a
attacked itby entangling the creature in a running noose to the surface to breathe itwas speared by When itcame
of rope. harpoon
4M^
ûr7^^?"^
After Wilkinson,i.210.]
[Beni-Hassan.
" Fig. 64." The " Favourite" and the Broad Striker" engage in a contest of strength. The shepherds urge on the bulls with short sticks.
attached to a reel. The beast at once dived, the line ran out, and when it emerged again another harpoon was in readiness; finally,
After Wilkinson, i.
219.]
[Thebes.
Fig. 65.
"
returning home, carrying a Oryx and leading his Hounds. captured
Huntsman
exhausted it was pulled within reach by the numerous ropes men. with which it was entangled, and then dispatched by the huntsOccasionally,however, the hippopotamus was the victor,
when
56
Amusements
attacked and upset the boat. Farther afield, lions and furiously leopards haunted the desert, and tempted the more and enterprising hunter to display his prowess Farther south still, the with the bow. found. elephant and the giraffewere
lasso and the bolas were used in hunting ; and very frequently extensively The
the animals were only captured and brought home, for the Egyptians loved all animals, and kept many different
and 66). There many varieties of dogs, indeed, appear to be the and some, ancestors of certain breeds fashionable There is one kind at the present day.
as
kinds
were
pets
65 (Figs.
"
with
a
long body and short bent legs, The greyhound prehistoric dachshund. was used for coursing in the
a
too, a more open plains. There was, powerful hound with a square muzzle, 67). Lions (Fig. used for big game
also were trained for the chase, likethe hunting cheetahs seen to-day in India. Small game and fowl were seized by
cats well trained
as
the Egyptians animals ; and
were even
retrievers. In fact, expert trainers of
the monkeys were used to pick fruit from high trees, or to haul on ropes in some of the boats. In many representations on the monuments
the favourite pets accompany their masters : the lion or the monkey sits under his chair, the baboon and the dogs walk out with him, and the cat sits on boat.
57
the prow of his
Private ponds in the gardens of the wealthy afforded excellent
The
linefishing. In the riversand waters of the Delta, however, nets were 6 used (Fig. 8);though with the sportsman a two-pronged He stood on a papyrus punt favourite method. spear was the and, watching the fish gliding through the water, dexterously
Fig. 67.
"
Egyptian Dogs.
speared them, congratulating himself when he caught one on each prong (Fig. 69). Wild fowl was common everywhere, and it was the custom for the entirefamily to go off in punts to the back waters (Fig. or 69), itsheight,to amuse themselves with when the inundation was at this sport. A heavy flatthrow-stick slightlycurved was used.
58
"
59
60
:^
Fig. 70." Dice.
Fig. 71."
Draughts. Playing
After Wilkinson, i. 190, 195.]
Fig. 72.
"
Playing
Mora,
and
Odd
and
Even.
\Beni-Hassan. Fig. 73.

"
Game
with
Hoop.
\Beni-Hassan.
Fig. 74.
"
Other
Games.
61
The
The punt was not complete without the favourite cat to retrieve the game, and often a decoy bird was taken as well (Fig.6A) ; 7 in the evening they returned from and
laden with fish the picnic full of joy, and wild fowl for the table, the children carrying lotuses and garlands of lovely flowers. But there were also indoor games
amusements (Figs. 70-74). and Draughts was always a favourite,
alike with prince and peasant. The were men of ivory or wood, and were some had little variously shaped: like ninehuman heads, others were
Museum. [British
children played with dolls (Fig. 5), 7 and were transported with joywhen dolly had real hair, and could move its hands and legs. A pleasurable fear, too, was excited by the horrid crocodile (Fig. that moved its jawsup and down with a slow crunching
Fig. 75." Wooden
Dolls.
pms. The
76)
After Wilkinson.]
[Ltydgn Museum.
Fig. 76.
The
Horrid
Crocodile.
62
Amusements
Many were the funny toys that deHghted the hearts of the little girls and boys thousands of years ago ; by pulling a string, wooden figureskneaded dough (Fig. or did the washing, 76), or merely jumped about and pulled faces,thus exciting the merry laughter of the little olks. f
movement.
M [Britishuseum.
Fig. /Oa.
"
Fowling in the Marshes.
cat
retrievesa
bird.
Childhood only lasted for four years, then the child ceased to be a one meats cakes and sweetwise little and went to school ; but for the children figureso constantly in the accounts, as to lead to the conclusion that they were as much beloved and spoiled in the Nile Valley as everywhere elsein the world.
'' "
''
"
03
CHAPTER
ARCHITECTURE
"
"
V
AND
PYRAMIDS
TEMPLES
There They
The
they build of red granite, fair in workmanship build a pyramid " as are masons gods ! Song the Harper
"
of
(Spensly's trans.).
ancient architecturein the world is found on the edge of the vast soUtude of the desert ; there, on a plateau of rock, not only the most majestic, stands the Great Pyramid, a monument has ever achieved. but also the most perfectlyconstructed,that man it In allitsgloriousperfection, was seen by Abd-el-Latif in the
The
most
thirteenth century, its polished white stone-casing flashingin the given to itby of The Light sunlight,and vindicating the name the Egyptians (Fig.8). Evil days were at hand, and spoilersfell 7 it and used itas a quarry for the growing city of Cairo. The upon
''
"
torn off, and out of it a mosque limestone casing was brilliant built. The rubbish leftfrom this act of destruction has since was
been used for the roads. More has been written about the pyramids than about any as of antiquity. The theories are as numerous other monument
the books. Most of them are based upon measurements, and as no two authors gave the same, the theories were contradictory and improbable. Howard Vyse and Piazzi Smyth willbe remembered
having tried to reduce the chaos by undertaking a scientific Their excellent work was measurement. supplemented later by on Professor Flinders Petrie. The results of his investigations^ to the public, are well known mathematical and mechanical lines, but no one except an engineer or an architect will be able to
as
work of accurate triangulation of the appreciate the difficult of the Great pyramid area, and the complicated measurements
64
Architecture"Pyramids and Temples

these are once realized, the vast design and consummate skillof the ancient architectcan be, to some degree, understood. Until the real purpose and object this design be of disclosed, to exercise their ingenuity by people will continue proposing theories. To keep these within the limitsof probability,
the
some
Pyramid
itself. When
measurements
of the
more
of portant imare
portions
given. It is 756 feet square, and occupies 13 J acres. The height is 451 feet originally it was 481 feet. This is taller than any other in the world, structure
now,
but
exception of two or three modern It is oriented towers. to the cardinal points of the horizon, but there is a now divergence of 4' West This of North. deviation may be either
with
the
mistake on the part of the architect or the Pole has changed. mers Astronostate that there is
a a
Scottish Museum. \I\.oyal
variation of position of to the Pole, amounting that about i' per 1000 years, so the conclusion is justified the orientationwas accurate for the epoch in which the pyramid was built. The entrance isabout 55 feetabove the original pavement in the nineteenth course of the north face,but itis not in the centre, being about 24 feet East of the mid-point. A movable stone, When 8 working on a pivot, constituted the doorway (Fig.0).
E
asty, Fig. 77." Black Diorite Statue of Khafra, IVth DynThe builder of the Second B.C. 4685-4619 Pyramid at Gizeh.
65

closed,there was nothing to distinguishthe stone from the rest of the casing. The secret was known to the Romans/ but afterwards was apparently lost; so perfectly was it concealed, that once lost impossible to discover it. In the ninth century of our it was
the Khalif al Mamun, excited by the legends of the vast He selectedthe centre treasure, determined to force an entrance.
era
of the north side,near the base, and, of course, missed the pivot Not discouraged, he excavated the solid masonry for doorway.
Fig. 78," "The
Light," built by Khufu, about 4748 B.C., called by

^
us
"the Great Pyramid."'
months without result, when suddenly the workmen fall into a hollow space." They altered a great stone their direction, and so broke into the main passage ; but the fallen
many heard
"
its side, at a moderate elevation, a stone which can be it has been lifted up, a sloping passage is seen," etc. of the pyramid may be gained from the Arab tale (quoted by Piazzi Smyth) of the old king who calculated that all the wealth in Egypt in his time wôuld not enable him to destroy the pyramid. But then, it contains 89,000,000 The fact, too, that Howard Vyse spent ^10,000 excavations on cubic feet of stone ! it, gives some idea of the magnitude of the task. merely in order to measure
on
Strabo says,
"
It has
moved (taken out). When 2 Some idea of the mass
66
Architecture Pyramids and Temples

"
stone disclosed to their astonished eyes
had been completely hidden. was passage plugged with immense To granite blocks. attempt through
to
an upward passage that But it also showed that this ing ascend-
useless, so burrowed through the softerlimestone of the masonry, keeping alongside the blocks
core
quarry these was the Arabs
until, reaching beyond the last one, the passage clear. The masonry they destroyed left a huge chasm at the junction Men-kau-ra (4619-4556 B.C.), of the ascending with the builder of the Third Pyramid at Gizeh. the entrance passage ; Fig. 79. it is stilicalled Mamun's
Museum. {.British
way
was
Khufu (4748-4685 B.C.), the builderof the Great Pyramid at Gizeh.
Hole, and is the way
of ingressto the upper portion. The main passage descends from the entrance/going straight through the masonry and through the solidrock for more than 300 feet,then there is a
Fig. 80.
1.
horizontal passage terminating in a subterranean vault just south of the has not been central axis. This room finished, the floornot having been fully
showing
2.
Body of pyramid. Entrance passage pivot stone.
excavated out of the rock, which nearly fills in irregular masses, it rising to within 10 inches of the roof. In the
floor is a square shaft which descends verticallyinto the rock ; its purpose is unknown. From this chamber of chaos another
1
The
angle is 26" 29'.
67
The

''
passage leads southward to nothingness." Turning back we finally reach the junction with the ascending passage, about 15 feet of which isblocked with granite ; the plugs taper slightly, so that they fitthe passage, which narrows at that point. The passage slopes up and is inconveniently low, it then arrives at a level landing-place. Here, towards the West, is the head of the It has obviously shaft leading to the subterranean chambers. built ; the been cut in the masonry after the pyramid core was first part of the shaft bears evidence of this. The remainder is quarried through the rock, and is precipitous and tortuous. From the landing-place the passage branches into two parts ; leads to the Queen's horizontal, one, Chamber, the other,ascending becomes the Gallery. still, The Queen's Chamber is of granite and has a sloping roof, the ridge of which is exactly in the plane of the central axis of There is a niche in the eastern wall ; an old the pyramid. idol stood there. Within the chamber traditionstates that an nothing now remains, but Edrisi, who wrote in 1236, says that it contained an a sarcophagus ; and there is empty vessel to doubt his statement.^ no reason The Grand Gallery of polished limestone is a most remarkable
'' " '' "
"
structure ; still sloping upwards
lofty,and has on each side a raised platform or bench about 20 inches wide and not have holes quite 2 feet high. These platforms or ramps in them, twenty-eight altogether, on each side,alternately drilled long and short ; no one knows their purpose. Equally inexplicable is the groove in the wall above each ramp hole. The ceiling
''
"
it is now
of this corridor is amazingly ingenious. The walls is built in 7 laps of stone, each
below, thus overhanging the ramps the gallery until finallythe roof equals the floor space between Each of the 36 roof stones is so arranged that its the ramps. weight is borne by the side walls, so that there is no cumulative
the whole roof to slide down the pressure which would cause incline. There is a remarkable groove running the entire length
1
upper part of the over projecting the one and lessening the width of
Greaves mentions
this in 1638.
68
flllll
n
llllill
Mill IIIIMM
FlindersPetrie's The Pyramids
and
by Temples o/Gizek, kind permission.]
69

"
of the wall of the corridor in the third lap. The meaning of it Another point of interestis that the is not known. central axis of the pyramid passes through the south end of the Grand Gallery, marking the transit from the North to the South when the great stone block at the end is overpassed, and the passage to the is reached. This stone block, which has been antechamber dais," and a throne step," a variously called a (it may been an altar as a step !), rather more as is than just well have 5 feet long and not quite 3 feet high. The Grand Gallery is down almost closed at this end by the southern wall,which comes
"
"
"
"
Passing over this,a horizontal passage is reached, low and short. Near the middle it opens out into what has been called the Antechamber and here again is a peculiaritynot understood ; this is the extraordinary arrangement
"
to within 42 inches of the block.
of grooves in the walls. Right across thisroom isa strange obstacle, a granite portcullis, the edges of which rest in grooves in the wainscot it hangs in mid-air,a space being leftabove and of the walls ; below it. There are three other grooves, but no further barriers; and, in addition, on the south wall are four verticalgrooves. Finally, the King's Chamber is reached. This splendid hall is of polished granite ; it contains nothing but a plain red granite by an sarcophagus. The whole apartment has been injured between the stones have separated earthquake, so that the joints into it, and the roof beams are fractured. Two air channels lead but the desert sand is always blocking them up. It was in one Vyse found the fragment of sheet -iron. of these that Howard Doubt has been cast upon the genuine antiquity of this ; but as
the rusty part where it was in the nummulitic Hmestone masonry, there can be embedded is rather more than no doubt of its extreme antiquity. The room has a fiat roof. 34 feet long, 17 feet wide, and 19 feet high, and has an undercut groove The coffer, which is 7 feet 6 inches long, the pin-holes to attach it are there too, to hold the edge of the lid, but no lid remains. Grand Gallery is a Just under the roof of the eastern wall of the King's Chamber. small passage ; this leads to the space above the
there is
cast of
nummulite
on
71
The

''
have been discovered,one Five of these construction chambers over the other. The work is rough, and there are many masons* marks on the stones. To the upper four no way of entrance was found, but Howard Vyse cut a shaft upwards from the first. The purpose of these chambers is to minimize somewhat the immense
"
of masonry, which would weight of the superincumbent mass There is no on the roof of the King's Chamber. otherwise press real significancein the naming of these apartments ; the Arab tomb to have a flattop, and for a woman's custom is for a man's
E.
Wedgwood.] Fig. 8 1.
"
Ramesseum
at Thebes.
Main building looking east.
to have
the gable roof. Noticing these peculiarities, Arabs called them the King's and the Queen's Chambers respectively. is extraordinary in a structure of such The workmanship immensity ! The exquisite accuracy and trueness of the squaring
a
of the casing-stones is a marvel, and, to quote Professor Petrie, equals the finest optician'swork on a scale of acres instead of feet." Many of the stones weigh about i6 tons ; and not only are these fitted against each other with marvellous perfection,but between each there is a layer of cement so thin and gossamerlike
^'
that the
is join invisible. An
72
accomplished ! The entrance
impossibility, and yet it was Chamber passage and the Queen's

"
brilHant constructive powers. Higher show the same up, although the masons' work is as good, the construction is altogether out of
E.
Wedgwood.] Fig. 82." Temple
of Isis and what is popularly called Pharaoh's Bed, during the Inundation. of Philoe,
on
the Isle
E.
Wedgwood.] Fig. 83.

"
The
same
"
water
low.
level How
.
? Again, much of thisisdue to the action of earthquakes flat, the graniteblocks in the Antechamber have never been dressed knobs for lifting and in several parts of the upper building the 73
The
the stones have never been removed ; it was the custom to knock them offwhen the stone was in situ, and grind and poHsh the place equal to the rest of the surface. These flaws could not have been vision caused by earthquake ! Carelessness,haste, and lack of superPetrie is right,and these Perhaps Professor are suggested. due to the death of the architect who unfortunate changes were
had at first planned and directed the magnificent work. It is impossible here to enter upon the various theories about Many, indeed most of them. the dimensions of the pyramid.
E.
Wedgwood.] Fig. 84.

"
Pylons, Temple
Philas of Isis,
"
water
high.
are
quite wild, and

accurate
are
based
on
ignorance.
To
judge any
the most
by
an
must mxathematical measurements Bearing this in mind, the valid conclusion, supported facts, is, that the building was set out to a measure of
of them, be considered.
even
number
of square cubits
"
the Egyptian
cubit of 20.632
inches.
The elevation was a rise of 14 on a base of 11 (Fig.5) this 8 ; angle of construction is such, that the height is the radius of a circle equal to the circuit of the base. By this it is seen that illustrated the proportions of in certain geometrical truths were
74

"
this colossal structure : (i)the ir ratio/ expressing the relation between the diameter and circumference of a circle (2) the rela; tion between the side and hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. knowledge seem.s to have been expressed Definite astronomical in certainof the dimensions
the distanceof the earth from the sun ; the circumference of the earth ; its axis. Then, orbit round the sun and round its own ^ it again, the pyramid angle of nearly 52" causes to become an integral part of the contents of the earth. Its latitude is 30" and the entrance tunnel ^ was oriented due North, but the idea that itpointed
:
Fig. 85.- Pyramid angle,and elevation of a rise of 14 on base of II.
to
Draconis must be given up, as it is quite inconsistentwith the probable date of erection. Geometrical and astronomical knowledge is undoubtedly
a
expressed; but
was
this the sole purpose of this
and majestic
Fig. 86." Temple
at
Denderah.
with its intricate passages and concealed monument, subhme chambers ? -n will feel Those who are familiarwith the Egyptian Scriptures inclined to agree with Marsham Adams, who traced a marvellous
r
3-14156.
2 rrO
51" 53' 20'
Now
4' West of North.
75

The Light correspondence between this pyramid and the book of the Coming Forth by Day.'' The analogy is certainly the remarkable. It was the custom for the Egyptians to cover
'' ** "
Lepsius, Dcnknidhr.'\
[A/m Simbel. Rock Temple

B.C.
Fig. 87.
"
View inside the immense

Rameses
to
Amen,
excavated by
1
li., 1 300-1234
inside of theirtombs with pictures from this wonderful book, so it is quite possible that the great king who built the pyramid, his tomb itself not being content with pictures, should make an architectural illustration of the doctrine of the Light and the hidden Mysteries.
1^

"
^ was the builder(Fig. agreed that Khufu 79). He was the second king of the IVth Dynasty, and lived approximately In spite of the testimony"of allhistorians element of an 4700 B.C.
All
are
^fSi.-^V
iilA
m
IT.*^"S^
Lepsius, Deiikindler.~\ Fig. 88." Two Columns
from the Hall of the Temple 130O-I234 B.C.
of Rameses
ii. at
Thebes,
doubt exists,because on the blocks of stone inside the pyramid somewhat is found coupled with his, a name another name in the most hidden and it is found even similar,Khnum-Khuf, or alike, had two names extraordinarily spots Now eitherthis king
.
Greek Cheops.
71
The
they
were

two separate people ; and the latteris perhaps the
more
111!
^
t/)
bfi be rt
1)
*^
"^
^ "U "S rC
c/5
^
.
'^
55 bioS S bio a;
c"
"
_
^"^^
"^
03
o;
o ^^g-5
^
o ;:?5
"u
c/,
S
n,
CL-" G
cu
;i
"
"5 R ^
"u
(U
rt
::
-
"
"^ .ffi ^
.
^ '5"
23
u
ii
C-"
1^
'"^CD ^-^
00 if)
O
,
(L) G
^ pC!
lU
oj j:^ "G
03
4-.
rt-G
'^^':;;
*"
Si
"^
"""3 Co
UJ
Tj
^"
P O ^ -5 175^
in that case was the most important, as probable. Khnum-Khuf his name as precedes the other; and apparently he died first,
7^

"
alone with great frequency. Did they act in conjointly this vast enterprise ? Some authoritiesthink so.
name occurs
Khufu's
L. D., Ab. i. Bl. 88.]
Fig. 90.
"
Cross-section of the Temple
of Rameses
11. at
Thebes, 1300-1234
B.C.
L. D., Ab. i. Bl.
86.] Fig. 91." Ground
plan of the Temple
of Seti i. at Thebes, 1326- 1300
B.c.
But it seems
or
probable that one built and the other repaired, is one little point that perhaps finished the structure. There
more
79
The
Civilization of the Ancient
Egyptians
L. D., Ab. i. Bl.
88.]
Fig. 92.
"
From
the Temple
at
Der-el-Medinet.
were
of the temples
This shows like.
what
the windows
I.. D., Ab.
i. Bl.
88.]
Fig. 93.
"
Section of the Temj^le
at
Der-el-Medinet.
80
Architecture" Pyramids
and Temples
possibly confirms this idea. In the King's Chamber the roof beams are fractured by an earthquake. The crack in one roof beam IS plastered over ! This must therefore have been done "/i^nvards unless,mdeed, the builders put in a cracked stone, which is not at all probable. In such a case, if Khnum-Khuf built,Khufu
have
repaired (orvice versa) and carried out those structural have been assigned to a alterationswhich change of plan, such as
may
E.
Wedgwood.] Fig. 94.

"
Colonnade looking South from the Temple
the Nile rising. of Isis,
the excavation of the well There is -shaft through the masonry. no evidence of the existence of a King Khnum-Khuf except in connection with this pyramid. Was the pyramid a tomb or was it not ? A masonic representation of astronomical and mathematical knowledge itcertainly was ; an architectural allegory, illustratingthe book of the *' Coming Forth by Day '* it may have been, but these uses do not
,
preclude that it was also the sepulchre of the king who builtit the other pyramids undoubtedly fulfilled that function.
"
The
The
Egyptians are silent on the themselves. The subject buried ; classicalauthors differ Diodorus says that Khufu was in a secret place to escape the animosity of the multitude. Herodotus implies that the Great Pyramid was his tomb, but says that it was subterranean, on an island with a moat round it communicatin with the Nile; but both agree that the buildingwas destined for sepulchral purposes. Is the testimony of every Arab writer to be set at naught ? Among them there is a remarkable consensus of
did opinion that Khalif al Mamun find a very marvellous treasure therein: A stone trough in which lay a stone man with a breastplate
''
adorned with precious stones ; beside him was a sword of inestimable value and an emerald his head a carbuncle vase ; on brilliant the sun, having charas acters
of
gold
E.
Wedgwood.] Fig. 95.
-Vistaof
Pillars, Karnak.
can which no man read." This story is well within the bounds of possibility, stone case, a shaped like and enclosing the mummy of Khufu, could have been conveyed to the King's Chamber and deposited in the sarcophagus as its last resting-place.
The architectureof the temples displays the same features as. the pyramids : dignity, grandeur and simpHcity. Like them, too, astronomy and mathematics governed the plans structio and conthe buildings, of which were on the principle the square, of definitelyoriented. A piece of ground having been were and held the religiousceremony of selected as the site,there was "the stretchine: the cord" to fix the axis of and the orientation^

"
and to set out the plan in a workmanlike manner. The priest read the sacred text during the laying of the foundation-stone,
"
''
L. D., Ab. i.Bl.
Fig. 96.
"
8i.] coloured, Three Pillars,ne being fluted, o and Three Capitals allexquisitely from the large Pillar Hall of the Temple a Karnak.
during the fixing of the four and four supports of heaven/'

S3
''
corners
with accuracy by the
The
The

was
temple
approached
by
broad
paved
causeway,
L. D., Ab. i.Bl.
io8.] Fig. 97.

"
Capitals from the Temple
at Philas.
flanked
on
each
frequently came
Then side by sphinxes forming an avenue. several talland graceful flagstaffs and two noble
84

"
obelisks fronting the entrance ; the great feature of this were the pylons, massive towers flanking it on each side (Fig84) Passing through the gates a large court was reached, surrounded by many pillars, then across the court another gateway leading
L. D., Bd. ii. Ab. i.Bl.
Fig. 98.
"
77.] Section of the great PillarHall
at
Karnak, showing Columns.
into the hypostyle hall. This was generallyvery large,the lofty was roof being supported by beautiful columns ; behind this the Sanctuary, which might be entered only by the priests, he who enters here must purify himself four times/* the gay flagstaffs, Outside everything was brilliant with sunlight,
''
85

the polished obehsks and colossal statues, the decorative scenes on the pylons. Crowds thronged the court and the hypostyle
L. D., Bd. li. Ab. i.Bl.
77.] Fig. 99." Great Hall in the Temple
[Karnak.
at Karnak,
hall on
holidays ; games and bull-fightsook place in the avenue t ; for gaiety. Inside itwas totallydifferent silence : everything made
^6

"
and
cool twilight pervaded in the recesses all,
the gloom and the stillness deepened, and in hidden the sanctuary
ness profound peace and darkreigned. The earliest pillars of Egypt

a were
fluted, with
a
simple abacus as a capital; the Greeks borrowed their

this shaft from Later the length order. increased, and the was
base,
and
Doric
After Wilkinson, ii.
Fig.
ornamented, in the form of generally
capital was
[Thetes. 314.] Colossal Granite Statue, surrounded by a light scaffolding for the convenience of the men who are polishing it.
too.
"
or papyrus palm ; for here, as everywhere, the love of flowers
lotus
bud,
and of nature influenced the seven or art. There were

; eight orders of pillars they were generally built of half drums, each layer so placed
that the
were joints
at right
angles to the one below. The varietiesof capitals were endless,and the orders frequentlycombined into were
new
[Thebes.
Fig. 6
Colossal Statue of a King. 4 and are polishing ; 5 is putting the finishing touches to the sculpture ; 3 is engraving the hieroglyphics on the back ; 2 is painting the hieroglyphics already engraved.
ioi.
"
forms, showing fertility tive of imagination and decoraskill. It may be asked whether the arch was used ? true arch found The earliest
.
so
far.belongs to the Vlth
87
Dynasty, but apparently the Egyptians did not make use of it for ornamental purposes. The vast and levellandscape needed mass to relieveit,and yet to conform with nature ; hence the massiveness of the pyramids and the immensity of the temple areas ; the straightline, and not the curve, provided also the natural outline, these two points became the chief charand for that reason acteristi Egyptian architecture. Majestic, severe of solid, and it reached a perfection that simple, and yet of noble proportions, has never been eclipsed.
88
CHAPTER
SCULPTURE
"Two AND
VI
PAINTING
statues
...
of marble
and
alabaster, I made
them
like life."
''The artist,wise in his art."
the gigantic statues, which were the architectural, deserves the highest praise. sculpture,peculiarlyperfect, The statues of Ra-hotep and Nefert (Fig. are masterly 102) like productions. The expression of these two famous people is life; the alert look of Ra-hotep and the smiling and yet commanding the princess are extraordinarilyclever. There aspect of are many works of art extant ; the sitting Scribe in the Louvre
Apart
from
vigour of treatment, and there are several equally notable in Gizeh, of which the Sheikh-el-Beled (Fig. 105) is perhaps the most famous. It is very ancient, perhaps as old
the Great Pyramid, and is of wood, representing to the lifea short elderly man walking forward, leaning on a staff. The eyes are made of black and white enamel with a peg of silverin the centre, this catches the light, and makes the eyes sparkle as ifalive.
as
(Fig. 103) shows
portrait nation has excelled the Egyptians in realistic the pride and haughty amiability of the noble, the statues ; waiting indecision of the secretary, the energy and capacity of the master workman, and the indifferenceof the tired peasant to are all expressed with a fidelity nature, which desired to give No in the statue the traitsof character shown in the model. The statues were painted, even when made of valuable stone like alabaster or diorite; and the sculptors showed great facility in cutting and polishing even the hardest kinds, porphyry, granite and dioritebeing very commonly used. No doubt the hieroglyphic
89
The
in writing contributed to their facility drawing, for in line-drawing they are unrivalled ; the vigour and lifeexpressed in the letters a of the alphabet was in itself decoration, and led to ease of pro-
[Cairo Museiim.
Fig. (From Miss

Bulky
's
I02."
Ra-hotep and Nefert.

By permission of Messrs.
Ancient and Mediceval Art.
Methuen.)
both display great purity of Sculptures and bas-relief outline,combined with force,and delicacy of modelling. The conventions of treatment seem strange to modern eyes ; for instance,the face was frequently profilewith the body threequarter, the left shoulder being advanced so that both could be
90
duction.
Sculpture and Painting

seen.
m
Gesture and movement were rarely represented except in studies of athletes. The composition battle scenes and
[Louvre.
chiefs ii. fighting with the Libyan and treatment of Rameses drama of Never has the could not be better; as Maspero says, knowledge or realizedwith violent death been analysed with such
''
91

With hke perfection the play of the muscles such energy ! of the wrestlers are portrayed, and their attitudes in the struggles for victory are extraordinaril}/orrect, and fullof life c and vigour. isdisplayed in the treatment ofanimals The same consummate art isbrought out ; the grace of the deer,the playThe character of each
.
"
{Royal Scottish Museum.
Fig. 104.
"
Head
of the Kneeling Scribe.
fulness of the goat, the cat with tense gaze stalkingitsprey in the that has never been equalled. marshes, indicatea knowledge and skill In the reign of Akhenaten,^ reforms were tried in art as well as religion, nd with more success, perhaps. Some of the innovations, a as drawing an such outside view of the foot, thus displaying the toes, lasted permanently.
1
I383-1365
K-C.
92
Scottish Museum. [Koyal Fig. 105. Ka-a-peru, an Overseer, who lived about 47Cxd B.C., and no doubt saw the Great Pyramid being built. This statue was called the Sheikh-el-Beled by the Arabs from its remarkable resemblance to who excavated it, Sheikh. some village
"
adepts at caricature,and many fullof humour, have been found (Fig. sketches, no).
were
The
Egyptians
absurd
93
The
The decorations in colour in the tombs are beautiful, and they are as brilliant to-day as when painted thousands of years ago. How did these ancient artistsmanage to paint in underground tombs where no light ever penetrated ? Not a trace of smoke or be found ; nothing known now except electricity, discoloration can could give the clearlightnecessary,and yet leave no discoloration. This wonderful work is being ruined to-day by the smoke from torches and other lights,and yet when found, it looked as if the
Fig. 106." Seti I. in battle. The king leans forward and entangles an enemy with his bow, draws him backwards suddenly, and slays him.
artisthad just put the finishingtouches before closing the doors. Some have thought the Egyptians must have used electricity, and the resultswould lead to that conclusion. certainly A few years ago some found. Some are portraitsin oilswere excellent in colour and execution, and there is a wide range of type ; undoubtedly they are real likenesses, and the character them is a dignified, and expression are well brought out. Among ; elderlypriest, wearing a golden star upon a silver fillet his face wears a grave Beside him is a and yet pleasant expression. a frivolous dame, clothed in scarlet and loaded with portrait of a gold chain adorns her dusky locks, jewellery; and beryls and
94

As a counterfoil this is the pearls are on her neck and ears. to Demetris, aged eighty-nine, sweet a portrait of lady with white old curly hair. The rake of the period isvery cleverly the eyes and painted,
" "
[Royal Scottish Muscjo
ScottishMuseuvu [Royal
Fig. 107. A column in the form of a cluster papyrus stems. Itshows Prince of Kha-em-uast officiating- Sem priest as in the Temple of Ptah in Memphis.
"
Fig. Io8." Scribe.
the mouth betraying the character with a subtle suggestiveness Perhaps the most striking portraitis that of Hermione GramProfessor on record. She apparently woman matike, the earliest lecturedon classical literature Arsinoe. To-day, she gazes out at on the modern world with grave and steadfasteyes in a face of delicate features, a settingof wavy black hair. in
95
{Royal Scottish
Museum.
Fig.
; it is from the coffin of carved 109." Portrait of Knumu-hotep (About 3500 B.C.) gold face and inlaid eyes. wood, with
[British Museum.
Fig.
iio.
Lion and -The
the Unicorn
playing
game
of Draughts.
96
Sculptureand Painting
executed on panels or on canvas, and were done probably with wax, coloured and laid on with a brush when in a melted condition. They were then mounted on the case containAll these
are
Fig.
1 1 1."
Scottish Museum, [Royal Portrait Art-heru. of 650 B.C.) (About
M [Britishuseum.
Fig. 112. Portrait head moulded in plasterand painted,probably of a man of Greek or Roman descent 3rd century.
"
"
ing the mummy. Sometimes instead of a painting,a cast was taken, gilded,and placed over the face. A pastel effectwas gained in some pictures by a method of distempering on stuccoed canvas ; also some paintingshave been found in what is apparently water-colour.
97
[Royal Scottish
Museum.
Museum. {British
Fig. 113. Khonsu
"
The
Pa
of the Temple
Coffin of Nesi Khrat, daughter doorkeeper of the It is of Amen.
Fig.
inscriptions covered with from the Book of the Dead. (About740 B.C.)
114." Painted Portrait, about found in the Fayum. A.D., is gilded and The plaster case painted with religious scenes. it is the inscription Across " O Artemidorus, farewell."
200
"
98
CHAPTER
SCIENCEÊNGINEERING
"
VII
SKILL
All the inhabitants of the town
shouted
for
joy.
It
was
an
extraordinarily-
great sight."
scientific attainments of this ancient race were, indeed, remarkab Two their attention; their art problems engaged one, presented and the needs of their country offeredanother even more pressing, for solution. So triumphantly did they conquer both, that their manipulation of giganticmasses of stone, and their
The
hydraulic engineering remain unsurpassed to thisday. The prosperity of the country depended then, as now, on the inundation of the Nile, and even in the remotest times the canal definitelyorganized. The arid desert eternally lay system was in wait to swallow up and merge into itselfany land not kept fertileby the river. This constant menace developed the genuit inof the race to combat the ever-invading sand. A network of canals and dykes covered the whole country in orderto regulate followed and distributethe overflow of the Nile. Embankments the course ; of the river,and canals led the water into the interior between the principal dykes, subsidiary ones, both parallel and transverse, further divided up the land into a seriesof basins.
were the inundation ; in August the sluices opened, land. It was stopped over the water poured and the fertilizing by a transverse dyke and allowed to lie until the ground was saturated, then the dyke was cut through and the water flooded the next area, the operation being repeated until each basin was tion in fulland the country seemed a vast lake intersected every direcby causeways.
Juneheralded
99
The
Construction and repairing of embankments occupied the built of hewn stone, were ; the important ones winter season bricks and earth sufficedfor the others. The workmanship in all the swirling currents of the water. had to be of the best,to resist Moreover, during the inundation these causeways, intersecting became the roads the only means the country in every direction, suration of intercourse by land between the villages. The laws of men"
practicallyapplied to the elevation and surveying were of the dykes, which were accurately levelledfrom the river inland, ence the land gradually sloping away towards the desert. The differin level was from 12 to 15 feet,and advantage was taken of
to construct arches and build bridges in the the low-lying areas the fields were dykes. The lowest level, nearest the desert, naturally first flooded ; the high level lands close to the river were the in some was even then places above the inundation, and recourse
had to hydraulic works to irrigatethem efficiently.The water regulated so that all should benefit alike,and supply was strictly
not only to preserve the guards patrolled the embankments, ference i dykes and regulate the waters, but to prevent any illicitntera with the sluices. To destroy or injure dam was a mortal crime, punishable here by the State, and hereafter by the gods. in the Book of the Dead The Judgment scene represents the soul as disclaiming such iniquitous conduct : ''I have not
'' ''
turned back the water in itsseason, and I have not cut offa water The government exacted a severe penalty channel in its course." branded and transported, or was in this world, and the culpritwas to hard labour in the mines. This was a wise provision condemned
control,whole districts might be submerged, villageswiped out, and the loss of lifeand damage to cattleand property would be overwhelming. The inundation occurring regularly century after century, gradually raised the entire land level by a deposit of black mud,
once
; for if the flood
got beyond
higher than consequently by degrees the surrounding fieldswere w the towns and villages. This difficultyas also conquered by the Egyptians raisingwhole villages above the flood level from time to time ; it is recorded that Sabakon undertook and successfully
100
Science
"
Engineering Skill
a
accomplished the elevation of the site of Bubastis, important town.
large and
The fieldsout of reach of the inundation were supplied with in a very simple manner. water A canal was led as faras possible and then a shaduf was erected. This is a kind of draw-well' consistingof a pole and bucket arranged as a lever of the first order. If the fieldwas very high, a chain of shadufs on
platforms led up to it, the bucket of the lowest discharging itself into the next, and so
tillthe highest was reached on the level of the field. Occasionally, instead of the
on
shaduf
saqquieh was used, a water-wheel on the principleof the windlass and capstan. Pliny foot a mentions machine. conceive
It is difficult to how
this last was worked, but it is referred to in Deuteronomy Egypt xi. lo :

''
. .
where
seed, and thy foot;^tc. e These methods

general
were
sowedst thy wateredst it with

were
thou
in
E.
use
when
the crops
Wedgwood.] Shaduf. Fig. 115. "Modern
growing and needed constant attention, and they remained the last resort when the inundation failed. Careful observations were taken as to the condition of the Nile, meters. and its riseand fallwere of Miloaccurately measured by means
at Elephantine consistsof a staircaseascending from the river between two walls, on one of which is a graduated
one
The
scale,and the height of the riverat various periods isalso recorded.

lOI

Officials noted the changes and published the reports,and on this fixed for opening the sluices. The information the time was depth of the water, the time itlay on the land, and the superficial determined the supply and therefore the area under cultivation, factors the scribesand surveyors priceof provisions. From the same for the assessment of taxes. obtained the valuations The genius of this people for constructing waterways was truly the famous Suez Canal by remarkable, and led them to anticipate many thousands of years. They cut through the rising ground between the Bitter Lakes and the Red Sea, and then connected the lakes with the already existingcanal joining Wady Tumilat to the Nile. Thus under Rameses ii. was achieved a water communithe cation between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea ! In time it became silted up with sand ; again and again the Pharaohs be cleared it out, but finallythe desert claimed it. It can still
,
to traced running parallel the modern canal for part of itscourse. An immense reservoir in the Fayum, Lake Moeris, 66 square an miles in area, was made by, and named after, ancientunidentified king. The dykes are at least 20 miles in length, and are provided iii. is mentioned in with sluices. The name of Amenemhat connection with the dykes, but the classictradition ascribesthe to enterprise a King Moeris.^ This giganticundertaking compares well with the modern dam at Aswan, and yet it was planned and executed at least 5000
was years ago. The barren, desolate, sandy waste of the Fayum into a veritableGarden of Eden. transformed The vine, the olive, on isk, and the pomegranate flourished the banks, and the fairy tamarthe sweet -smeUing mimosa, and a wealth of flowers perfumed the cool air. On the higher ground, the brilliant sunlight was filtered through the thick foliageof extensive woods of sycamore and acacia trees, thus providing an agreeable shade in the heat of the day. It became the favourite resort of the kings of the Xllth Dynasty, who, going primarily for the splendid hunting and fishing, remained there, built many towns and temples, and were finallyburied in the vicinity. Wild animals abounded in the
-
Many
Egyptologists
identify Moeris with Amenemhat

102
in.
Science
"
Engineering Skill
*
the haunt of the mountains and desert/ and the marshes were hippopotamus and the crocodile, thus affordingexcellentsport to the royal hunter and the Court. The lake and the canals teemed sum, formed with fish, which yielded an enormous and thisrevenue
of part of the real estate of the Queens Egypt. But all these achievements sink into insignificance before the Having united Egypt under his sway, he audacity of Menes. determined to build a new capital, and chose for itssitethe bed of the Nile, which in those days flowed along west of its present bed. To
the undertaking he turned the river into accomplish

^
new
channel
farther east. This feat conclusively flowing much proves the mathematical knowledge and engineering skillof the Egyptians, for, great as are many of the engineering feats of modern times, nothing has been achieved that approaches the stupendous works of these ancient kings. to consider the exploitsof this race in another When we come branch of mechanical science,we are amazed at the great skill and in the quarrying, transportation and erecknowledge displayed tion How it was done remains of colossal statues and obelisks. mystery. be no doubt that in the construction of the pyramids the inclined plane was used. The limestone for the Great Pyramid it is built,and was obtained partly from the plateau on which the partly from quarries 12 miles distant on the other side of be Nile ; remains of the inclinedplane can still traced on both sides have been and deep grooves show where heavy weights of the river, dragged over the road. us Herodotus tells that the road from the quarriesto the Great Pyramid took ten years to lay,and was made of polished stone on incline rising i^foot in 25" an easy gradient,and with grease an be of the sledge there would applied liberallyto the runners the polished stone. It isprobable that over practicallyno friction be drflled can human traction was used, because numbers of men necessary for such to march in time and pull together ; the oxen be trained. The stones, too, were heavy weights could never was required in their managevaluable, and therefore intelligence
There
can
to this day
103
The
ment.
describingthe work This isconfirmed by several inscriptions the High Priest of Amen of transport. Rameses iv. commanded The expedition consisted of 5000 to fetch stone for a monument. 800 mercenaries,and 2000 slaves,exclusive of the officers soldiers, Necht Amen, the superintendent who directedthe operations,and three chiefs of the stoneof the artists,"who had under him two painters,four engravers and 130 stonemxasons." masons3 But more convincing even than such statements is an engraved
'' ''
representation of the colossalstatue of a prince (Fig. 116).Here Pieces a sledge. see an alabaster statue secured by ropes on we tions of leather protect the stone from the chafing of the rope. Calculashow that the weight must have been about 140 tons. One haul on the drag ropes attached to hundred and seventy-two men the front of the sledge. To ensure simultaneous action an overseer standing on the knees of the statue claps his hands ; thisisrepeated Another man in front with little by a man hand-drums. standing
the base pours out continuously a stream of oil, and other men walking at the side bear oil pots. A notched beam is carried by others, probably to place, notch down, in hollows of the road to
on
from slipping. Barber has analysed this,and prevent the runners considers that 1980 men would have been required for the haulage In the rear twelve men are seen ; perhaps this may of such a mass.
indicate that 12 x 172 men were used, for this total is only eightyfour more than Barber's estimate. As the pyramid rose, the gradient of the inclined plane would be progressivelysteeper,and the difficulty hauling up the stone of be greater ; the number of men therefore would have to be would increased. No doubt this was done until a couple of hundred feet were completed ; but at the top of the pyramid the perpendicular height would be nearly 500 feet,so, to keep the road at a possible it angle for traction, would be necessary to place the beginning of inclined plane of unimaginable the causeway 6000 feet away an dimensions ! The absurdity of this idea is shown by another fact. Vast numbers of men require space to work in, and the characteristic is, that itsarea decreases with itsheight ; conseof a pyramid quently a point isreached when this becomes useless,theremethod
"
104
:.^ r:nûîr^mau
! -/ri
lite
""|jg^
A ÂT^t^
.4fKiî"Ct6^
" '-Ît^'-M tmk.TJ::A m. r
ii. Denkntciler, 134. Lepsius,
[El-Bershch.
and isabout 20 feethigh. abaster,
To
face page 104.
Science
"
Engineering Skill
must have been employed. In the irrigation other means the shaduf , was used ; the wheel department a variety of crane, also known ; so these, and capstan and the single pulley were singly or in combination, may have sufficedto hoist the stones, finallyplaced in position with levers and handspikes. which were formidable problem is presented by the casing-stones, A far more
fore some
many
of
which
about 15 tons !
weighed Herodotus
was
tells us that the top finished first, he work t
being proceeded with from ''They above downwards:
raised the remaining stones by machines made of short pieces of wood ; having lifted them from the ground to the firstrange of steps, the stone arrived when itwas put on another there, machine that stood ready on the first range ; and so on, for the machines were equal to the ranges in number of steps." We are left in
the dark how this machine of ''short pieces of wood"
was
[British constructed, and what Head of a statue, in black Fig. 117." Colossal XVl Ilth Dynasty, motive power was used. granite,of Amenhotep lir., Vyse says he Howard 1414-1383 B.C. found holes on each step,apparently in frontof to support thismachinery ; and that in addition, he found several the northern face of the pyramid in the levelrock, or for the scaffolding cranes. rows of circularholes, presumably by many The weight of the pyramid stones is far surpassed for a seated statue of himself, others. Rameses n. used rose granite the site it weighs 900 tons ; 150 miles separate the quarries and
Museum.
105
The
of this colossus ! He erected another at Tanis, so gigantic that body ; this weighed the size of the big toe equals that of a man's in. (Fig. at leastlooo tons I The colossalhead of Amenhotep 117) be seen in the British Museum, and two huge statues of this can keep watch and ward over the plain of Thebes proud monarch still (Fig.18). They weigh 800 and 1000 tons respectively, the 1 ^ inscription tellsus that eight ships conveyed them thither ; "a.
L. D., Ah. i.El. 91.]
[T/iel"es. Fig. 118." Colossi of Amenhotep iii. (1414-1383 by the Greeks called B.C.), " Memnon." Tradition says that these statues " sang at dawn."
was
joyfulvent e
it when
they
were
landed at Thebes and raised
up in their places." According to Herodotus
in the a temple at Buto there was Delta made of one single block of stone, 75 feet in height,length and breadth, a perfect cube ; it must have weighed from 5000 to 6000 tons, and itwas made of red granite. These granite quarries
are
at the other end of Egypt, transported ?
at Aswan
"
how
was
this shrine
The erectionof obeliskswas even more difficult, great weight the the colossalstatues gave equilibrium and stability the mass, to of
^
Rawlinson.
106
Science" Engineering Skill

the slender proportions of the monohth rendered it fragile, and thereforelent an additional danger to the operation. Of those
Fig. 119." Obelisk of Senusert i. Heliopolis. (3549-3515B.C.), Contains all his titles.
Fig.
Obelisk of Hatshepset It B.C.). atKarnak(i5o3-i48,i is 90 feet 6 inches high.

120."
temple of Karnak, left standing to-day,the highest is at the great than 107 feet high, and weighs near Thebes ; it is rather more
107
The
nearly 300 tons ; the quarriesare 138 miles distant,but those that were taken to Heliopolis had to traverse 800 miles ! Pliny gives a little men workstory of one, raised by Rameses, on which 20,000 Fearing It was apparently very precious. were employed.
''
lest the
engineer should not take to proportion the power care sufficient of the machinery to the weight he had to be he ordered his own son to raise, to bound to the apex, more effectually ment guarantee the safety of the monu! It is an interesting quotation, because special mention is made
"
that these brought down the river obelisks were in boats of the barge or lightertype, and informs us that it only took seven
months to quarry, transport 135 miles to Karnak, and then to erect these two ! monuments
of machinery. An inscription shows
Here is a convincing instance which shows that machinery must have been used when the limited space precluded
Fig
Scott [Jioyal isliI\fuseu"i. Hatshepset as Ruler Shebuiltthe (1503-1481 B.C.). great temple o\ Deir-el-Bahri and erected obelisks.
In the burial-place of simpler ways. the Sacred Bulls, the gigantic sarcophagi are placed in vaults on each side of a tunnel and sunk from 3 to 4 feet below the floor(Fig. 123).The vault is only two or three feet wider than the sarcophagus, so there is no room
121.
"
for men
with levers. Barber points out that the vaults are never " the opposite to each other, and that this fact, combined with entire mechanical surroundings, is almost positive proof that a
screw or
hydraulic jack was

one
used, because
solidwall was
remove
necessary
one
to push against."
Of recent years
of the Viceroys tried to

108
of
Science
"
Engineering Skill
these
sarcophagi to the Cairo Museum ; but being unable it to overcome blocking up the mechanical difficulties was left, the tunnel ! We perpetually vaunt our superiorityin mechanics and science, and yet it cannot be denied that every obeliskthat has been brought out of Egypt has in the transport been damaged and in the re-erection. We may not understand by
enormous
what
wonderful were monuments erected,but the master minds that could use the pyramid to demonstrate scientific facts and to express astronomical truths in stone, have shown that they already possessed the ability to reduce their profound learning to the concrete, and to apply it sively practically. The results concluprove that they possessed mechanical knowledge and the to technicalskill use it.
Museum, {British The abolitionin the third century Seated Colossal Statue of FlG. 122. A.D. iii. Amenhotep of the ancient religion and the establishment of Christianity, rendered these colossal unnecessary; and monuments i ledge knowwith this cessation,the fore disappeared, but not be-
means
these
U fl
mini"
After Barber.]
Fig. 123." Plan of Tunnel and Vaults with the Sarcophagi of the Sacred Bulls at Saqqara.
No
doubt the knowledge
was
the basic principles had been handed on to the Greeks^ for the use who preserved them Dark Ages of Europe when the had passed. but at no time public property,
109
The
was
'*
by preserved jealouslythe priests. The High Priest of Ptah *' Chief of the Artificers/' Superintendent of Sculpture was and the and all artistic work" (Fig. i6); great artistswere allpriests kept as the secrets of a close of Ptah ; thus the knowledge was ments corporation, and this would explain the omission from the monuthat would betray their methods. Indeed, of alldescriptions Mediaeval Guilds, the situation is somewhat analogous to our own masons, which, by the secrets of the tectonic art of the operative Freeproduced the marvellous beauties of our cathedrals ; further emphasized when we note in the and the parallel is inscriptionsthat the presence of the Three Chiefs of the Stone is mentioned again and again. Masons
'' "
no
CHAPTER
MEDICINE
"
VIII
Each
physician possesses knowledge
above all other
men."
"
Homer.
As in many other branches of science,Egypt must be considered the pioneer in medicine. The principles as there taught and are the foundation of our modern science; practised undoubtedly indeed it is only since the eighteenth century that we have and definitely advanced beyond the point that they had reached three or four thousand years before Christ. fully qualified,the doctor selected one and subject became a specialist, devoting his time and energy to acquiring experience in it. The result of this was, that the fame of the Egyptian medical schools spread over the whole civilized world, it was enough for a doctor to say tellsus that and Ammianus he had studied in Egypt to recommend him." Consequently we hear that when illness attacked the royal familiesof other nations, When
''
ambassador was sent offin haste to Egypt with orders to bring back a skilledspecialist. We hear of their fame in Rome, and at
an
the Courts of Darius and Cyrus. The charming tale of the ''Possessed Princess of Bekhten" has for its theme the timely rescue of the poor princess by the extraordinary skillof a great
Egyptian physician, who apparently was obtained after some delay and difPicultyy the distractedfather. b from the public Medical practitioners were remunerated Public Health treasury ; such doctors possibly had ments, appointfor we find that others received fees for advice and attendance. Their knowledge of anatomy, physiology, medicine, surgery the secrets of the doctor." The called and therapeutics was
''
"
''
profession composed
apparently
III
corporation with
secrets,
The
analogous to the Mediaeval Guilds, and the parallelis the more versiti correct when we remember that in the Middle Ages our Uniwere organized similarlyto the Guilds, in fact,they were Guilds of Learning. Their anatomical knowledge is expressed in a phraseology They seem ears. quaint to our to have had an accurate enough
of the skeleton, and fractures successfully. treated The position and function of the stomach, intestines, spleen and
heart
knowledge
well known ; also that the great vessels began at the heart and ran to all parts of the body. ''The heart is the centre,
were
itsvesselslead to allthe members ; lays his whether the doctor finger on the forehead, on the
.
.
of the neck, on the hands, he meets with etc., everywhere the heart, because its vessels lead this proves all members," felt, and that the pulse was indicates a knowledge of the
"
back
to
Mansell ": Co.]
viscera. The vital airs enter the body by the nose and mingle an ''vital with the blood (the airs seems appropriate description the body, and ; of oxygen) the heart conveys them all over But, alas! the ''airs of death" gives it life and movement. can the vessels work badly, also gain admittance, whereupon become obstructed and inflamed, and give rise to diseases.
"
Fig. 124, A great Physician, lu-em-hept in ("He who comes the peace"), son of Ptah.
"
The circulation of the blood. vesselsgo in pairs to the breasts, the legs and the exterior parts of the body, the head and internal
'' "
The Ebers papyrus.

112
Medicine
*' These the physician cures ; or, if he does not, the *' vital airs withdraw from the blood, which coagulates, and the patient dies from want of vital airs."
**
the doctor being called in, first looked at the feltthe pulse, sick person, then, afterasking appropriate questions, and if necessary examined the body, before making the diagnosis and giving the prescription. Here is an example of a poor man from gastricfever/ suffering the characteristics the disease are noted down before the all of diagnosis is made : '' The abdomen is heavy, the pit of the stomach painful, the heart burns and palpitates violently. The
as
Then,
now,
"
clothing oppresses the sick man, and he can barely support it. Nocturnal thirsts. His heart is sick. The fleshlosesitssensitiveness as that of a man illness. If he seeks to satisfy seized with a want of nature, he finds no relief. Say to this, 'There is an accumulation of humors in the abdomen which makes the heart sick. I will act.' In spite of the mode of expression, this careful analysis of
"
symptoms
treatment
before venturing on either is essentiallymodern. ways
diagnosis
or
method
of
the methods of treatment were also modern : attend to the laws of health and regulate the diet and simple frequent advice, on the principle that prevention was better was than cure ! The materia medica in use was chiefly of vegetable origin,so it was absolutely necessary to study botany and to be
In many
familiar with the medicinal propertiesof the countless herbs that doctor with his drugs. Most of the provided the Egyptian plants mentioned cannot be recognized now, but woodruff, palm, were used. acacia, sycamore, olives and dates and other fruits, fomentations, These were made up as draughts or inhalations, in ointments, liniments or poultices, the way most applicableto the disease under treatment.
The like our
extraordinarily of writing a prescription was ingredients, Take such and such own. each in a definite four quantity, boil,mix together ; make fomentations therewith method
''
Berlin papyrus, Maspero's translation.
Ebers papyrus.
113
The

" "
d times." On the margins we find entertaining notes jottedown by the careful physician : Behold, this is a real remedy ; or, Excellent ; I have often made it." The mineral drugs used were alum, saltpetre, salt,sulphate *' blue stone that cannot be stones and other of copper or identified. One of these last had very remarkable properties,the Memphite stone," which on being applied to a wound produced anaesthesia and so rendered difiicult operations possible. They in certainly, some way, had anticipated us in the discovery of as the meaning of which anaesthetics, there are several allusions, be doubted. In addition, Pliny tells us that among the cannot herbs given to Helen of Troy was Nepenthes, which caused
'* ''
" "
"
''
oblivion of sorrow." Animal substances were rarely used, except honey and milk ; but wax, gall, and horn of stags are mentioned ; this last reminds hartshorn. In addition to these vegetable, mineral, own us of our and animal ingredients, which are allwholesome and healing, we find another class of recipes,fortunately of rare occurrence, compounded loathsome materials of excreta of various animals, the brains of a tortoise, izards' l blood, serpents' fat,etc. we gasp
"
"
with relief when on reaching the end of the prescriptionwe find it is only to be applied as a poultice! In the seventeenth century of our era (andeven to-day in remote country places) excreta of highly valued as an animals mixed with other ingredients,were
external application. Apart from cases of seriousillness the doctor had lightertasks. The women were as curious, then as now, to know whether the child about-to-be-born would be a boy or a girl or a Court lady asked for some new cosmetic to improve her skin or an officialhose w hair was turning grey begged for a tincturethat would restore the
"
"
to the friendly and colour, all these turned at once them. physician,and found him willingand able to assist
"
capable
114
CHAPTER
SCIENCE
"
"
IX
ASTRONOMY
Master of the secrets of heaven."
It is with great difficultyhat we piece together the knowledge t The books that dealt the Egyptians possessed of Astronomy. lost ; they treated of the position of the are with this subject illuminations,phases fixed stars, solar and lunar
conjunctions,
and the risings of sun, moon and stars. All the classic authors agree that their observations and records were the of great antiquity, that they preceded and excelled even of the
moon,
Babylonians, and that they possessed observations of total eclipses going back nearly 20,000 years. of the sun and moon the number The forms of the constellations, of stars in each, be seen in the astronomical scenes ; but as the names can and i groupings differfrom the modern, identification s very difficult. Their sacred and civilyears were calculated from the lunar and
solar cycles,and the calendar
stars
"
was
corrected by observations of the
siderealyear. The lunar year consisted of twelve months of thirty days divided into three seasons, each comprising four each, and was were of of these months, that is, of 120 days. These seasons the greatest importance, and from the peculiar nature of the Inundation," which : country were well marked and definite the Solstice the moon ; occurs nearest to the Summer about the new Harvest," which Sowing of the Seed," the Winter ; and the
''
''
''
corresponds to our Spring. known or less subsidiary, and were more The months were undatio the Inas only by number, officially, the ist or 2nd month of did not coincide with etc. This lunar year, of course,
115
Ii6
Science
"
Astronomy
the solar,so at the end of it the astronomers intercalated fivedays, five surplus days of the the called year." The names the months are still use in a in of slightlyaltered form, and are popularly preferred to the Arabic ones. This list gives the Coptic and ancient Egyptian forms ; it isinteresting, as it shows that at least some language remain. remnants of the old
"
This year was the Sacred Year, and the kings had to take a that they would not intercalate any month solemn oath day, but that the sacred year should remain as institutedin or ^ ancient times." This was necessary, because as it stood it afforded a means
''
a of comparison with their siderealyear. But this year was still quarter of a day too short, so that in four years the movable year was a day behind the fixed year which governed the seasons. That isto say, every fourth year New Year's Day, the first Tahuti, of fella day too soon ; in process of time this differenceincreased, and in 4x7 28 years this day fella week earlier. The months ! The way the Egyptians were rotating through the fixed seasons
=
methods of solved the problem has formed the basis of our own more precise correction,the only differencebeing that theirs was irregular Our months are all of than our own. and scientific lengths, and we drop in an odd day at the end of February, the shortest month, and call the year Leap Year. They added one
1
Figulus.
117
The
day at the end of four years, so in that year instead of fivesacred days, there were six. The counter-reckoning that afforded the days ; it was calculated comparison was the Sothic year of 3651from the heliacalrising of the star Sirius or Sothis. A definite place of observation being fixed, there is one day in the year before sunrise ; this when a star will emerge on the horizon just iscalled the heliacalrising. The Egyptians naturally chose Sirius, the most brilliant the star in the heavens, as it second sun," for four minutes, and then b rose justefore dawn, remained visible Having this Sothic disappeared in the glory of the rising sun.
"
year for comparison, they could view with equanimity the months ; they knew that in of the civilyear rotating through the seasons due time the two years would again coincide. The time required was 1460 Sothic years, and this was called a Sothic cycle. 1461 New Year's Day, more civilyears 1460 Sothic years, and once or the first Tahuti, was the beginning of the civil variableyear, as of
=
well as the fixed siderealand natural year ! This splendid cycle is a witness of the accuracy of the observations and the length of the periods recorded. It is also exceedingly valuable to us, for it enables us to date, calculating backwards, the dynasties and
kings, for a Sothic cycle began on 21st July 139 a.d. They seem also to have understood the Precession of the Equinoxes, the magnificent cycle measured off by the revolution Pole of the of the axis of the earth round the imm.ovable celestial ecliptic. The axis of the earth is tilted, and reels as it describes a circle round this centre. To go completely round ittakes 25,867 years ! That particular spot towards which at any period the axis is pointing is the Pole ; and ifthere is a star near by, that star becomes the Pole Star. The Pole Star, therefore,in the course of
ages alters. The constellationson
thirty-sixin number. They were governed by genii who superintended the days. They were to calledDecani, because a group of ten days fell each. These led round the heavens by Siriusand Orion. stars were The zodiacal constellationsare very difficulto equate with t for instance,the Haunch of the Bull (later, ours ; calledsimply the
the horizon
were
118
Science
"
Astronomy
nothing to do with Taurus, but was the constellation has been identified of the Great Bear. The Hippopotamus with Draco, that winds about the Pole of the ecliptic.And very likely is holding this is right,as in some star charts the Hippopotamus : a pictorial a chain attached to the leg of the Haunch representation
had Bull)
of the circumpolar revolution. The aware They were of the earth's motion round the sun. '' of circuit the earth," and again, who girdeth up the earth in its are two of the expressions^ used. courses," Five planets at least are mentioned.
''
Bl. 171.] L. D., Ab. iii.
followed by the three Horus planets, probably Saturn and Fig. 126." Sirius, Temple of Mars and perhaps Jupiter, standing in theirbarques. (In the
Rameses
ii. at
Thebes.)
''
Star of the West, which traverseth heaven" ; the it was governed by Horus, nay, mxore than that, it was the Ka, the spirit, Horus. of No god was was Jupiter called the Star of the South." Saturn
was
"
isknown. attached to it,as far as '' Star of the East ; also called the Star which Mars, the backward in travelling." This is quite true, as the journeyeth retrograde motion is very noticeable. Osiris"; Venus, "the Star of the ship of the Bennu bird of God of the morning," and the evening star. Osiris also the governed it.
"
"
''
Nasi Khonsu
papyrus.
119

the star of Set. The Egyptians divided the day and night into twelve hours they measured the time is not known ; we know, each. How however, that in processions the priest carried the time measurer it Regarding the first, may have been and the palm branch."
was
'*
Mercury
hour-glass,or a water-clock clepsydra is said to have come

an
The palm branch longer intervals. They
was
for it is significant that the from Alexandria in later times. used for computing notched, and was
even,
governed understood the equinoxes, and these were by Tahuti as master of ''equilibrium"; and the waxing and were also under his direction. The Moon was waning Moon by various names, known the ''eye of Ra," ''the painted eye of the Sun," etc., all implying that its light was borrowed from the Sun. The solsticeswere also noted, and temples oriented by the resultsobtained ; other temples were oriented by the equinoxes, or to the Pole Star. These orientations, ledge and the wonderful knowdisplayed in the construction of the pyramid, provide further
proof of their astronomical observations. The Egyptian charts, star maps,
and
horoscopes
were
exquisitely dainty and poetic manner ; the stars being represented by genii standing in barques and constellations Nile, which flows through the blue and navigating the celestial
an
delineated in
abyss of space.
20
CHAPTER
GOVERNMENT
"
X
AND
LAWS
The
Hall Justice
of Pharaoh,
the excellent Gate, contented
truth."
about the doing of
Egypt, the Beloved Land, was a reflection on earth of the heavenly Egypt; the river Nile was likewise the reflection , ^ a of the celestial Nile; and the Egyptians were divine people created by Ra. The Gods themselves incarnated and ruled the land for thousands of followed by a dynasty of Demigods years ; they were
who
heroes, and then came the Manes or ancestors, were scent succeeded by the Kings. This direct de- V-=^ Pharaoh from the gods proved his of the
or
Bull. Strong.
divine origin; he was, it were, as the deputy on too sacred was earth of God Himself. His name for frequent use, hence he was generally called the Pharaoh, which is Per-aa, the Great House, or His
or Majesty,
Truthloving.
were
merely by the indefinite pronoun One. On ascending the throne several oflicial titles bestowed on him. Two
irfii
Fig. 127." Ka banner or
name.
were of these names enclosed in a cartouche, an oval ring denoting the regions governed by Ra, and therefore is inside an oblong, called by his representative ; a third name
the serekh, the banner 1. The Horus name
double. king
2.
It
was
cognizance (Fig. 27). 1 name was the ; this of the king's Ka or always on the serekh or banner borne behind the
or
(Fig. 127^
The
the The Vulture was Vulture and Urceus name. of sovereignty of the North, the Uraeus of the South ; so the called Lord of the diadem of the Vulture and the Uraeus.
I2r
emblem king was

3. The Suten Bat name emblem of Upper Egypt"
was
the throne
name,
the rush, is the This Bat, the bee, of Lower Egypt. and was enclosed in a cartouche.
(Fig. 128).Suten,
Y\G. 128.
"
Suten Bat
name.
Fig. 129.
"
Sa Ra
name.
4. The Golden Horus name. Ra name 5. Son of (Fig.29), which was also his personal name. 1 by all The Uraeus was the emblem of royalty, and was worn
Fig. 130.
1. 2.
The The
White Crown of Upper Egypt. Red Crown of Lower Egypt.
3. The Double Crown. 4. The Royal Helmet.
rulers. The crown of Upper Egypt was white, that of Lower Egypt red ; in historic times they were combined, and form the Sometimes the king wore double crown. the royal helmet (Fig.
Fig. 131. Child wearin" the Horus Lock.

"
Fig. 132. Prince, wearing a Wig with the Horus Lock attached as a badge of royalty.
"
insignia of royalty were the sceptre and the flail. Princes wore a the Horus lock of childhood (Fig. 131), short plait of hair on one side of the head ; when they arrived at
130).Other
22
Government
and Laws
wore a similarappendage to the head-dress maturity they still (Fig. as a badge marking theirrank as royal children. 132), The king belonged eitherto the militaryor to the sacerdotal caste. If to the former, he was at initiated once into the mysteries and taught all that was necessary for him to know, in order that he might perform the necessarysacrificial for rites, important religious well as he had as administrativeduties. The Code of Laws had been given in remote times by Tahuti, and was comprised in eight books which constituted'' the wisdom of the Egyptians," which made them famous among other races. These books are unfortunately lost. At one time there were six Courts The of Justice. judges when presiding the court wore round the neck, susat pended from a golden chain, a golden figureof Maat, the Goddess of Truth The Council of Thirty was (Fig. 133).
apparently a permanent assembly of the ''greatmen of the South." This Tel-el-P.asta.J Museum. {/hiiis/i a may have constituted Cabinet. Each Fig. 133. Portrait Statue of Utcha-Heru-A of these "great men wearing the of the South" Atef crown, the gold chain, a judge, was and sat in one or other and the image of Maat, the Goddess of Truth. The figure of the six courts. The Governor of is of Bronze, the mask isgold, the South alone had access to all the and the head-dress and both it inlaid with lapis lazuli. are Privy Councillor w courts ; histitleas 202-1 134 B.C.) (1 of secret words of the sixgreat courts." As far as is possibleto gather at this distance of time, the was administrationof justice well organized. Effortswere made to discover the offender,the case was stated in writing,the defendant also stated his case, the witnesses were called,the
"
"
123
The
judgesonsidered the matter, and then laid their opinion before c Supreme Judge, the who gave the verdict. No pleading was
allowed, as they considered eloquence, by affecting the feelings, No detrimental to justice. charge was was made, and rich and poor were considered equal before the law. Murder, whether of
a
free man
or
of
slave,was
punishable by
Fig. 134. This shows the Royal Diadem, on the forehead and with the urasus
"
Scottish Museum. \_l\oyal broad band of gold the ends terminating
death ; so also was which they looked upon with horror as perjury, insult to the gods. For treachery, the punishment was loss of an
the tongue ; for forgery, the right hand was cut off. Should any man stand by and witness a crime and not do his utmost to prevent it,he became accessory to the crime and liable to severe punishment. Noblemen found guilty of treason were in and high officials
124
Government
honour bound
to commit
and Laws
''
suicide. One document, relating to They found him guilty. a court of special inquiry, states : They sent him back to his own house. He took his own life." The method of dealing with robbers seems original and it was ! All professionalthieves certainly effective amusing ; to the Arch-thief,and always informed him in their names sent a of the goods stolen, givingJail 'details. If, therefore, robbery
took place, the victim at once lodged of the thieves,statingthe nature and value of the missing objects, and the time of the theft. The could thus be identified, articles and after paying one quarter the received them value the owner back uninjured. divided into Egypt was Nomes, governed by nomarchs an or hereditary princes. It was
complaint with this chief
exceedingly important position, and entailed much work on the istration governor, for the internaladminleft in all affairswas [Kamak, He L.D.,Ab.m.Bi.33.] entirely in his charge. Head, showing one assessed the taxes, regulated the Fig. 135." Charminghead-dresses. of the royal land divisions,kept the canals
in repair,superintended the produce famine, and judged all cases in his and guarded against address and district. All citizenswere registered;the name, duly reported. The companies of workmen occupation were bearing the banner; the scribe attended in a body, one man a note of the answer. cross-questionedeach individual,and made A full description of the person was added for identification Pamouthes, aged about forty-five, when deeds were drawn up : bald, round dark complexion and handsome figure, of middle size, ! faced and straightnosed is the A good governor was much loved by his people. This
'^
"
125
The

'*
was the staffof support to the aged, splendid record of one who the foster-father of the children, the counsellor of the unfortunate." He avers that have been unfortunate and none none whoever slept by the roadnight fell, starving in my time "; when side
'' ''
in his own house." Such and was as safe as a man i was the order and discipline n the country that there was no crime, and every one felt safe. The prosperity was so great that each man paid his dues for love of thisworthy prince.
blessed me,
'*
"
L. D., Ab
9.] Fig. 136. Overseer and his Dog ; behind is an attendant. IVth Dynasty.
"
ii. Bl.
126
CHAPTER
RELIGION "Great is the Truth, established and the time of Osiris."
'.
XI
might"', and
never
hath been broken since
"
Offer thy prayers with
heart of love."
Egyptians as a race were profoundly religious. They recogniz in everything around them ; the whole universe divinity breathed of God. Birds,reptiles, animals and trees were permeated in with the divine essence ; they saw God as a plurality unity. The spiritof God was infused into everything, so the powers of Nature, the elements, were also divine, as and were personified the Elementals of earth,sky, airand water. Attributes and functions were also personified, sometimes in human, sometimes in animal form, which became, for the time being, the manifestation of a special of attribute deity, the abode of the God," the symbol of a power divine. Thus a multiplicity f gods ispresented, o which isat first comparison must be confusing. To understand the subject, made with the beliefs of and religions other lands, not only of the but of the present. Man}^ of the inferior gods are seen to be past
''
The
that assistmankind parallelto angels and archangels, to spirits in his progress through this world and through the next, and are by no means to be confused with the great gods. Many of the deities are only aspects,forms, of God. The ladder of evolution was complete, every rung was occupied. The lower belonged to the animal kingdom and the world of Nature, man above him the angels occupied a half-way position, were greater powers, and messengers of the gods, higher still God One Alone," and behind cosmic gods ; and beyond that, that even, an Unmanifest and Invisible.
''
127
The
There
was
thereforean apparent polytheism, but accompanying it a well-definedand clearlyexpressed monotheism, and, be it remembere known in the world. the oldeststatement of monotheism The Supreme existed before all things ; He is self-existent, immortal, inscrutable, infinite and eternal. He is the Creator of
heaven and of earth, of gods and of men, and of all that exists. Such is the statement of their lofty conception of the Almighty. But His forms and attributesare many, and some are clothed in sible. shapes mysterious, and to modern eyes strange and incomprehenThe temple paintings portray them as hawk-headed, or lionheaded, and in many similar forms. The remembrance of the types and emblems of the four Evangelists, animals that were also of the phraseology of Revelation, and the vision of Ezekiel, should give sympathetic insight into a symbolic representation that might otherwise be repellentto Western minds. is considered to have body, soul and Here, in the West, man spirit. In Egypt the ego was analysed more subtly. The physical body was called Khat ; it was mummified after death. The Khaihit has generally been translated shadow," but it is quite apparent that the word did not bear the ordinary meaning The Khaibit was of shadow. attached to the body, but could It consisted of wander about in the near vicinity of the tomb.
''
matter, although not physical matter, and had the appearance of the man, and could derive nourishment from food. It appears to
have been
kind of etheric double, or perhaps astral. The Ka was a very important principle. It lived in heaven and protected the man when alive,when dead he ''went to his Ka." It could materialize after death and wander about, or take up its abode in a statue. It was an exact replica of the person, It is difiicult know how to to nature. and possessed the same is the usual translationgiven. It double render the word; to have been the personality,or perhaps what in modern seems for times has been called the astral body, plus the intelligence, the Ka could converse, argue, play draughts, etc.
a
'*
"
The Sahu
was
body, in which abode the two higher the spiritual

128
Religion
the Soul and the shining Spirit. To it principles, also belonged the Name and the Power, alltogether making up the m spiritualan the death of the body. after The Ba is the Soul.
*' the highest principle, the shining Spirit.''" O O make thou to be glorious my shining spirit {khu),Osiris,make thou to be divine my soul (ba).'' In addition to these six principles, had certain other man important attributesor potencies. Ab, the heart, in many verses this word means ''conscience*' ; " in others,again, ''will seems to be the more accurate rendering. heart also was the definitecause of existence " my heart The into being" ^ isa constant expression, and "the whereby I came
The Khu
was
"
heart of my transformations,"^ alludingto the belief the transin migration firmly held by the Egyptians. of souls,in re-incarnation, " Sekhem was the ; power," a heavenly attribute and when was the shining spirit endowed with this power, it became "irresistible." " exThe true name The Ren was name." the of a man pressed in his essence, was himself some way. To know the him ; to obtain power over or of a god, was name of a man
were the precautions taken to preserve this many, therefore, important part of the man. The Egyptians had no delusions about the resurrectionof the In'^many verses itis stated, Thine essence is in physical body. " heaven, thy body isin the earth," or my perishable body is in was not because they the grave." The custom of mummifying body, but it appears to have ever thought to use again that same been connected with magical ceremonies ; to have formed a nucleus double" could derive material for manifesting wherefrom the itself earth, after death. on The other-world was called Tuat. After death allwent there,
"
''
upon earth, the unborn, and. also the souls of those who were still to the dead, the freeahke could go there ; in fact,it was a region hving, and the about-to-live.
1
Papyrus of Ani, translated by Budge.
129
The
habite This other-world had many subdivisions,the souls who infications apparently graded according to their qualieach were in each, gods and goddesses performed various and duties. Some bear to Ra the prayers of the living,others again watch forms and are over the souls and see that they reach their own re-unitedto them. Powers of destruction also dwell there, for the
Papyrus
of Ani
(Book of the Dead).]
Fig. 137. The dread Assessors sitting judgment. in 2. Ani and Thuthu enter the Hall of Judgment. 3. Anubis tests the balance in which Ani's heart is weighed against the Feather of Truth. 4. Tahuti records the resultof the weighing. 5. The Devourer of the Unjustified awaits the result, and departs ifall isright.
1.
^ meet criminals in Ra's great hall (the world)'' with thefr deserts. The enemies of Ra and the enemies of Osiris (these apparently are to a terriblefate ; there are horrible not human) are condemned
*'
pits,and cast down
country of blazing fire, and headlong.''

''
''
valley of those who
are
Spirits take the measurements of the souls appointed for destruction, and destroy the souls that have to be destroyed ;
"
Records
ofthe Past, Lefebure,

130
vol.
x.
Religion
others, again, fixed the period of the years which those who were decreed for the Tuat should pass there, and the period of those Ra who were to hve in heaven." praisesthose who have spoken Truth upon earth," and his loyal servants renew theiryouth and are given a new birth on earth." One division, the Hall of Truth," was the scene of the judgment. The deceased was brought before Osiris and the dread
'' ''
''
''
Papyrus
of Ani
(Rook of the Dead).]
Fig. 138. Horus introducing Ani to Osiris. 2. Ani, justified, the knee to Osiris, bows and lays offeringsat his feet. fire, 3. The Shrine of Osiris is made surmounted with urcei, of and rests a stream Isisand Nephthys stand behind the God. of water.
1.
on
Assessors,
''
''
so
hath done."
that he may be separated from every sin which he His heart is weighed in the balance against Truth
"
O ye who bring words true and falseto me, remember itisTahuti Tahuti stands by the balance, and having who weigheth them." finished the weighing, addresses the Judges His soul hath borne :
''
witness concerning him, it hath been found true by trialin the Great Balance. No evil hath been found in him." The monster, the Devourer of the Unjustified, also sat beside the scales, who departs. The deceased must, however, himself satisfythe forty131

two
judges, and
''
is called
The
the statement which he makes to each in turn Negative Confession." He denies having com-
III I I I i I III I 1 I I i mill III III jjii IIIII IIII iijiiII II11IIIIiiiii III HI
îlllilllllillll III Hi (II 111 III III III III ill III niiiiIII III r III III
Museum. \British
Fig. 139.
"
Seti i. presented by Horus
to
Isisand Osiris. Possibly
an
initiation
ceremony.
are, of course, the obvious ones, lying, mitted various sins ; some murder, etc. ; others are interesting, showing that subtler forms |
132
Religion
of evil
no man
were
''
sin
"
equally considered I have made

''
"
to weep,"
I have I have my ''I
not inflicted pain,"

not
name
''
"
forward brought for honours,"

"
have not made haughty my voice "; and there are several more clauses of like nature,
showing that the heart must be purged from allsin before man may see God. The books in which this mysterious other -world is described are very obscure, but give the impression of ways behig a secret ritual. Gatemust
with stern guardians can be passed, none without
giving the The postucorrect words. lant know the names must of the doorkeepers, and when challenged, be able to give Everything the right answers.
enter
depended on the ceremonial in every being correct particular. Like all ancient
teaching nations,the religious culminated in the Mysteries. It is possible,therefore,that these writings are portions of a mystic initiation.
There
are
two
accounts
Fig. 140." a Ritual Scene in which Seti i. (1326Goddess receives a collar from the 1300 B.C.) A ceremonial attitude is adopted, Hathor. to form seem of which a step and a grip part.
of the Creation; they differ idea is the slightlyfrom each other, but the main
133
same
in both.
The
The
of properties of primeval oldest gods are personifications in pairs,male and female ; and are matter" there eight,arranged it may be as well to mention here that in Egypt the goddesses, the female aspect of deity, were as powerful and as important as the gods, they were in every way equal. The primitive gods and goddesses, by their names, expressed the ideas of a watery abyss, number without limit, absolute darkness, and inertia. The Cosmogenesis is pictured thus profound
"
darkness reigned over the watery abyss, in which was all life, latent and inactive. This primeval condition contained sonified within itself potentialevolution.^ This inherent capacity was perKhepera,^ the God of Becoming, of evolving, creating as and producing life. The Lord of the Universe manifested Himself in this form out of primeval matter in the watery abyss.
*' "
alone. The potentialitybecame active by the utterance as a word of the Name of power, and the creative process was initiatedby means of my own will and on a measured design, into existence was divine ; regular, just and true. All that came I appeared under the form of multitudes of things from the
He
was
'' "
*'
beginning." First to be developed were heat and moisture ; the god Shu being heat, light, atmosphere, dryness,, and the goddess Tefnut being coolness, damp, dew, moisture, are twins '* by Khepera as the first stage in the making of the poured out is formed the luminous worlds. In this hot, moist, watery mass it egg of the sun, but although existing, remains hidden for along 3 time, owing to the vaporous condition. Next the Earth-Sky, inseparate and cohering, appeared. Seb was the god of the earth. Nut the goddess of the sky ; they were the children of Shu and Tefnut, who had been raised up from the state of inertnessin the
"
watery abyss. Shu separated
close-locked," as one, until them the solid earth and Nut the starry firmament above, the atmosphere (Shu) remaining always between them. The Sun-god Ra, now having space, took up
remained into Seb
1
They
"
2
^
The Book of Knowing the Evohitions of Ra. One version gives Osiris here as the essence of primeval matter ** Henti periods," metaphorically it means, ages passed."
,
"
"
(Budge).
134
Religion
his abode world. The
in
a
brilliant form in the heavens, and ruled
over
the
pictorial representations show Nut, the goddess raised up and covered with stars ; Seb, the earth, reclines; Shu, the atmosphere, stands in the space between them and supports the starry Nut, while Ra in his boat sails across the heavens from From the rays ^ of the sun, men sunrise to sunset. and women into existence ; then the moon, come and following that the plants
The Book
of the Dead.]
"
Fig. 141. Ani the scribe and Thu-thu a priestess, his wife,drinking the Water Nile under the shadow of palm trees. of Life from the celestial
creeping things.^ Next follow, from Seb and Nut, the Horus, Set, Isisand Nephthys. It is significant great Gods Osiris, to note that the stars are not mentioned at all. As the account is obviously the creation of the solarsystem, thisisa correct omission.
and
A few quotations will illustrate the whole idea. The Lord of into being in the form of the the Universe says, I am He who came ^ from the primeval matter God Khepera in primeval times ;
''
"
.
and, further,''thepower Khepera who createth every evolution

1
2
3
Often called " tears." In another version the plants, etc., come The Papyrus of Nesi-Amsu (Budge).
before mankind.
135
The

hidden who isunknown, and who is more than the other gods ; whose vicar is the divine Disk ; the unknown one who hideth himself from that which cometh forth from him ; he is the flame which sendeth
forthrays of lightwith mighty splendour, but though he can be seen in form ^ yet he cannot be understood." The divine disk is,therefore,seen to be the substitute, the vicar,the manifest form of the mighty Spirit, unknown, unmanifest, but who shows Himself in and by the universe He created. The idea will be further interpreted in the Ra, and the consideration of Amen, The word Amen combination Amen-Ra. hidden ; not only was means the God but His name even unseen, was not known. He is the unmanifest God,
. .
whose attributes are unity and eternity, is invisible,unknown and who and
Few^ prayers to Him have unknowable. been found, perhaps because of the Hail ! intangibilityof His qualities. Amen, let me make supplication unto Come, I pray Thee, place thee. Thou thine heir, and thine image, Under-world. myself, in the everlasting. O Amen, O Amen, O God, O God, O Amen, I adore thy name, grant thou Museum. [British to me that I may understand thee ; Fig. 142. Statuette in silver have peace in the his grant that I may and gold of Amen-Ra, head adorned with the disk The rubricattached under -world ."^ and plumes. (About 950 B.C.) to this petition indicates that if the
''
.
.
"
1
2
Papyrus of Hesi-Khonsu, translated by Budge. Book of the Dead, translated by Budge.
136
Religion
properly carried out, he who made this prayer ceremonial was should drink from the source of the Water of Life. is represented in several ways, oftenest as a man Amen enthroned holding a sceptre, and the ankh the sign of life, and two unique feathers on his head, the plumes of Amen. wearing Praise be to thee, O The unmanifest became manifest as Ra : Many Ra, exalted Power ; thou art indeed the body of Khepera." splendid hymns, invocations and prayers exist,showing the great love the people bore to Ra the One God, the self-existent, the Creator of all that exists and that does not exist," the giver of God of life and light, here and hereafter. Not only indeed Life," but ''Lord of Love," the overcomer tector of evil,and the pro''
''
'*
of goodness and truth. Homage to thee, O thou who art Ra. of heaven, thou art the lord of earth ; thou those who dwell in the heights and of those depths. Thou art the God One, who didst come O thou divine Youth, beginning of time.
''
. .
Thou art the lord art the creator of who dwell in the into being in the thou heir of ever-
lastingness, thou self-begottenone, thou who didst give thyself birth ! O thou mighty [one]f myriad forms and aspects. King o ' lord of eternityand rulerof everlastingness ; of the World one of those who worshipped thee upon and, further, I am in unto the land of eternity. May I come earth. May I come O my lord, this thou even unto the everlasting land, for behold, I have given my heart unto thee hast ordained for me. ^ than the gods." without wavering, O thou who art mightier man with the head of a Ra was generally represented as a hawk, wearing the sun disk encircledwith a serpent on his head. form is as When Amen and Ra were combined, the commonest the solar a man 142) wearing the plumes of Amen (Fig. ; sometimes or ram disk appears on the head, which is human or that of a hawk expression of his or scarab, all these varietiesbeing a symbohc was worshipped throughout powers and attributes. Amen-Ra the largest and the most His temple at Thebes was Egypt. the most powerful in the land. was magnificent, and the priesthood
"
.
.
.
''
...
Papyrus of Hu-nefer
(Budge).
137
Papyrus of Ani
(Budge).
The
In the invocations to him all the attributes of the unmanifest are mentioned, added to the possession of a form. Adorations be to thee, O thou Creator of the gods, who hast id stretched out the heavens and made so] the earth. Thou art the untiring watcher, the lord of eternity and maker of everlastingness. Thou hearest the prayer of him that is oppressed, thou art kind of heart unto him that
''
. . .
calleth upon thee ; thou deliverest him that is afraid from him that is violent of heart, and thou
between judgest
and the weak. thou Form who art One, thou creator of all things ; hail, thou Only One, thou
.
. .
the strong Hail,
things that of maker 1 exist." The female aspect of Amen-Ra was called Mut,
the Universe-Mother. is usually depicted
woman
She
as a
Museiiin. [British Fig. 143. granite statue of Amen-Ra and Mut, -Grey
her wearing on head the united crowns, or with large protecting wings stretched out full
Her symbolism length. is nearly always dual ; in crowns, ture wings, and heads one male and one female or of vulthat and lioness. This duality distinctlyimplies that all] exists was generated through her alone, because she possessed the power and of generation, of reproduction, both male female. Inscriptions name her as Lady of Heaven, Queen of
about
1200
P,.c.
"
Hymn
to Amen-Ra,
XXth
Dynasty,
translated bv Budge.
138
Religion
the Gods, Mut,
who
giveth birth, but

a subject few
was
herselfnot born
of any." Before leaving this
words must
be said
on
the
L. D,, Ab. iii. Bl.
Fig. 144.
"
103.] Akhenaten
and his Wife and Children, showering gold ornaments the favourite (1383-1365 B.C.).
on
His iv. religiousrevolution that was attempted by Amenhotep doubt influenced his religious a foreigner, and was no mother views. This prince was not prepossessing in appearance, and had a- weak constitution and the mind of a fanatic. He was brought
139

He up in the State religionof Egypt, a worshipper of Amen. became an apostate, however, and tried to substitute the Aten, Inspired by a the divine disk, for the Supreme God Amen-Ra. for like allconverts he was fanatic and rash pecuhar intolerance, in his methods, he began by destroying the temples of Amen and of Mut, ruthlessly breaking up the images and cutting out the Divine Name from the inscriptions. He was seized with an tion, unparalleled fury of destrucdesire to obliterate a
everything that appertained to the worship of Amen. This method of beginning his reign was not auspicious,and so it causes no surpriseto find that he was alluded to as ''that criminal," within fifty years of his death. He changed his name to Akhenaten,^ and built a new
capital,and there he took up his abode, in the City-of-thedelight of the Sun's Disk,^
-
L. D., Ab. iii. . B
112.]
than surrounded by a more usually brilliant Court who apparently livedforhappiness

^^^JUe. alonp
Fig.
processious and scenes of pleasure quite contradict the idea that this king lived the simple hfe.'^ In this environment, with his wife and seven daughters, he hved a happy domesticated hfe, and preached the new doctrine, while the government of Egypt went to pieces. The foreign possessions immense, and some at that time were of the Governors, feehng the relaxation of the strong and wise rule of former times, made
''
the great king who reorganized Egypt after the disastrousreign of Akhenaten(i332-i328B.c.).
145." Hor-em-heb,
PirfnrPQ ncturcs
o-nro-^r^nc gOrgeOUS innumerable
Ot nf
*
*
Some authorities transliterate this as Khu-en-aten, instead of Akh-en-aten. Now Tel-el- marna. A
140
Religion
bid for independence, and rebelled. Syria and Palestine became insurrection, the scene the loyal States strove in vain to of and the revolution. Messenger aftermessenger was dispatched suppress in haste to Egypt to beg for assistance but Akhenaten was too ; laying out his new forms of absorbed city and encouraging new Driving out art, to pay any attention to problems of government. with his littledaughters, or recliningluxuriously on a balconv on while the queen lavished gold and jewels the favourite(Fig. 144), an to his taste than coping with distracted was occupation more The inaction of this extraambassadors from the seat of war. ordinary king cost Egypt all her Syrian provinces ! On his daughters death, confusion and anarchy reigned. Even his own forsook the religion established with such fanaticism ! A few the great Hor-emweak kings ruled for a short time. Then came heb, energetic and powerful, w^ho with a firm hand restoredorder, as the State religion, the worship of Amen-Ra and re-established Court to Thebes, the old capital. Akhenaten^s city removed the into ruins,and his doctrine was forgotten! fell however, several hymns to the Aten, which was It has left, disk with rays pouring forth from it, represented as the sun's each ray terminating in a hand ; from these hymns may be gathered idea of the behef of the Aten worshippers. The Aten was some the sun well known in Egypt from remote times. It was merely the visible disk,the physical body of Ra who dwelt therein, symbol to new religion was of of the invisible God. The object the it,to worship the substitute the disk for the God who inhabited
a
! form instead of the spirit The chief hymn is fine,from the point of view of showing a it is a doctrine great love of nature ; but from the rehgious aspect is the source of of materiahsm, stating that the sun-disk itself and everlasting, that the disk is beautiful,self-existent all life,
vivifying everything. It has been suggested that this new reUgion was an attempt The monotheistic conception of a to introduce Monotheism. the Supreme Deity who was a spirit, existed long before this,and as Monotheism except worship of the Aten cannot be considered
141
The
in the
sense

that intolerance forbade the mention
of any other
of god ; there is no emphatic reiteration unity such as was apphed to Amen-Ra, God-One-Alone. ItisHe who giveth'souls millionsof forms," thus had they to
''
142
Religion
been taught formerly. How
was body ^ ? only, give soul to man Taken away, too, was the assurance of the immortahty of the the resurrection of the dead, soul, and the hfe everlasting That a god as this, should be offered to them, such should be substituted for the hving Spirit they had adored from remote
then could the disk, which
innovation an antiquity, was foredoomed to failureamong a people so devoutly religious as were Egyptians. the The Divine Mind was personified
under the name of Tahuti or Thoth, called by the Greeks, Hermes Trismegistos. He was also the Word by which the will of God was carried into effect. Generally he is depicted in human form with the head his symbol. of an ibis,
Such
as
an
abstract conception the creative mind
would
the
naturally possess all divine attributes, consequently his epithets were

Museum. [British
''he who many, reckons in heaven, the counter of the of the is therein." earth and of what Clemens states that he, as books, written with his own
"
stars, the enumerator
Fig. 147.
"
Kha-em-Uast
and his Wife
(about 1300 B.C.).
of Books, wrote forty-two fingers,"dealing with ritual and
Lord
worship of the gods, with law, education, astronomy, astrology, Unfortunately, these are alllost. medicine and other subjects. He was the ''keeper of the balance" in the symbohc sense. Opposing forces of good light and darkness, were main-
andêvil,
143
The
tained in equilibrium by his power. This power was his feminine counterpart, the Goddess Maat, or Truth. Maat really means but that which is straight/' symbolically it meant righteousness, moral straightnessin every sense of the word. Complementary to this abstract ideal of the divine mind is another, that of Ptah, the giver or moulder of form. He was the Master Architect and the great Sculptor, and his work was to make manifest allthat Tahuti conceived. First he fashioned his own body," and then he constructed the
*' "
heavens and the earth.
In the Under-world his presence was divine modeller, for the necessary as needed there, as the spiritualbody was physical had been needed on earth. He isalways pictured as a mummy, and Maat, a cubit stands upon the symbol of rod
true and signifying possibly a chisel, just rule. '' His temple at Memphis was called The Abode of the Ka of Ptah," Hat-ka-Ptah. The Greeks corrupted this into Ae-gy-ptos, whence the word Egypt. The High Priest '' was the chief leader of artists," and the
or
''
the chief artists priesthood consisted of the notable priests of the land." Among Fig. 148. Splendid bronze statuette of Osiris. The must be mentioned Kha-em-Uast (Figs. 147 eyes, beard, and collar An elabors are of gold. the brillianton and heir-apparent ate and 107), crown, mounts the Atef, surof Rameses 11., whose remarkable career was the head. unfortunately cut short by death in his father's lifetime. Many princes thought it an honour to serve this God, who was Master Architect and Designer, who was the
Museum. [British
"
artificer and modeller alikeof worlds and of men. Much as the Egyptians reverenced the Creator,the Father bound up in Osiris, of all,their hope of immortality was who
144
ion Relig
with Isis,the Divine Mother, had the love and devotion of theirhearts. When Osiris was born a mysterious voice was heard proclaiming '' The Lord of all the world has come." Isis and Osirisascended the throne as Divine Rulers. It is of Egypt impossibleto separate their practically godhead from their humanity. They were as each perfecttypes, Osiris God, Divine King, and as man as in his human functions of husband and Isis Goddess,as Divine Queen, father; as in her human functions as as woman wife and mother ; they togetherformed incarnation of a divine duality. an Osiris was perfect man and perfect he Mediator ; was god, and above all forinasmuch as he died and rose again from the dead, it was the eternalhope of each Egyptian that he also would riseagain. As God he was, above all, Lord of Immortality. As Goddess, Isiswas Mother of God and Giver of Life,not only in this world, but in the
next.
After having taught the arts of in land,Osirisset civilization his own forth to travel; ''he conquered Asia
.
.
IA
,M
M Scottizliuseum.
Fig,
and civilizedthe entire world by his winning the hearts of all men persuasive tongue and by his music, During his absence, Isis his governed Egypt and guarded it from the designs of Set brother,who hoped to win the crown. Osiris returned to his kingdom after civihzingthe world ; and his return, that Set it was during the great festival, celebrating At a in to accomphshed by guilewhat he had failed effect war
."
149. Osiris, mummified, ing and bearwearing the crown the heq sceptre and the flail.
"
145
The
royal banquet Set murdered Osirisand subsequently cut the body to pieces. Here again, at the death as at the birth, it is difficultto disentangle the human from the divine,the treacherous death of from the symbolic the man magnificent chest of the exact dimensions of the body of Osiris, and at the banquet
on
death of the God. Set ordered a
promised to bestow it him whom itwould fit. One
after another triedit,and when Osirislay down the conspirators ran together and fastened on the lid and cast the chest into the Nile and took itdown to the sea. Isis searched up and down, the land for the coffin. On finding it she revived the inert body of
Osiris, that he reigns as God so and King in the Under-world. This story of the God-man,
died,and rose again who suffered, is to life eternal, derived from the tion Mysteries, a recitalof an initiasymbolic death and resurrection. In the Sanctuariesof Osiris, throughout death and resurEgypt, his life, rection in were commemorated
ceremony
of
Scottish Musemn. [Royal Fig. 150." Bronze statuette of Osiris, mummified and bearing the heq sceptre and flail, and wearing the Atef crown.
the Mysteries that bore his name. Osiris had conquered death and had risen again in triumph,
146
so
he became
the symbol of the resurrection; he could give life
Religion
because He Himself was life eternal. The dead rise up to see Thee their hearts are at peace inasmuch as they behold Thee, O Thou who art Eternity and Everlastingness."^ Osirisis nearly always depicted as
"
.
. .
mummy wearing the white crown ; his emblem is the pillar of stability 148, (Figs. 149, and 150). Isisis portrayed as a woman, wearing head-dress, or the the vulture double crown, or the symbol of her
name,
the throne (Fig. 151). The whole ideal conception of this goddess appealed to the hearts of the Egyptian, and it was a constant prayer
that what Isishad done for Osirisand Horus, she would do also for them when the hour of death approached. had been so foully murAfter Osiris dered,
him
Isis,''the Shining One," sought ing without wearying ; fullof mourn-
she traversed the land, and took no rest until she found him ; and then talized she uttered the famous lament, immor-
Sorrows of Isis." Set seized the kingdom, and Isis, hiding in the marshes of the Delta, gave birth to Horus, and brought him
as
the
''
Scottish Museum. [Rajfal
up secretly. the portion were Grief and affliction '' I speak of Isis during these years. in to you, for I am alone, and am
sorrow
Fig. 151." Basalt Statue of Isis, wearing on her head a pair of horns, between which is the solar disk,and bearing in her right hand the ankh cross, the sign of life.
were the words ^ she one," which isgreater than that of any lay stretched occasion when Horus uttered on the memorable the in death before her, having been stung by a scorpion ; beautiful child of gold is stung, and the child, the babe, hath
''
Papyrus
of Ani.
'
Metternich Stele.
147

! Then Isissent forth a cry to become a thing of nothingness boat of milhons of years stood still," Heaven, and the and from heaven in order to himself appeared, I have come Tahuti save the child for his mother," and, speaking words of power, Horus was restored to life.
'' ''
"
"
Museum. {British Fig. 152. Green basalt statuette of Isisprotecting Osiris-Un-Nefer with her wings (300
"
B.C.).
he went his arm grew up and grew strong against Set, and after much difficulty conquered, and ruled as heir of Osiris. tion Set is never represented as human. As Osiriswas the incarnaof Good, so Set was the incarnation of Evil ; and in this symbolic is seen the eternal battlebetween the two, and the final story
When
Horus
''
"
triumph of the Good.

148
Religion
Horus
is always represented as Like his parents, he young. both human and divine. As a '' was god he was the divine child," " the hght of the world," over whose birth all the gods reeven the Lord of the Universe Himself. " There is joice
everywhere, all hearts
joy
are
glad, all hearts
are
glad, every face is
Rook of the
Dead.] Fig. 153. Ani and Thuthu

"
chanting the Litany of Osiris before the Shrine of Isisand Osiris.
adoreth his beauties. His love is doubly sweet unto us, and his active beneficenceembraceth allhearts ; and the love for him is great in everybody, and they do what is right for the son of Isis holy and beneficent is his name wickedness departeth, evil goeth away, and the earth is at
one
.
happy, and every
peace." Such is the descriptionof the mystic Horus. Considering this divine group of Amen-Ra,
149
Isis and Osiris,
The
and
Horus, it is not difficult understand why the Christian to rehgion was at once accepted in Egypt. Under other names, the Egyptians had worshipped for thousands of years a God who was Father of all; a God-man who died and rose again, bringing immortality to all; and a Divine Child
whose mother
was
also the Mother of God.
"
Miisentn. [British Fig. 154. Bronze statuette of Isis nursiny-the infant Horus.
"
50
CHAPTER
LITERATURE
XII
Literature as thy mother, "Love Let her beauties enter into thee." Dauf-a-Kherti.
It would be strange indeed, in a civilization which carried the arts and sciences to such perfection,if the art of letters various should be undeveloped ! The hterature was rich and varied, and department was no unrepresented, with the possible exception The ancient writings reveal certain pre-eminent of the Drama.
characteristicswhich
races.
distinguish them
from
the style of other
Another salientpoint is the terseness, the condensation of thought. Occasionally, when used by the unskilful,this conciseness verges on baldness ; but the touch to portray a character clever writer manages by one skilful In the choice of an expression, in the describe an emotion. or
peculiar appropriateness of a phrase, the Egyptians are without rival. For instance, a gracious king is described as caressing of heart to all people," or a judge walks ''in the fair paths of
"
Simplicity of diction is marked.
straightness of heart." In a few brief words, the amiable and courteous ruler, the conscientious judge stand before us ; it is a real art ! Another virtue of this condensed style is, that it allows of
paradox;
it is,in fact, the
essence
examples might be quoted. " liveth in death." The fool

. . .
of paradox. Of this many ''He that obeyeth, is obeyed";
is the short up with this simplicity and terseness The true short sentence is the natural condensation of sentence. As a race they abhorred prolixity. a forcible and simple mind.
Bound
151
The
It
was
" In their desire to avoid a multiplication of words." their literarycompositions they were undoubtedly successful, and as well as in their daily lifethey also abominated the chatterer ; being bad form, this vice was against their religion; in the
Negative Confession the deceased affirms, I have not multiplied words overmuch." Ornament was used very sparingly, but when introduced it was applied. The simile was well understood, and those skilfully from nature are excellent. The expert use of simile indicates a power of generalization,a capacity for intellectualcomparison, and an instinctfor emotional appropriateness. For instance, Rameses ii. is compared to my
'A victorious lion putting forth its claws, Growling and roaring loudly In the Valley of the Gazelle ;
"
''
or
again, to
A jackal swift of foot, Seeking what it may find,
Like
a
flash."
"
In his famous
"
wars
it is said
seizeth his enemies a flame seeking the kiki plant. Like the stormwind blowing up the flame which Destroying till everything becometh ashes." Like
He
has
tasted the straw,
Florid diction, loaded with figures speech, was a faultentirely of unknown. In sustained narrative a graphic literalnesssnoticeable,arising i probably from a straightforward nature, a regard for truth, and a horror of exaggeration. It was certainly not due to any lack of imagination, for when we turn from a biography of fact to one find an elegant and restrained imagination and a we of fiction, delicateportrayal of character so clever, that the actors individualized.
are
at
once
In this great land of prototypes nearly every style of modern ^ lines. novel can be paralleledby a story on the same The novel of lifeand manners has its prototype in the story
^
Following the classificationof Professor Masson's
British Novelists.
152
Literature
of Sanehat, the Son ofthe Sycamore, and his adventures in SouthEast Syria among the Beduin tribes. The country, the manners, described, and finally, are the customs his return to Egypt, on
the contrast between the high civihzation of his own land and the nomadic lifeof the Asiatic is cleverly brought out. Sanehat fled from Egypt on the death of Amenemhat i. The reason story does not say why ; but for some unknown, as soon as that the king was dead, he escaped by night by day, lest he across the frontier. He crouched in the bushes and should be seen, and travelledby night. After difficulties dangers he reached the chain of fortressesthat guarded the frontier, and
news
came
to the camp
''
"
passed them in the darkness. When he reached the Bitter stealthily This is the taste of death," he Lakes his strength was gone. exclaims as he sinks down exhausted ! But the sound of the lowing
''
of cattlebreaks on his ears and gives him courage, he stumbles on a httle farther and reaches a desert chief, who gives him "water and boiled milk." The nomads, who stand in awe of this fugitive from the Egyptian Court, pass him on from one tribe to another,
he i till,n the interior, can rest in safety. He remained a year and a half,and then the Prince of the Upper Land of the Tenu invites He let me choose from him to come and settle in his domain. his lands and from among his choicest possessions. He among to his eldest me placed me at the head of his children,and married daughter. He made me a Prince of the Tribe." He recounts his the other tribes,and there is a fine warhke expeditions among description of single combat between himself and a hero of the Tenu, who apparently grudged his sudden riseto fame and fortune. and This is told in simple and vigorous language. The hero came had no equal, he had He was a daring man and challenged him He said, Let him fight with me,' for he subdued everybody. But the hero of the Tenu is as nothing to the thought to slay me." I shot at him, my weapon stuck in Egyptian trained in arms. All the Beduin He cried out ; he fellon his nose. his neck. his possessions, I carried off his shouted. Then I took away that did I unto to have done to me, cattle ; what he thought him !
''
''
'
"
"
153

good example of the traveller'snovel is the tale of the Sailor. As a specimen of imaginative travel itforms Shipwrecked biographies that exist. an excellentcontrast to the many A terrible storm arose, and the ship,bound for the royal mines,
A
with all on board. The hero seized a plank, and a for three days bore him onwards across the ocean mighty wave he island. After resting, set forth and then cast him up on a lonety in quest of food, and made an offering to the gods. The magic
went
down
! of the sacrificial offeringhad an immediate and terrifyingeffect I heard a sound like that of thunder, which I at first took to be in the noise of the flood-tide the open sea ; but the trees quivered, the earth trembled. I uncovered my face,and I perceived it was a ; his sizewas giganticand his body serpent which was approaching was encrusted with gold, and his colour appeared to be that of real lapislazuli. ''He raised himself up and opened his mouth, while I prostrated myself before him. And he said to me, Who hath brought thee ? Who ? Who hath hath brought thee, little one
*'
" '
brought thee ? He then seized the sailorand carried him homxC, and put him down without hurting him. The hero then relates the stor}^ the storm and the shipwreck. of The serpent is m.oved to pity,and tells his own story in return. Fear nothing, fear nothing, little let not thy countenance one, be sad ! If thou hast come to me, it is the God who has spared
''
' "
th}^life it is he wlio has brought thee to the island of the Ka, ; where nothing is lacking, and which is filled with all good things." He then prophesies that in four months a ship will come the sailor. This island was the home of the and rescue snake and all his relations,seventy-five altogether. After four happy months the vessel arrived, and the sailor gratefully thanked the serpent, and promised him many gifts and sacrifices. '* I will send to thee vessels filledwith all the riches of Egypt,
meet for to men."
was as
in a distant country unknown god, the friend of man The serpent smiled amiably at this, and said that it '' superfluous to bestow any gifts on him ; besides, as soon see thou hast quitted this place thou wilt never this island
a
again, for it will be changed
into
154
waves."
He
then loaded the
Literature
frankincense, myrrh, gold sailorwith gifts, and ivory. The grateful man prostrated himself, adoring the serpent, who addressed him :"'' A pleasant journey home, little one ; may est thou behold thy children again, and may thy name be well spoken of in thy town : such are my wishes for thee ! In this story the characters are sketched with a light hand, but with such truth that they Hve, the incredulous lord who is
"
accustomed to the exaggerations of a sailor's yarn ; the sailors '' knew everything in both heaven and earth ; the Lord who at once of the Island himself, with his manner regal and benign,
"
his all-seeingwisdom, and his capacity for knowing the thoughts It is with regret we close the book the lonely Lord of of men. love and sympathy. our the Island has won
"
The known
excelled in tales of imagination. The best perhaps are The Tales of the Magicians. These are arranged in the familiarArabian Nights fashion of a series stories of
Egyptians
one
within the other,various characters taking up the roleof reciter. pressed Khufu, the Pharaoh of the Great Pyramid, feeling dehim and with affairs of state, calls his sons to amuse
glad his heart." In Khafra's tale the efficacy of the is the wax model is brought out, in the working of magic. This firstmention in any literatureof this curious custom, which in make
the Middle Ages
''
methods of witchcraft. of the commonest A courtier heard that his wife nightly met her lover by a lake. Being a magician, he made a crocodile of wax and put it into the lake it immediately became a real crocodile, and when the lover
was one
devoured by the magic crocodile. As in the Jonah legend, the page remains quite days later the seven some comfortably within the crocodile,until the beast to bring forth its victim, and commands nobleman The becomes a thing of wax. touching the creature, it once more
came
to the trysting-placehe
was
at
once
was much astonished, walking with the nobleman, it he addresses the On hearing and asks for the whole story. " Once to take that which is his own." crocodile, telling him becomes alive, and seizing the wicked page more the monster
king, who
was
lake ! plunges into the depths of the

155
The
In Baufra's tale,Zazamankh the magician works, for the first time in history,the magic, which when narrated of Moses becomes The waters were a wall unto them, on the right hand a miracle, had and on the left." Thousands of years earlierZazamankh done the same thing ; he spoke the Word of Power, and the waters divided and were piled on each side,leaving dry land between, so lost that the jewel, by one of the maidens who was rowing the bark seen of Seneferu, was gleaming on the ground, and so was easily recovered. The magician murmured another spell, and the waters into their accustomed place. went back Prince Hordedef, who had listenedto these enthrallingtales of former kings, then said, Why should we go to days that are past for marvels such as these, Dedi the magician can work wonders equal to these.'' So Khufu told the prince to bring him to Court. He was a ''young man of no," and very stout, but Hordedef brought him safely to the palace. The King said, Dedi, how isitthat I never see thee ? Whereupon the learned old magician replied, He who is called The King calls, comes. and, behold ! here I am ! Dedi could restore life the dead, he could even cause the head to to join itselfo the neck afterdecapitation. The king longed to see t this feat, and ordered a prisoner to be brought. But Dedi said, '' Let it not be a man, O King my Lord; behold we do not even thus to our cattle! So they brought a goose, and a duck, and a bull. The goose decapitated, the body taken to one end of the hall and the was head to the other. Dedi commenced his incantations,and behold the body and head, moving at firstslowly but with quickening pace, finally rushed together, and the goose stood up and cackled
'*
"
''
"
"
''
"
"
and
This miracle was then performed on the duck and on the bull,for the audience was insatiable, and delighted in these marvels.
was as just
it had been.
Epic, in its nature, is of the kings. The
some
of the poetry celebratingthe exploits famous, perhaps, is the poem most

156
Literature
the great Battle of Kadesh, the which commemorates victory of Rameses ii. over the Hittites. In these works the phrases are grouped in antithetical strophes. Alliteration was also much used, and where long poems were habitually recited in public, this style was a distinctaid to the memory, and chimed in with the accompaniment of the clapping of hands or of drums.
Egyptians excelled in lyrical poetry. Love and death, the two great episodes of life,constitute the principal theme. These poems reveal the divine spark of true inspiration, combined felicityof expression which is inimitable. The knowa ledge with heart, and the depth of feeling displayed, of the human for the coupled with the beauty of idea and phrase, will ensure t unknown authors of many of these lyrics,he laurelwreath of poetic
The
immortality. Among these masterpieces is a collectionof verses entitled, The beautiful and gladsome songs of thy sisterwhom thy heart ^ loves, as she walks in the fields." In true Egyptian fashion,the maiden sings the songs to her brother whom her heart loves."
*'
'"'
h love fills er heart with gratitude and At first,

"
joy
"
The
breath of thy nostrils alone Is that which maketh m^^ heart to live. I found thee : For grant thee to ever and ever."
me
God
Her thoughts are entirely centred in the youth to whom she has finds that her usual given her love, and wrapt in dreams, she
emplo3/ments are neglected. her mind with sympathy happiness fills Her own with all fowl and the wild She has no longer the heart to snare nature. to rob the birds of the joyof hfe-"
"The
far, and now wild duck scatter Again they light upon the bough And cry unto their kind ; Anon they gather on the mere I leave them there, But yet unharmed For love hath filledmy mind.
"
Weigall's translation.

the wild duck cries ; Caught by the worm, But in the love-Hght of thine eyes I, trembling, loose the trap, so flies The bird into the air. What will my angry mother say ? With basket-full I come each day, But now thy love hath led me stray, And I have set no snare."
in the perfumed gardens But love idylls end unhappily even Days pass, and the beloved comes Eagerly not. of Egypt. watching at the door, and nervously strainingher ears for the sound '' the of the welcome step, she hears steps indeed, but it is only
from the absent swift-footedmessenger," laden with many excuses Her answer is brief, she fully understands ; there is a one. in pathetic finality her words
"
"
Say
only, another
has
found
thee !
"
In another poem the case is reversed. A youth pours out the treasure of his love, but the maiden disdains him ; so he exclaims in despair,and with the humility born of love"
"
Ah, That Then
if I
were
only her doorkeeper,
she might scold me. should I hear her voice
angry; "Even though she were As a boy full of fear, I stand before thee." Would
Trees, flowers and animals take part in the drama freelyand with understanding. converse
of Hfe and
The Sycamore tree, in a charming. poem,i invites a young girl to bring her dinner, and to ask her lover to partake of it under the shady boughs
"
"
linger in the garden. belongs to thee servant who Will bring the dinner things
and
The
"
Come
Flowers of yesterday and to-day And all kinds of refreshing fruit. Come, spend this festival day. And to-morrow, and the day after to-morrow. Sitting under my shade.
Erman's
translation.
158
Literature
I am of I do not I do not
a
silent nature, tell what I see, chatter,"
The love of nature and flowers appears continually. In another song a maiden, weaving a wreath, begins each couplet with the name of a flower. This leads to a fanciful play on the words which cannot be represented in another language"
"
The place is beautiful where Because wê walk together,

Thy
we
walk,
hand resting upon mine. Our mind thoughtful and our heart joyful. It is intoxicating to me to hear thy voice; Yet my life depends upon hearing it.
I see "Whenever It is better to
thee,
me
than
food
and
drink."
The following sorrowful Httle poem touchingly relatesthe sad end which befallsthe promising young student who plunges headlong into a dissolutecourse of sensual gratification
"
"
that thou forsakest thy books, thyself up to pleasure. givest Thou dost wander from street to street, Every evening the smell of drink, The smell of drink repels men from thee, It destroys thy soul. Thou art as a broken oar That can guide to neither side ; Thou art as a shrine without its god." tell
me
They
And
The. end of man Egyptian poet. The

sung to a Egyptians
that fascinated the another subject lyrics treating of this are generally songs harp accompaniment at a feast. The attitude of the
was was
very different from modern and Western s quite consistent with the joyouspirit it; treasures and Life is transient,therefore of the race. enjoy must all be relinquished,happiness alone can be kept possessions toward death ideas,but it was
for ever
"
happiness and
bread
create
one
thing
has
a no
more,
good
name
"
"Give And
to him
who for thyself
good
name
field. for posterity for
evermore."
The
custom
a general classic authors state repeatedly that it was to be carriedround at banquets for the figureof a mummy
159

Gazing on this, drink and make with these words of advice : merry ; when thou comest to die,such another wilt thou be." A very popular poem, known in several versions,bears out this statement, and shows that the contemplation of death did not fill Hfe while their minds with sadness, but stimulated them to enjoy '* it was yet to-day." The oldest version is The song placed in the Temple of the blessed King Antef which is written there before the harper with the harp."
''
((
''
Follow thy Put myrrh Anointing

Let
long as thou livest; so thy head, clothe thyself in line linen, thyself with the true marvels of God. heart's desire
on
itself not thy heart concern to thee Until there cometh That great day of lamentation. Yet he whose heart is at rest
Can hear not thy complaint, And he who lies in the tomb Can understand not thy weeping. Therefore with smiling face let thy days be happy, And rest not therein, For no man carrieth his goods away with him, is gone thither." Yea, no man returneth again who
A slightlydifferentform of Neferhotep the priest

"
was
sung by the harper at the funeral
""
Be
n
happy then, O priest ! Come, scents and perfumes are set before thee, Mahu-flowers, and neck and liliesfor the arms Of thy beloved, who dwells in thy heart. Come, songs and music are before thee. Cast behind thee all care and mind thee of joy, Until the day cometh thou shalt go down whereon Unto the land which loveth silence."
''
But although the burden of these songs is merry ; for to-morrow we die,"the inevitablewas
eat, drink and be met
with
bright
courage
"
"When
Be
to carry thee away thy messenger comes " thou found by him ready !
"
That
was
the ideal
to
"
be ready !
1 60
"
Because,
as
another
Literature
us, the transitionfrom life of great beauty tells to death is entirely natural, and is but the attainment of allthat the soul of desires man
poem
"
"
I say to myself every day : As is the convalescence of a sick person Who goes to the Court after his affliction, Such is death.
I say to myself every day : is the inhaling of the scent of As a seat under the protection of Such is death.
As
a an
perfume. outstretched curtain,
I say to myself every day : As the inhaling of the odour of a garden of flowers, As a seat upon the bank of the Land of Intoxication, Such is death.
I say to myself every day : As the clearing again of the sky, As a man who goes out to catch birds with a net, And finds himself suddenly in an unknown land, Such is death !"
All the world's a but stage/' for Egypt the drama is closed. For the last time the curtain has been rung down, and the players have passed from the stage of the world but not from our
"
''
memories and our hearts. Nor can we, of modern times, ever estimate the debt that the world owes to Egypt ! The foundations of allscience and allart laid on the banks of the Nile,thousands of years before Christ. were
Truly indeed
"Is
was
it written
"
there anything whereof it may be said, See, this is new? It hath been already of old time. before us." Which was
i6i
INDEX
{The quotations
at the head
are ofthe Chapters from Egyptianliterature.)
Agriculture, 28. Akhenaten, 92, 139-143. Amen, 136. Amenemhat iii., 102. Amenhotep iii., 106, 109. Amen-Ra, 136-137, 140, 149, Anatomy, 112, Architecture, 64, 82-88. Army, 15, 23 et seq. Art, 89 et seq. Astronomy, 19, 75, 115. Aten, the Divine Disk, 136, 139-143. Attributes of God, 128.
Ball games, 51, 55. Body of man, 128. Bullfights, 51, 56, 86.
Gods Amen, 136, 137. Amen-Ra, 136, 137, 140, 141, 149, 150. Hathor, 133.
"
Horus, 132, 147-150. Isis, 131, 132, 145, 147-150. Khepera, 134, 135. Maat, 144. Mut, 138, 139. Nephthys, 131, 135. Nut, 134, 135.
"
Calendar, 115. Carpenter's work, 37, 38. Cartouche, 121. Cats, 57, 62. Circulation of the blood, 112. Cosmetics, 9. Cosmogenesis, 133, 134. Courts of Justice, 123. Creation, the, 133-135. Crowns, 122, 124. Dancing, 14, 48, 50, 54. Disk, the Divine, 136, 139-143. Dogs, 56, 58. Domestic life, et seq. 4 Dress of men, women, and children, 9 et seq. Drugs, 113. Eclipses, 115. Education, 14 et seq. of children, 14. Mihtary, 16. Scribes, 15, University, 15, 18, 19. Enamelling, 44, 89. Engineering, 20, 99 et seq. Fishing, 57, 58, 60. Furniture, 35-39.
55-61. Glass, 44, 45. God, the One, 137. 138.
Osiris,129, 130, 135, 144-150. Ptah, 142, 144. Ra, 130, 134, 137-141. Seb, 134, 135. Set, 145-148. Shu, 134, 135. Tahuti, 18, 131, 143, 148. Tefnut, 134. Government, 121 et seq. Gymnastics, i6, 17, 50, 51,54, 55. Hor-em-heb, 140-141. Horses, 16, 35. Horus, 132, 147-150. House, arrangements, 6 et seq. Houses, 6, Immortality
of the soul, 128, 143, 145, 146, 150. Inundation, 99. Irrigation,99 et seq. Isis, 131, 132, 145, 147-150.
11, Jewellery, 39, 40.
123. Judge. Judgment Scene,
130, 131.
Ka. 128. Kha-em-Uast, 95, 144. Khafra, 65. Khepera, 134, 135. Khuf, 77, 78. Khnum Khufu, 67, 77-82. 121, 122. King's names,
Laws, 49, 121 et seq. Linen, 32, 33, 35, 36. Literature, 1 51-1 61.
Games,
the Supreme,
127, 128, 134,
Maat, the Goddess, 144. Machinery, 20, loi, 104, 105, loS, 109.
163
Index
Man, divisions of, 128. Materia Medica, iii. Mechanical inventions, 20, 99 at seq. Mediator, Osiris as, 145. Medicine, 19, iii. Menes, 103. Men-kau-ra, 67. Metal work, 39, 41, 43. Months. 115, 116. Mummifying, 128, i?9. Music, 14, 47 et seq. Musical instruments, 47-53. Mut, the Goddess, 138. Names, Pyramid, the Great continued. Plan, 74. Sarcophagus, 68, 71. Size, 65. Theories, 74, 75, 76, 81-82. Well, 68. Pyramids, 64-82.
"
Ra, 130-131, 134, 136, 137, 141. Race, 2. Reincarnation, 129. Religion, 127 et seq. Resurrection, 128 et seq., 143, 145, 146, 150. Set, 145-148. Sheep, 35. Ships, 26, 27, 28. Shoes, 34. Shops, 38-40. Social life,4, 5 et seq. Soldiers, 16, 22, 24, 26. Soul, 128, 129. Spinning, 32-33, 35. Spirit of man, 128-129. Sport, 50-62. Standards of the regiments, 25. Stars, 1 1 5-1 20. Statues, 87, 89-93, 104-106. Stories, Egyptian Sanehat, 153. Shipwrecked sailor,154. Tales of the Magicians, 155.
"
king's, 121,
122.
pet, 4. Navy, 26, 27. Negative Confession

131Nilometer,
loi.
or
Judgment
Scene,
Obelisks, 85, 86, 106, 109. Orientating, 120. Orientation of buildings, 65, 82-83. Osiris, 131, 132, 135, 145-147. 149. Paintings, 94 et S3q. Perspective, 90. Pillars,83-87.
Planets, 119.
Poetry, epic, 156, love songs, 157-159. lyric, 1 5 7-1 61. Death, 160-161. on Pole Star, 75, 118, 120. Portraits, 89-97. Pots, 13, 41, 44, 46.
Pottery, 43, 44, 46,

Precious stones, 40, 41, 45, 46. Prescriptions, 113. Ptah, 142-144. Pylons, 74, 85. Pyramid, the Great Antechamber, 71. Casing stones, 64, 66, 72. Central axis, 67, 71. Chamber, king's, 71. queen's, 68. subterranean, 67, Construction, 72-74, 103-105. chambers, 72. Grand Gallery, 68-69. Orientation, 65, 75, 120. Passage, ascending, 67. descending, 67. Pivot-stone door, 65-67.
"
Tahuti, 18, 131, 143, 148, Taxes, 102, 125. Temperament of the Egyptians, 3. Temples, 82 et seq. Toilet requisites,9, 12. Tools, 41, 45. Toys, 62, 63. Transport of stones, 103 et seq. Tuat, the Under- world, 129.
Universities, 18, 19, Uraeus, 122.

Vases, 40-43. Vineyards, 33, 34.
20.
Waterworks, 99-103. Weapons, 24, 41, 42. Wine making, 31-34. Women, 3-6. W^restling, 16, 17, 50. Year, Egyptian,
115, 117, 118.
Morrison
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2012-10-14 17:49:43 UTC

507a8a39f3e6e 193.231.148.149 Romania

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

sciences. This answer

and Domestic Life

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

and Domestic Life

occupation or the duties of

prepared to help them, the daughter was obliged

; other responsibilities to he was obliged his father's cause

perform the elaborate ceremonial, to offer the necessary sacrifices,

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

Mery-ra's House, another view.

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

Elaborate Royal Dress

and Domestic Life

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

the kilt(Fig. 4).

L. D., Ab. iii. Bl. I.]

and Domestic Life

fashion for infancy in

[Royal Scottish Museum.

Handsome Bracelets" heavy of a twisted pattern.

Egyptian. this last was

kind This led them

{Royal Scottish Museum,

The Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

[Royal Scottish Museutn.

too, the fingerswere

quently moist black powder, kohl ; frestained red with henna.

After Wilkinson, i. i6o.]

Toilet Boxes for holding for the fingers, and Perfumed

'Tis only the learned

I have never seen the smith as an Or the goldsmith carry tidings!

Anastasi papyrus. Sallier papyrus.

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

After Wilkinson,L 371.]

boy could resist. A poem

not all play, and if the young

The Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

Then followsa descriptionof the

and discomforts of a military

Therefore, O Scribe, Reverse thine opinion about

the happiness of the scribe and

vast choice before him,

complicated collarof discs and of his office (see no). p.

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

Professions and Occupations

After Wilkinson, i.345.]

The Standards of the Regiments.

Civilization the Ancient Egyptians of

officer proved of valour ; he had a special badge

with a device on it. The Army led into was battle

sound of music, the trumpet and the drum being

conspicuous in The the band.

A Soldier springing; the attack to from the prow of a boat.

Professions and Occupations

men are steering, and there each side.

with grappling irons to drag the to close quarters. They enemy

apparently had Rameses 11. had

coloured sails. fleet of four a

Peasant hoeing the Ground.