Durham E-Theses Ibadism in Oman and developments in the eld of Christian Muslim relationships

Skinner, Raymond Frederick

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I BAD ISM AND DEVELOPMENTS

I N OMAN I N THE F I E L D

OF C H R I S T I A N - MUSLIM RELATIONSHIPS.

Raymond F r e d e r i c k

Skinner

The C o p y r i g h t o f t h i s t h e s i s r e s t s w i t h t h e a u t h o r , No q u o t a t i o n f r o m i t s h o u l d be p u b l i s h e d w i t h o u t h i s p r i o r w r i t t e n c o n s e n t and i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m i t s h o u l d be a c k n o w l e d g e d .

Master University Department

of Arts, o f Durham, o f Theology.

1992.

The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged.

Ibadlsm of

i n Oman, a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s

In the field

C h r i s t i a n - Muslim

relationships

Raymond F. S k i n n e r ,

1992

ABSTRACT

The between

purpose

of this

study

i s t o explore

the relationship

C h r i s t i a n s a n d t h e I b a d T o f Oman, a s a c o n t r i b u t i o n t o dialogue. offered The main i n t h e past scope focus i s an assessment o f missionary of dialogue and t h e i r status. in

Christian-Muslim the contribution

by t h e s m a l l and areas

presence, between hosts The -

and o f

the potential guest-worker country the

the recent a Muslim tells The

C h r i s t i a n community,

growing of a

i n international dynamic

thesis

story

engagement

dialogue. will with

history, with

customs particular

and b e l i e f s emphasis

of the country points

be o u t l i n e d ,

on m e e t i n g

Christian missionaries. o f Oman by S a l T l

The H i s t o r y

o f t h e Imams a n d b y G.P.Badger more recent of the Calling: have

Seyyids and

b i n Raz1k,

translated of several

published

i n 1871, i s t h e source The J o u r n a l o f America,

works

consulted. Church

of t h e Arabian Arabia/

Mission Arabia

Reformed 1892-1962 been

Neglected

and t h e q u a r t e r l y other main

The M u s l i m W o r l d Some been

(from

1911)

among

sources. have

o f t h e many

books and Muscat

articles in

by Samuel

Zwemer

read;

he v i s i t e d Peter

Oman o n s e v e r a l illness IbadT while

occasions serving their

- h i sbrother there. understanding

contracting a

fatal The to

believe

of Islam

t o be

close they

that

o f t h e Prophet claim

Muhammad;

individual

in faith,

fiercely Our' an. essential perhaps those to

t o be o r t h o d o x a r e quick a r e being

i n their

interpretation they

of the

and they tenets

t o speak

o u t when They

think i t s

compromised. when i t comes

can t h e r e f o r e alongside to listen with the in the

afford

t o be r e l a x e d

to living

who a r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s with an open mind.

I badT. Their

and a r e w i l l i n g courteous meeting

them

Christians wider field

they

welcome

to their

country, relations.

offers

clues

of Christian-Muslim

Page 3

IBADISM

I N OMAN. AND DEVELOPMENTS I N THE F I E L D - MUSLIM RELATIONSHIPS.

OF C H R I S T I A N

Acknow1 edgements Notes on t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n Abbreviat ions Introduct ion Map of the Sultanate Geographical o f Oman perspectives Ibadism and South Arabia 1317AH of Arabic Words

Page 4 5 6 7 12 13 23 39 53

Chapter 1 Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 2 3 4 5

An e a r l y H i s t o r y o f Ibadism Ya^arlbi i nNorth

Africa

a n d A l Bu S a - M d i t o 1900AD/ Arabia

C h r i s t i a n i t y i n South and East t o 1900AD/ 1317AH a n d Imam

72 93 101

Chapter Chapter Chapter

6: S u l t a n

1900-1930AD/ 1317-1349AH

7; C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman 1 9 0 0 - 1 9 3 0 A D / 1 3 1 7 - 1 3 4 9 A H 8: S u l t a n , I mam, a n d C h r i s t i a n i n Oman,

108 since Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter 9: D i a l o g u e : 1930AD/ 1317AH 127 Folk Religion i n Oman 137 10: D i s t i n c t i v e 11: Dialogue doctrines- of Ibadism 149 with tenets of Ibadism God 169 12: T h e H o u s e o f I s l a m ( a ) The Gospel a n d o f War: T h e U n i t y o f 186 Appendix: o f Barnabas 201 ( b ) T h e C h u r c h o f t h e Good B ib l i ography Shepherd 202

Page 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

am

very that to

grateful Professor undertake

f o r the considerable Edward this me Hulmes has in various

help been,

and in and

encouragement enabling me

work: into

patient

enthusiastic fields support

tutoring,

pointing

stimulating for the

of study

and q u e s t i o n i n g . and f r i e n d s

I am g r a t e f u l

also,

of colleagues Church

i n theSultanate there,

o f Oman and also

Government, present

and local

community

and past

missionaries

o f t h e Reformed

Church

i n America;

more r e c e n t l y t h e p a r i s h o f Morden,

South

London.

Thankyou life-time, Thankyou Lull; inspire mountain his a

t o B i s h o p Kenneth Cragg, source of great

who h a s b e e n

f o rhalf

inspiration me

and C h r i s t i a n name

hope.

t o my I trust

parents,

who g a v e

the first

o f Ramon will

h i ssearching this,

o u t t h e pathway higher

o f love,

a n y who r e a d

t o climb Thankyou

themsleves into t h e ''UbaydlT f o r I bad!

o f t h e Beloved. whose

t o D r Ahmad thesis

encouragement, i s dedicated full

own D o c t o r a l

on e a r l y

history of in like folk love front a

t o : t h e ' L o v e r who h a s t o c r o s s and s l i p s , while who s e e s hope keeps

t h e road shining beating Yemeni her

of d i f f i c u l t i e s a

of him like bell.' (from Most

flame

h i sheart a

Husayn

al-Mihdar, thank my

contemporary Hilary,

poet).

of a l l , I making

wife

f o r

unfailing for

patience,

space

f o r me

i n crowded

days, and

hermaterial

encouragement.

Finally Amstrad not have (when been

to Traidcraft I left them

p i c , without

whose

gift

o f an I would

as non-executive work.

Chairman),

able

t o execute t h i s

Page 5

Notes

on t h e t r a n s I i t e r a t i o n

of Arabic

words:

The

system

of

transliteration

follows

that

found

i n the

Encyclopaedia

o f IsleTm w i t h

thefollowing

differences:

th

becomes t h

d.1 b e c o m e s J k b e c o m e s q,

Dates:

For by

dates

after

the Hijrah,

the flight wherever

from

Makkah

t o Medinah t h e date i s <AH), s o can a place date

Muhammad given readers

and h i s f o l l o w e r s , Anno from Domini

possible

first that events of

<AD), t h e n

After

the Hijrah traditions

Christian natural

and Muslim time-frame

i n t h e most

f o r each. i s given

When

publication dat ing

i s referred

t o , t h e date

according t o

A.D.

only.

Page 6 ABBREVIATIONS

Qur' a n

"-"AlT, of

A. Y u s u f ,

1975, T e x t Islamic

Translation Foundation,

a n d Commentary Leicester.

t h e Holy

Qur'an.

EI ^

Encyclopaedia Brill, Leiden,

o f Islam. 4 vols.

1913-34,

1st edition,

E. J .

EI=^

Encyclopaedia Brill, Leiden,

o f Islam. 6 vols,

1960-91,

2nd e d i t i o n ,

E. J .

t o date.

G.B.V.

RAGG, C a n o n L o n s d a l e Barnabas, in edited

and Laura,

1907, The G o s p e l o f from the Italian MS.

and t r a n s l a t e d Library

t h eImperial

a t Vienna.

Clarendon

Press,

Oxford

NA/AC

Neglected of

Arabia/Arabia Calling:

1892-1962.

Journal

the Arabian

M i s s i o n o f t h e Reformed Church i n London

America.

Archive Editions,

M. W.

The

Moslem

World.

(Muslim of Current

World Events.

after

1947):

Quarterly thought Christian Samuel M.

Review among

L i t e r a t u r e and of

Mohammedans

and t h e t h e Progress Lands. 1911-1938 with by Vols

Missions Zwemer, Vols Society

i n Moslem to

Editor E. E.

1947 C o - e d i t o r

Calverley. Literature by

I - V I published f o r India, London.

Christian VII-XXVII XXVIII USA.

Missionary

R e v i e w Pub. C., New Y o r k . Seminary Found.,

Vols.

onwards,

by H a r t f o r d

Hartford,

Page 7

I N T R O D U C T I O N :

The nearly three

fieldwork years

f o r this

thesis Chaplain

was u n d e r t a k e n i n Oman; with a post

during which

as A n g l i c a n

involved of many

travel

throughout with

the Sultanate, Omanis, both

the opportunity as well as with

conversations

o f I badT

other retired

Islamic

backgrounds.

Correspondence valuable

and meetings

missionaries

contribute

insights.

Until difficult peninsular. traditionally expatriate clergy have

recently,

free

discourse

and

travel

has

been

i n Arabia, However been

and remains

s o i n many r e g i o n s o f Oman,

within the there has The i t s

i nthe Sultanate

a welcome

f o rthe courteous to build

visitor.

community

i s allowed

churches,

and

no r e s t r i c t i o n s

p u t o n them,

within most

t h e bounds o f expatriates o f Oman Sultan Oman Oman

non-prose 1 y t i s a t i o n . who only of usually can explore

Consequently, the great

unlike

and v a r i e d

beauty

on h o l i d a y , Oman's

I was a b l e

to travel

extensively.

The

A i r Force

(S.O.A.F.) journey

and P e t r o l frequently

Development

(P.D.O.), e n a b l e d Aviation. with with

me t o

by a i r , as d i d

The c o a s t l i n e , green

the deserts of its

and mountains each

o f Oman usually i n stark affords hitchusually

the contrasting a protecting

palm-groves from

fort,

can be . seen more

the air

contrast the

t o the desert; for

important, As w e l l

a i rtravel

leisure

conversation. about

as occasionally kilometres, trip

hiking, on

I drove

a hundred

thousand

excellent

roads

where

a 5 0 0 k. r o u n d

f o ran evening d r i v i n g i n Oman

meeting

or service

was n o t uncommon.

Off-road

Introduction

Page 8

provides as challenging driving conditions as anywhere; again, t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o t a l k on t h e J o u r n e y , as w e l l as a t one's d e s t i n a t i o n . T r a v e l by f i s h i n g - b o a t p r o v i d e d a f u r t h e r v a r i a t i o n f o r t r a v e l , and meeting.

Oman development most In in towns,

has of

welcomed

expatriate

labour

i n the careful state. In

the infra-structure f o r a groups of Christians and c l i n i c s ,

modern

small

meet

i n their

homes. high a up

most the

camps,

hospitals

sometimes hidden offered

mountains. Omanis a l s o

Christian proved

expatriates

warm

welcome. many due

unfailingly that

hospitable, such

and i n so

instances,

i t became

apparent

f r i e n d l i n e s s was of the

t o the century

o f medical

care

and

t h e school

Reformed Church

i n America

missionaries.

Much in varying

o f my

time

was s p e n t

i n theCapital

Area,

involved covering Protestant community.

degrees and

i n the life Catholic

o f many c o n g r e g a t i o n s , as well the meeting as many

Orthodox

Roman

denominations, However, socially, formal host there

a l l drawn were

from

expatriate points

frequent

with

OmanIs were

and bureaucratica11y. f o r meeting

More o c c a s i o n a l l y , religious leaders

there

opportunities

from the

community.

Most issues 'To only

contemporary i n order

studies

o f Oman

focus

on r e l i g i o u s However:

t o draw p o l i t i c a l

conclusions.

a modern

Westerner

a knowledge might i s

o f t h e nuances o f n o t seem to t h e most the

classical vital

Islamic

theology i f one

prerequisite

understand

Introduction

Page 9

modernisation of a Middle-Eastern country. Yet t h e traditional I s l a m i c system embodied t h e i d e o l o g y , t h e value structure, and the aspirations that f o r centuries p r o m p t e d men t o t h i n k and a c t i n c e r t a i n ways. I f one i s t o have any comprehension o f t h e movement of modernisation .in t h e M i d d l e East - a m o v e m e n t w h i c h a b o v e a l l e l s e i n v o l v e s c h a n g e s o r new d i r e c t i o n s i n i d e o l o g y , v a l u e s and a s p i r a t i o n s - then a knowledge of the traditional Islamic religious s y s t e m i s most n e c e s s a r y . ' '

My in

thesis Oman

i s , that during

the dialogue last future one

between hundred

Muslim years,

and has

Christian been of

the

significance afield.

f o r both

dialogue

within

Oman,

and f u r t h e r

The with

background

to a

twentieth

century with a

dialogue brief

o f I bad!

Christian, of

begins

naturally that

geographical and n u r t u r e d

description the

the country

has o r i g i n a t e d

I b'adT t e n e t s o f I s l a m .

T h i s ..is p r o v i d e d

i n c h a p t e r One.

Chapter first with century

Two c o n s i d e r s of Islam, their

thehistory and

of the Ibadi between and

during the t h e I badT expulsion/ of Four

the relation with

t h e Khawar i 1 . thence.

links

Basrah considers Arabia.

expansion I badT traces during AH,

Chapter Africa

Three

t h e spread Chapter

thought

i n North

and South

the tensions the period by

between

temporal

and s p i r i t u a l

leadership,

o f t h e Ya^-ariba t h e dynasty of

Imam b e g i n n i n g t h e A l Bu

1 6 2 4 AD/ 1 0 3 4 Sultans who

followed

Sa'-'Td

succeeded

them,

u p t o 1 9 0 0 AD/

1 3 1 7 AH.

Introduction

Page 10

Chapter Five recounts b r i e f l y , against t h e background o f the relationship between Sultan a n d I mam. the history of Christianity i n Arabia, m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Oman u p t o 1 9 0 0 AD/ 1 3 1 7 AH. The o r i g i n a l o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e A m e r i c a n M i s s i o n ( t h e i r M u s c a t s t a t i o n was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1 8 9 2 AD/ 1 3 1 0 AH) a r e outlined, a n d how those began t o be w o r k e d out through education and medicine. C h a p t e r S i x d e v e l o p s t h e theme o f continuing t e n s i o n between S u l t a n s a n d I mam: C h a p t e r Seven, w i t h t h e presence o f C h r i s t i a n m i s s i o n a r i e s i n t h e background; Chapter E i g h t t r a c e s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e m i s s i o n a r i e s and a modernising arab state, t o g e t h e r w i t h - s i n c e 1 9 7 0 AD/ 1389 AH - i t s C h r i s t i a n guest-workers.

Chapter beliefs Chapter I badT offer

Nine

Introduces

consideration aspects of

of

religious religion. the that The

i n Oman, Ten from

beginning some fellow

with key

folk

records his/her

beliefs

that

distinguish

Muslim,

p a r t i c u l a r l y those and C h r i s t i a n i t y .

bridges

of dialogue

between

Islam

tentative Islam,

parallel

i s drawn,

between

t h e IbadT Christian view

i n relation to in relation to o f t h e Qur'an. with others that an

and t h e P r o t e s t a n t Ibadlyyah

o r Reformed retain a

Christianity; but think

'high'

f o r themselves, t o God"

and a r e happy Ahmed

to talk

"surrendered description ecumenically friendliness

(Sheikh W .

Zak 1 Yamanl Watt).^

so a l l o w s As, I hope,

of Professor minded with

Montgomery

Protestant,

I cannot

explain otherwise the

which

I was r e c e i v e d .

Introduction

Page 11

Chapter Eleven suggests some a r e a s o f d i a l o g u e which c o u l d be f r u i t f u l l y f o l l o w e d u p - n o t o n l y i n Oman, b u t i n other places where Muslims and C h r i s t i a n s a r e d y n a m i c a l l y i n t e r a c t i n g i n t h e i r da'" wah o r m i s s i o n ; how A r a b s , m i g h t c o e x i s t as M u s l i m and C h r i s t i a n ; how t h e y s h o u l d a c c e p t each o t h e r , a s s u r r e n d e r e d t o God, The f i n a l C h a p t e r c o n s i d e r s one of t h e key issues i n d i a l o g u e between Muslim and C h r i s t i a n , n a m e l y t h e U n i t y o f God i n t h e l i g h t of the Christian claim t h a t 'God was i n C h r i s t , r e c o n c i l i n g t h e w o r l d t o H i m s e l f . '

An which

appendix

i s added renewed

concerning interest

t h e Gospel

o f Barnabas,

i s receiving

i n theGulf

area.

1.

LANDEN, R o b e r t

Geran,

1 9 6 7 , Oman s i n c e a

1856 ( D i s r u p t i v e Arab society)

modernisation Princeton

in

traditional Press, USA.

University.

pp. x v , 488

2.

WATT, W .

Montgomery,

1983, I s l a m and C h r i s t i a n i t y London, p. i x

today

Routledge

a n d Kegan P a u l ,

Page 12

The Sultanate of Oman

Musandam Peninsula

R a s al K h a i m a f i J m m al O a i w a i n

4:
uraimi .Vlitrati MUSCAT

V .. . E.MIR.ATE^
amra

Adam Fahud
WAHIBA SANDS

SAUDI ARABIA
.Vlasirah

DHOFAR

Arabian Sea

Thumrait over 2,000 m K l i i i r i y a M u r i v a Islands fiver .''lOO rii over 2(J0 rn 0-lOOm

YEMEN

Salaiatf Kaysut V! irbai

Hasik

Reproduced Dr

from

Sea-shells

o f Oman, w i t h

kind

permission of

D o n a l d and Mrs E l o i s e

Bosch - see n o t e

6 on page 2 1 .

Page 13

1:

GEOGRAPHICAL,

P E R S P E C T I V E S .

The people the

topography

o f Oman i n their

i s perhaps religion. peninsula, Arabia's t h e Hajar,

one reason Northern is like an

why i t s Oman, o n island.

a r e independent side

eastern

of the Arabian

On o n e s i d e whole Jabal the

t h e sea, on t h e other range i s called

Empty Q u a r t e r . T h e a ti t sheart t h e t h e mountain of Peninsula, o f Hormuz, i n the last which forms thirty

mountain Akhdar

range

rising

t o Jabal The

a l - Shams, Musandam

s u n , 2,980 means

metres

high. along

itself the

the 'anvil',

the Strait separated o f Oman

northern from

t i p of the country, t h e main land-mass territory.

years United

b y 100 k i l o m e t r e s o f

Arab Emirates

To coastal the the of

the south plain

of the central

desert

plateau,

t h e narrow touched by this turns

of Dhofar

has a t r o p i c a l i n August

atmosphere,

corner

o f a monsoon between

and September; into a scene

escarpment t h e South

sea and d e s e r t

reminiscent t h e date the

Downs

o f England.

Coconut

palms r e p l a c e behind among

palms

o f the rest rise

o ft h e Sultanate; t h e Yemen border,

the plain, them

mountains al-Qamar, eastern 60k.

towards

t h e Jabal forms t h e

t h e mountain

o f t h e moon,

Ra's a l Hadd island

promontory

of Arabia.

The b a r r e n

o f MasTrah,

long

i s n o t f a rsouth; Ra's K a y d a h gives

i t s south-eastern t h e sense

pyramid-shaped a t t h e very

promontory

of being

edge o f t h e w o r l d .

The

Arabs

liken

t h e mountains t h e area

(ofnorthern lies

Oman) t o a

backbone,

calling

which

on t h e Gulf of

Ch.

1: Geographical

perspectives:

Page 14

Oman t h e b a t i n a h o r s t o m a c h , of the h i l l s the dahirah consists centuries descend of by from a coastal

and t h e area t o t h e west o r back. The B a t i n a h built up over wadl the which

plain from

t h e outwash t h e mountains. and

t h e many This area,

i s the principal and the palm run-

agricultural gardens, off from

date-growing drawing

watered

by w e l l s

on s u b t e r r a n e a n

thehills,

stretch

northwards

f r o m Muscat f o r The H a j a r passes. . . . and i s

some 4 0 0 k i l o m e t r e s w i t h range Wadl i s divided Samail

s c a r c e l y a gap. . . . of great a n d most wadl

by a number

i s the greatest

striking

regarded Muscat over as r u l e r

as t h e major

divide. .. . o f Oman. i n 1971, very Until S u l t a n Qaboos took

i s theCapital from his

father

thephysical significant.

separation The p o r t harbour mountains could

between of

Muscat

a n d Oman was

h a d been virtually

Muscat

itself

impregnable,

the

surrounded round be by own

by m o u n t a i n s , city.

and low b u t deeply To t h e n o r t h , although

incised

the l i t t l e

the Batinah 200k.

coast

controlled flat land

from

Muscat,

Suhar

away,

exposed i t s

a l l round, significance, Along

was s u f f i c i e n t l y while never coast

f a r t o develop much there

trading

having between, between with once lies

strategic a r e many

importance. towns there plain horses.

the Batinah South coastal as

and v i l l a g e s . are smaller behind, such

o f Muscat

t h e mountains, the occasional famous for i t s

settlements, Quriyat,

around

At t h e s o u t h e r n port

end o f t h e Hajar

t h e f i s h i n g and Then away the flat south to

boat-building desert, Salalah,

o f Sur, near and g r a v e l

Ra's a l Hadd. stretching south

sand-sea t h e main

plain,

town o f Dhofar,

1000k

from

Muscat.

Ch.

1;

Geographical p e r s p e c t i v e s ;

Page 15

The p o p u l a t i o n o f Oman i s 1.6 m i l l i o n ; t h i s compares with the other nations of the Arabian peninsular: Saudi Arabia 15 m i l l i o n , Yemen 9.8 m i l l i o n . United Arab Emirates 1,6 m i l l i o n , B a h r e i n 0.5 m i l l i o n , Q a t a r 0.5 m i l l i o n , Kuwait 2.1 million,^ 6 0 % o f K u w a i t ' s p o p u l a t i o n was, p r i o r t o the invasion by I r a q i n August 1 9 9 0 AD/ M u h a r r a m 1 4 1 1 AH, e x patriate workers; a smaller proportion of the other states w o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n e x - p a t r i a t e , Yemen' h a v i n g the smallest n u m b e r , Oman a r o u n d 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 .

The divisions tribes

mountains o f Oman.

have While

clearly

been

factor

i n the tribal

d e l i n e a t i n g the t e r r i t o r y of Arabian the mountains Bani and Riyam o f Oman long form natural the south To

i s often The

difficult, tribe, or

barriers. main Jabal

have

occupied the

Akhdar

plateau,

i t s approaches to the north

from

through the own with

Tanuf

and B i r k a t sheer 40k. tribes Barkah,

a l Moz,

o f Nizwah.

north

below

precipices, long wadT

a r e t h e BanT K h a r u s named after them;'

i n their so open also, WadI

spectacular many other of

and wadi. t h e BanT family,

Across Ruwaha whom AH),

t h e more live, came as

Samail Sheikhs bin

south

whose Imam well

senior

are the KhalTlT al-KhalTlT

from

Muhammad as the

'^Abdullah

(1338-1373 However,

present Once

Grand MuftT a tribe by

o f Oman. has the

i t must

be n o t e d and

that: is and

received others, i t will a

i t s identity quite grow most

recognised accidental give rise

informal and of

matter,

usually

perhaps

t o daughter descent-group

tribes, ... tribes

the older which of the

existing are

contain

sections

of entirely

different a

origin

to the rest that

tribe.

Eventually

situation

like

o f t h e Bani

Ch. 1; Geographical

perspectives;

Page 16

R i y a m may d e v e l o p fact non-Riyami.^ Tribal need solidarity, f o r protection i n Oman,

where

the bulk

of the tribe

is

in

asabTyah. against a s a b l yah several

arises attack

out o f the basic on persons more and

human

property. than the

Certainly family, The in

extends

widely'

and t h r o u g h living time,

generations: clan continuously change by

relatives but to their

o f your

relationship

i s maintained founder whivch

reference clan, the

t h e supposed

eponymous

of the both

t h e man d e s i g n a t e d founder, and your

a s a . i a d d.

means

clan

grandfather...'*

The Under

main

occupation

o f Omanis

has been

agriculture. with a few is

t h e date-palms banana

of the Batinah,

interspersed alfalfa

lime-trees grown,

and mango-trees, some c e r e a l s . of wad! high

f o r goat

feed

together

with

With have

careful been

t e r r a c i n g and support

irrigation, similar flashes vineyards been today.

the sides

made, t o

crops. of

Sometimes,

up i n t h e J a b a l catch

Akhdar, sudden tiny have

brilliant

fruit-b1ossom sour grape.

t h e eye, and terraces

produce

a small

Many m o r e than

p a i n s t a k i n g l y c u t o u t o f t h e rock

are cultivated

Local designing much

tradition

i s that channels, life;

King

Solomon

had a have

hand i n been s o developed

the intricate

or fulu1 they were two

that

a f e a t u r e o f Oman's by

certainly thousand

extensively Sometimes the sides

the Persians deep

over

years

ago.

running of

underground outcrops,

f o r 30k. o r more, across

o r around

rocky

and

intricately-built

Ch. 1:

Geographical

perspectives:

Page 17

viaducts, t h e f u l u.1 r e q u i r e c o n s t a n t maintenance. As they flow through a village, stages for different usage a r e c a r e f u l l y arranged: d r i n k i n g water, personal hygiene, c l o t h e s ' washing, and f i n a l l y c r o p irrigation, as a r e t h e t i m e s each family i s allowed t h e f l o w of water t o reach i t s own p a l m grove. C o n t r o l i s e f f e c t i v e l y o p e r a t e d w i t h g a p s i n t h e f a l .1 w a l l , b l o c k e d and u n b l o c k e d w i t h l a r g e s t o n e s and rags. In a t h o u s a n d a n d m o r e l o n g h o t s u m m e r s , T h e ma.1 l i s o r m e e t i n g r o o m o f a n y Omani f o r t o r p r i n c i p a l home o r be i t i n a v i l l a g e , h a s p r o b a b l y had t h e water r i g h t s , t i m i n g , and speed o f f l o w , t o each and e v e r y p a l m - g a r d e n o f a community, and any v a r i a t i o n s to the rule, as t h e main topic o f debate. Could such e s s e n t i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h a t o f t h e B r i t i s h , in t h e i r pre-occupation w i t h the weather?

Each

community

dependent a

on

single

f a 1.1

in

settlement society, rooted caused

represents

self-sufficient co-operate,

hydrological despite which towers deeply have and there -

whose members differences separate t o be

must

and

tribal

enmities with

fortified built. quarters, the basic between quarter they

quarters In- I z k i called tribal Hinawi

battlements are which like

f o r example, Yaman and

two a d j o i n i n g represent

Nizar

difference and

i n Oman The

the divisions of each

Ghaflrl.

inhabitants to each

are historically a r e dependant t o co-operate. wars were of on

opposed t h e same wars ninth

other,

b u t as

falaj -

system,

are compelled the

Civil the

particularly AD (third much

disastrous AH) -

century

century of the that

responsible f o r system, were times. a and under But

destroying there i s no

country's much larger

f a 1.1 areas

doubt even

cultivation even what this

i n comparatively area would only

recent have

larger

been

part of

was c u l t i v a t e d

i n the s i x t h

century

AD.^

Ch.

1; Geographical

perspectives:

Page 18

Behind the coastal plain o f Dhofar, in limited f r a n k i n c e n s e t r e e s , c a r e f u l l y husbanded.

areas

are

Nearly fishermen, of

as

many

Omanls

would

traditionally long been

have

been

and t h e more

adventurous

have

the traders Sea i s

t h e I n d i a n Ocean. i n a wide variety

The G u l f

o f Oman a n d t h e A r a b i a n Where t h e H a j a r barren life;

rich meet the

o f sea l i f e .

mountains above reefs plants, range o f sometimes both for

t h e sea, what waterline, a whole squid

seem

t o be c o m p l e t e l y team with

fjords coral of huge are

underneath

support

interdependent and m o l l u s c s , Great shoals

eco-system as a

crustaceans, tropical trawled food

as w e l l of

fish.^ up o n t o

sardines

t h e beach,

and a f t e r

d r y i n g , a r e used

and f o r v a l u a b l e

fertilisers.

Between more after barren rain

t h e farmers lands, in as

and t h e fishermen, Arabia as a

t h e bedu whole. of

roam t h e Sometimes

across

the will

mountains, turn green be

large,

areas

apparently

lifeless and goats

desert and these

f o r a few days herded

i n t h e outwash, feeding may be

camels days

will though,

t o temporary valuable camels

grounds; transported however, arab all

t h e more

i n t h e back

of a Toyota

pick-up. between

I t must city or

be n o t e d settled where

that

the classical badw. Omani

division

hadan, of

a n d nomad

i s not appropriate society is tribal

t o Oman, and

traditional

therefore

badw. ^

Ch. 1; Geographical p e r s p e c t i v e s :

Page 19

O i l was s t r u c k o n l y t h i r t y y e a r s a g o , a f t e r t h i r t y y e a r s of e x p l o r a t i o n made d i f f i c u l t b y l i m i t e d p o l i t i c a l hegonomy. Economic development was s t r i c t l y l i m i t e d f o r t e n years; o n l y i n t h e l a s t t w e n t y y e a r s h a s t h e r e been r a p i d g r o w t h o f urban areas. Now m o s t Omani f a m i l i e s w i l l have one o r two members w o r k i n g i n t h e C a p i t a l . Expatriate workers f i n d t h e i r way n o t o n l y t o t h e u r b a n c e n t r e s , b u t a l s o i n t o t h e l o n e l i e s t wadis, as f a r m - 1 a b o u r e r s as w e l l as t e a c h e r s and nurses; s t a t e e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h - c a r e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l .

The restoration; from

o l d town they

forts

remain,

many

undergoing a

careful l o n g way

guard

t h e pa 1 m - g r o v e s , s o m e t i m e s otherwise, t h e presence demolished although deep among the

t h e mountains; give away

mountains, The old

watch-towers Suq o r Market

of habitation. and r e b u i l t

has been mud,

i n many

towns; cooling

concrete quality. focuses the

replaces With on an

without

t h e same modern

o i l industry

t o protect,

armament in of

the airfields Thumrait

o f Musandam, guard army

S i b , and MasTrah; against builds the threat

south,

and S a l a l a h A sizable tribes.

incursion tradition history which part Sinbad

from of

Yemen.

on t h e f i g h t i n g and trading boats

independent

The

fishing

contribute i n the Gulf

t o t h e Oman War

navy,

with

i t spatrol

of the Eighties, o f Hormuz t o be

played open; a

a significant the- s t o r i e s o f of many

i n keeping

the Straits are

the sailor, tales

likely

composite sailors,^ has been

travellers' navy base

told

by

returning Suhar

Omani

A new recently

a t Wudam,

between

and Barkah

Ch.

1: Geographical

perspectives;

Page 20

completed, 40k. away,

by m o v i n g a huge q u a n i t y o f r o c k t o c o n s t r u c t t h e harbour wall.

from

behind

Rustiq

In appointed

the last

year

o r so, E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g forts. Tourism, Only

guides

have

been

t o the larger i s being t o Oman

although thirty years

carefully ago, a

controlled, general although One guide

developed. could speak

of a total

lack

of tourism,

anticipating day there

i t s coming: will be afternoon coach trips from

Muscat and ford

t o Fanjah

f o r i t i s only version a falaj, over be a a

fifty

miles

distant, a

is a distilled over t h e wadi, like eagles will

o f a l l Omani date steep groves,

villages;

watch-towers mountains and very of

hanging behind. pleasant camels

village, there,

There too. plod

restaurant

I used

t o enjoy

watching through

a string the

very

purposefully

shallow

wa t e r . . .^ There to i s now a l o n g high on over cantilevered bridge the o l d ford. of sweeping The t h e main Itself road is

Nizwah

village

abandoned where as

the side

t h e mountain, supply.

for flatter And c o a c h t o Nizwah,

ground

pumps now d r i v e as 900 with

t h e water

t r i p s , yes, Sur, and t o be

well

the regular kilometres

'bus s e r v i c e away. need Such of a 4.3

Salalah, balanced have huge

sentiment nation billion

needs

t h e economic o i l

which

does n o t A

known

reserves

barrels.'"^

tourism could show,

that

i s sensitive

t o t h e customs

of the inhabitants will attempt t o world.

be b e n e f i c i a l there i s much

t o Oman, a n d a s t h i s that Oman h a s t o t e a c h

study

t h ewider

Ch, 1: Geographical p e r s p e c t i v e s ;

Page 21

NOTES AND

REFERENCES:

1.

HAWLEY, D o n a l d ,

1 9 8 9 , Oman a n d i t s R e n a i s s a n c e . London, Society.

Stacey

International, 2. National Geographic East.

( r e v i s e d e d i t i o n ) p.54 January 1 9 9 1 , Map o f the

Middle 3. CARTER,

J.R.L.,

1982, T r i b e s

I n Oman. P e n i n s u l a r Pub.,

London, p.10 4. WILKINSON, J.C., 1 9 8 7 , T h e I m i m a t e U n i v e r s i t y Press, tradition o f Oman.

Cambridge 5.

p.lOlo p . c i t . p. 132 operation c a n be of Oman op.

HAWLEY, D. , Oman a n d I t s R e n a i s s a n c e , Other found detail i n : and about J. C. f u 1 u.j

and t h e i r

WILKINSON, Imamate

i n Journal tradition

S t ud1es.

i n The

o f Oman.

c i t . , pp. 2 3 - 5 6. BOSCH, D r D o n a l d Oman, the 1973, of have a n d Mrs E l o i s e , published o f Oman, several (medical books missionaries i n on t h e s u b j e c t o f Sea-shells Also, o f Oman.

sea-1ife

including:)

Longmans, London Arabia.

a n d New Y o r k .

Sea-She 11s United

Southern

1989, M o t i v a t e

Publishing,

Arab 7. WILKINSON, p94 8. SEVERIN,

Emirates. J.C., T h e I m a m a t e tradition o f Oman, o p . c i t .

T i m , 1982, The S i n b a d

Voyage.

Hutchinson

a n d Co.,

London, p l 7 9. SKEET, I a n , 1 9 8 5 , Oman b e f o r e and Faber, as Muscat London, 1970. t h e end o f an e r a . 1 9 8 5 , p. 2 1 2 ( F i r s t published

Faber 1974,

a n d Oman.the end o f an e r a )

Ch.

1:

Geographical p e r s p e c t i v e s :

Page 22

10.

National Geographic J a n u a r y 1991.

Society

Map

of

the Middle

East,

Page 23

2.

AN

E A R L V

H I S T O R Y

OF"

I B A D I S M ;

The He was a

I baijl

a r e named of

after

'^Abdullah b i n I b a d , o f Jabir b i n Zayd

Basrah. al-AzdT, There the of

disciple how

Abu' 1 Sha'-'-^tha' learned of news

from are

Oman;

Jabir

Islam,

i s uncertain. first reached

various stories either

o f how side of

o f Muhammad There

settlements Mazin been Bani from the the man call

the Hajar. from

i s the story

b i n G h a d u b a h , who guarding Al-Samit behind h i s idol tribes the idol,

came Najir,

t h e town

of Samail. by Bani

He h a d

worshipped when

Khatoma and a voice among from 'A the

i n Samail, telling

one d a y he h e a r d t h e Prophet Then a man He

him of

sent came

Arabs

and t e l l i n g a n d was

him to trust asked: 'what and

him.

a 1 - H i .1 a z. called of

i s t h e news?' tells everyone: and

said:

Ahmad

has appeared So Mazin The them

Accept went

God. ' of God.

crushed

h i s idol

to the the

Prophet people be

Prophet

prays

f o r Oman: Maz i n ,

'guide

a n d make no

firm'. over

' More! ' s a y s them from four a

' t h e sea t o them. '

bountiful, life

enemy

those wives,

n o t among

Mazin's Hiyan

changed,

he had o n l y became

and a son c a l l e d and had good

b i n Mazin.

Oman

fertile

land

fishing.

It religion economic

was a s i f M a z i n was

wanted would

t o s a y f o r t h e Oman i s : be adopted,

'The new could be kind

welcome and and

but please also is a

benefits The

political granted by

independence t h e Prophet

safeguarded?' of if theological Omanis are

blessing

and p o l i t i c a l to consent

recognition to any rule,

o f t h e Omani r e q u e s t ; i t will have t o be

Ch.

Early History:

Page 24

i n t e r n a l l y accepted, a n d n o t imposed by e x t e r n a l - d o m i n a t i o n . Whether this particular narrative i s authentic i n every detail, or only i n general, i t s t i l l summarises c l e a r l y and precisely t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e Omanis from their new religion. Moreover, s i n c e t h e time o f a l - " A w t a b I (5th/llth century), i t h a s been t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t the status i n w h i c h Omanis l i v e , h a s been g r a n t e d t o them by no l e s s t h a n the Prophet himself. The b a t t l e s t h a t were f o u g h t , and t h e political a n d e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t f o l l o w e d , a r e t o be explained from t h i s deeply r e l i g i o u s s t a n d p o i n t . ^

The

records

a r e more of

reliable, Mazln,

and w i t h o u t that Amr

necessarily a was main

contradicting merchant sent tribes Julandy later built by from

the story Makkah,

b i n al-'=As,

of the prophet's

tribe

t h e Quraish, The

Muhammad

to consolidate a n d 'Adnan,

Islam

i n Oman.

were

al-Azd

under

the leadership of King Amr was mosque was exists

and then

h i s sons,

p r i n c e s J a y f a r a n d '-"Abd. o f Egypt, and a large

t o become i n Cairo

the governor i n h i s honour;

b u t no s i m i l a r

memorial

i n Oman.

The which

text

of the letter, t o Oman, those I

said

t o be

from

t h e Prophet,

Amr c a r r i e d be upon

i s (after who call follow you be

the BIsmillah): the true to embrace for I ( I have will religion. Islam am the

Peace After accept

compliments, i t and o f God living you

will

saved,

messenger warn

t o a l l humanity. that

come) t o befall you w i l l , i t , your

the

affliction Islam,

unbelievers. all will

I f you accept

as I hope

be w e l l ,

but i f you r e f u s e t o accept

Ch.

Early History;

Page 25

kingdom grounds kingdom.' prophet Muhammad

will and

vanish my

a n d my

horses will

will triumph

trample over

your your

religion

The l e t t e r which read:

was s t a m p e d There i s no

with God

the seal

ofthe and

but Allah

i s t h e Messenger

of Allah.-*

Did fear, King

t h e people

o f Oman a c c e p t

Islam

out of conviction or will quote i n the a

strategy Solomon's Surah

or expediency? letter 27;

IbadT

sympathisers of of Sheba how

to Bilqls, as an

Queen example

Qur'an.

27-31

i t was

conversion by formal

of conviction.^ letter t o become refusal

B u t i t was a l s o a was follower

strategy:

invited

of Islam,

a n d when t h e governor by

no-doubt-expected of the then took the the Rustaq

received,

the Persian

on t h e e a s t e r n

side

of t h e mountains

was b e s i e g e d

Azd p r i n c e s , t h e main

'"Abd a n d h i s b r o t h e r . g a r r i s o n a t Suhar. lands,

They e x p e l l e d h i m , and Thus t h e Arab Azdi's by at

Persian

possession Persians, foot The

of settled with their

so l a b o r i o u s l y o r f a 1.1

developed systems,

waterchannel,

of the Hajar Persians

mountains.: obliged they to leave Their a l l the gold, properties were

were

silver taken Some from kind

and weaponry as s a w a f I of

had.

(state)

domains.^ of wealth took place resulting to the

redistribution Islamic by

t h e new

egalitarian

principles,

so adding Muhammad

affluence (168-230 alms from

felt AH/

t h e common AD)

populace. that

I b n Sa-^d took

784-845

mentions

'-^Amr b i n al-'-^A^ t h e m among

the rich

people,

and d i s t r i b u t e d

t h e poor

people.^

Ch.

Early History;

Page 26

Amr b i n a l - ' - A s r e m a i n e d i n Oman f o r t w o y e a r s u n t i l t h e death o f t h e Prophet. He t h e n r e t u r n e d t o M a k k a h , w i t h '=Abd, one o f t h e A z d i p r i n c e s . C a l i p h S a y y a d i n a Abu B a k r welcomed prince Abd w i t h h i s accompanying Azd n o b i l i t y t o Medlnah; good r e l a t i o n s remained, except f o r a case o f t r o u b l e over taxes. During -^^Umar's caliphate, Oman was under t h e

Governorship Headquarters brother into

o f 'Uthman i n Bahrain. i n 6 3 4 AD/

b i n al-'-As 'Abd 13 AH.

a l Thaqafl,

who

had

his

b i n Julandy

died,

and h i s Oman,

Jayfar

'Abd's s o n t h e n

ruled

t h e C a l i p h a t e s o f '^^Uthman a n d 'AlT.

There important western and fall.

i s one o t h e r

strand

from

the early Jabal

stories Akhdar,

that i s on t h e wells

t o t h e I bad"! . . . . the city

Not f a rf r o m draws

side,

o f Nizwah

i t s water,

from

South

and west

o f Nizwah

l i e desert, made

such

a s Rub'^

al-KhalT. defence. behind of

t h e Empty Near

Quarter;

i tthus

a good

centref o r of Firq; steeples

t o the ancient city, outcrops little o f , the

i s t h e palm-grove mountains often loom, hides

the village, despite

rock;

rain, morning.

cloud

t h e peaks,

particularly those holy

i n theearly

I was t h e r e o n e dawn; f o r this 18 i s surely after one o f Islam's Abu' 1

sensitive places. Jabir

t o t h e numinous, About b i n Zayd t h e year al-Azdl,

the Hljrah, at Firq.^ During

Sha'"tha' be of called

was b o r n

He was t o t h e time

t h e 'rock of

f o u n d a t i o n ' o f Ibadism.'^ 'MJthman -

the third left

the caliphs

after

t h e Prophet, more o f

Jabir Islam.

Nizwah,

and j o u r n e y e d

t o Basrah

t o learn

Ch. 2

Early History:

Page 27

T h e r e , i t i s s a i d , J a b i r met w i t h some o f t h e P r o p h e t ' s companions, i n c l u d i n g '^A'ishah, t h e P r o p h e t ' s w i f e , and was a c q u a i n t e d w i t h s e v e n t y o f t h o s e who h a d b e e n a t t h e b a t t l e o f Badr, He b e c a m e a f r i e n d o f H a s a n a l - B a s r l , t h e Muf tT of

Basrah, Muslims

and from

around North of

them Africa -

formed t o be

group

which named I t source a most

included after is of the Jabir I badT

eventually bin the Ibad. main as

contemporary however, teachings, Muslim, who

Jabir,

'-Abdullah i n Oman SunnT as and

i s reckoned by

'considered

IbadT. ' '

learned

of equal

eminence w i t h

t h e Muf tT.

From the earliest

the

companions of

of

the

Prophet, His

Jabir

was

probably work i t is was now

collector and copy library

traditions. of five found

original but

called lost, century

t h e D i wa n. 'the in only the

consisted of of it was the

parts; in about at

the

3rd/9th His appear or and

'--Abbasids these

Baghdad.'' which

followers in the

i t seems, I bad i

also

recorded

ahadTth. Jami'= Abu

'foundation' together with

document, sayings

the of

al-Sahih ''-Ubaydah

Thulath i yat.

'^^AbduUah b i n A b b a s .

The concept in AH) the and. of time

early the of pure the

IbadT

distinctiveness state which Abu AH),

centred they

around

the

Islamic first AD/ the

believed AD/

existed 11-13 to be

Caliphs 13-23 time they of

Bakr

(632-634

'-^^Umar

(634-44 in

before

i t came AD/

corrupted AH). that

believe claim

'^-Uthmin a

(644-56 true that

23-35 system four

Their was

is that and more

developed

legal of

earlier

authentic

than

the

Ch. 2

Early History;

Page 28

o r t h o d o x s c h o o l s . T h o s e who d o n o t r e g a r d t h e m o v e m e n t a s a true return to fundamentals, rather one of the various Khawar i . . o r 1 'outsiders' sects, would probably impute the l o w e r m o t i v e o f g r a b b i n g t h e main chance, i n t e r m s o f power both i n Basrah, and i n t h e i r homelands. E i t h e r way, Ibad! doctrine came t o be tested, i n the troubles that then enveloped Islam.

The from

story

of d i v i s i o n

i n t h e house o f I s l a m has been

told

many p e r s p e c t i v e s . Salll and after b i n Razik accurate the begins his history; agree and in 'The this, most that learned whereas had was

historians disturbances

dissensions

which

occurred

among

the people, in

t h e supreme

authority The

eventually G.P. the

vested

Mu'-awTyah. . . ' The

translator is to

Badger adds a f o o t n o t e ; d i f f e r e n c e s among

reference here which

t h e Mussulmans the election the

led to the

assassination subsequent Hasan, favour who of

o f 'Uthman,

o f 'AlT a n d h i s of h i s son in these will

deposition, eventually Mu'-awTyah. feuds,

and

accession the

resigned A succinct from

Khalifate, of

account

intestine be found

chiefly

original

sources,

i n t h e Modern

Universal History,

v o l . i.. .

From with by saw AD/

an

I bad!

perspective; by a 'Amr, new

Caliph

-Uthman

had

been

charged

nepotism

Governor o f Egypt; Governor.

'"Uthman The

retaliated people i n 656

appointing fit 35

Egyptian

Egyptian t o Medlnah

to support AH, to k i l l

'Amr,

and a g r o u p marched Then

'-"^Uthman.

f o l l o w e d t h e d i s p u t e between

'AlT,

Hasan,

Hussain,

a n d Mu'--awTyah.

Ch. 2

Early History:

Page 29

The q u e s t i o n i s r a i s e d , was t h e r e a n y s p e c i f i c Omani r o l e i n t h e F i r s t C i v i l War? Were t h e r e a n y e a r l y i n c i d e n t s t h a t m i g h t e x p l a i n some o f t h e m a j o r a t t i t u d e s o f o p t i o n s f o l l o w e d by t h e Omanis l a t e r on? One o f t h e m a j o r c r i t i c i s m s against '"'Uthman - w h i c h was a t t r i b u t e d t o ^-AlT - was t h a t :

. . , he from

prevented selling

t h e people food

of

al-Bahrayn food of

a n d '"Uman alms was

their

until

sold,.. Al-Khirrit of three b i n Rashid hundred After Banu al-Sami Najiyah ( d . 3 8 AH/ was w i t h the 6 5 8 AD) a t t h e h e a d i n the battle of a series of

'---Ali

SafTn. theological the well who the and

al-tahkTm

arbitration, began,

and m i l i t a r y of al-KhirrTt

confrontations a n d some

which

l e dt o as

killing

o f t h e Banu members

Najiyah,

as t h e enslavement after being Muslims,

of f i v e

hundred

of the tribe, during Oman Ph.D.

had r e v e r t e d explored,

to Christianity i n Early a

turmoil. Early

This

i s further

Islamic

Ibadism

i n t h e Arabic

Sources.

Cambridge

thesis,

b y Ahmad ' U b a y d 11. ^ ^ ^

The he

struggle

lasted

five

years,

and ended

f o r ' ^ A l i when a f e w days

was a t t a c k e d A

as he e n t e r e d nine months tried

a mosque passed, rally

- he d i e d while their

later. the

further of

t h e s h i ' " a t-'"--Al i . forces against persuaded Safin, to

party

''-All,

to

Mu'^-awTyah; his

but, with (with

an army an army

o f 60,000, of only

Mu-'-awIyah at

opponents what

40,000)

accept to be

seemed

at first

like

a compromise,

but turned out The b a t t l e had

capitulation f o r weeks -

t o h i m (AD 6 5 7 / 3 6 A H ) . b u t on i t ' s most decisive

lasted

d a y , Mu'^-awiyah

Ch. 2

Early History:

Page 30

had h i s w a r r i o r s p u t p a g e s o f t h e Q u r ' a n on t h e i r l a n c e s , thus i n d i c a t i n g h i s d e s i r e t o d e c i d e t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s on t h e b a s i s of t h e Qur'"an. 'AlT r e l u c t a n t l y agreed, setting up t w o g e n e r a l s , one f r o m each s i d e , t o a r b i t r a t e . A g r o u p o f "'AlT's s o l d i e r s , m a i n l y o f t h e t r i b e o f TamTm, s a w t h i s a s e l e v a t i n g t h e d e c i s i o n o f men o v e r t h a t o f God a n d w i t h d r e w t o a n e a r b y village to protest. Here they elected a fellow soldier, '-Abdullah b i n Wahb a l - R a s T b i as t h e i r leader. I t was t h i s move w h i c h g a v e t h e g r o u p i t ' s name, K h a w a r 1.1 . t h a t i s t o s a y , the 'seceders'.

When more

the arbitration joined

went

i n favour

o f Mu'-''awTyah, thus

many a

soldiers

the Kharijite which

cause,

causing

radical to

opposition

force

promptly everyone

r e j e c t e d 'AlT's who d i d n o t a g r e e '-AlT was i n an

claim with

the caliphate

and branded from

them, move their

as a p o s t a t e s against main them, camp,

the true

faith.

forced to attack on as on a

and k i l l e d but their

most

o f them

survivors that

continued have

guerilla main their wife's family Ali favour the then body

force;

i tcould ever ''AlT

be s a i d since.

they

harassed the one o f of h i s

o f Muslims killed

I n 6 6 1 AD/

4 1 AH,

number family. dynasty

i n revenge became

f o r t h e death Caliph, Islam. he

Mu'-awTyah

the f i f t h within

and began a The p a r t y o f abdicated murdered, in on

f o r t h e Sunnl h i s son

group as

proclaimed

Hasan

Caliph;

of h i s brother t h e month

Hussain

who was v i o l e n t l y a date very

10th of

Muharram

special

since

t o the Shl^^ites.

Ch.

Early History:

Page 31

Many Khawar i j . A z a r i qah violence of in in

I badi

do

not they

consider would century

themselves regard (A.H.), for

to

be

among as

the the

Rather, the

groups

such for

first of as

'known

their murder

resolution people'

disputes, Khawar i j . : the and

f a n a t i c i s m and

defenceless Of a l l of

these the of

movements, Muslim

most the

dangerous most

to

the on

unity account was gave and

Empire

terrible

i t s

ferociously led by

uncompromising bin

character which FSrs

without the other

doubt

Nafi'--

al-Azrakh of Kirman,

Khawarij eastern

temporary

control

provinces. . .

Some more that were Nafi'^^

IbadT recent they, less bin

I have

spoken

to, would as

regard

those

who

follow

the

Wahhab i m o v e m e n t in return, are

Khawar i j . w h i l e as Khawar1j . from a

acknowledging The split Suf r 1 y y a h between bin

regarded they

'extremist'; al-Azrakh on the and issue

originate the

his of

colleague i s t i'--rad

TamTmT A b d u l l a h = of

al-Saffar, and their

( t h e murder I bad!.

adversaries and his the possunjust. being been The

familes),''^ preferred to

Like work

the for

al-Saffar reform accept

followers Muslim ibility Although 'part classed fact and

peaceful was, ruler to was

within the

community; of the revolt I bad"

their only

position i f a

clearly denying

draw c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n s of the Khawar i j . by they

here, have

parcel' the

usually

with

Khawar i j that were

everyone and his

but

themselves.

i s not

disputed, Ibad,

Jabir among But, in

followers, who did not

including want to

^-Abdullah compromise to be so

bin with

those as

M'^ a w T y a h . u^^ peaceable

their of

doctrines living

developed alongside

largely

terms

Ch, 2

Early History;

Page 32

others, standing (with a few violent exceptions) for t o l e r a n c e , i f t h e y a r e t o be c l a s s e d w i t h t h e Khawar i . . a t 1 l e a s t i t s h o u l d b e w i t h some q u a l i f i c a t i o n . ' ' ^

As Ibad

t h e one a f t e r

whom t h e I b a d i a r e named, Ahmed Hamoud

Abdullah b i n

i s described

by S h e i k h

Al-Maamiry:

He not by he

was

a great

teacher

and a s t a u n c h or allow His belief h i s fear the truth

Muslim

who

would lured

compromise

his faith

himself

t o be

worldly attractions. knew no fear to except

was u n s h a k a b l e a n d and would n o t when

o f God, or

hesitate

speak

reprimand

necessary...

Abdullah bin to Marwan the

b i n Ibad i n which

received he

a letter

f r o m '--Abdul

Malik regard took

sought events

h i s opinion with and he to those wrote him which

then

prevailing and

place letter which death

previously, of have reproach been

i n reply,

h i s famous mistakes after the

explaining by which

the

made Omar

rel.igious caused

leaders divisions

of Caliph into

among t h e

Muslims

v a r i o u s groups and s e c t s . . . .

Among Marwan the God this

other

things

""Abdullah

wrote

in his letter you dispute God;

to

the following; o f God, -

... I n w h a t

about is and us,

Book my

i t s Judgement on Him path I trust that God

i s with

that

Master

and t o Him I l e a n , has g u i d e d before

i s the clear

Muhammad - P e a c e b e u p o n h i m - a n d t h e t w o a p p r o p r i a t e Caliphs astray after and him. whoever So w h o e v e r abandons f o l l o w s h i m does n o t go him does not receive

guidance. =

Success Mu'-"awiyah

had

marked a

the beginning o f Basrah

of

their was

development, sympathetic

appointed

Governor

who

Ch, 2

Early History;

Page 33

t o t h e I bad! ; r e - o r g a n i s i n g t h e c i t y i n t o akhmas ( f i f t h s ) , t h e I bad 1 A z d i ' s were g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . More A z d l ' s a r r i v e d i n B a s r a h t o s h a r e i n power. Their leader a l Muhallab bin abi Suf r a gained control of the city so e f f e c t i v e l y t h a t i t became known as B a s r a h a l M u h a l l a b , 3,000 A z d i ' s f o u g h t i n h i s army a g a i n s t t h e Khawari.i . The Ibadi u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f I s l a m had g a i n e d s u p p o r t f r o m t h o s e who were t o o p o w e r f u l p o l i t i c a l l y ( t h e Qa'-ad t h e q u i e t i s t s ^ ' ) , t o r i s k l o s i n g power by b e h a v i n g l i k e t h e Khawar i . 1

However, when M u h a l l a b d i e d 702 took first Basrah. to a turn of f o r t h e worse. Ummayyad

AD/

82

AH,

their

fortunes

'Abdul M a l i k and

b i n Marwan became t h e the I bad! of as

the

caliphs,

mistrusted

J a b i r and of The HaJJaj

h i s f r i e n d s attempted the s t a t e of new bin governor Yusif, was the set Islam, of out but Iraq

a d e b a t e w i t h him, they failed by to

the nature

reach '-Abdul of

agreement. Malik, the Al

appointed the

to destroy

power

I bad i ;

Ummayyad r u l e Jabir chose

t o have no way of

opposition.

Facing and

persecution, continued from his

passive but

opposition, he

leadership returning

in secret; to Nizwah;

finally,

withdrew to North

Basrah,

others

returned

Africa.

Al blind with and

HaJJaj poor

had Abu

imprisoned

one

of

Jabir's followers, Karlma

the

'^"Ubaydah M u s l i m Zamam bin

b i n Abi al-Saib.

Al-Tamlmy, alleged Abu food

another

follower,

Despite

atttempts

to k i l l

them w i t h a d i e t (with

o f o n l y o i l and

maize,

'"Ubaydah s u r v i v e d

the h e l p of h i s f r i e n d s smuggling

Ch. 2

Early History:

Page 34

to

them),

and

he

came

to

have

wide

significance,

as

strategist

f o r t h e I bad!.

The c o n c e p t have shares election political/ t o have with a

o f k i t man - where t h e s t a t e o f IslaTm d i d n o t visible leader began i n Basrah. else, An IbadT of

t h e K h a r a w i .1 .

i f nothing

the doctrine or

f o r t h e ImiTm: expedient

i f no-one an

is suitable, Imam, t h e n

i f i tis

not t o elect

k i t ma n a l l o w s '

t h i s s t a t e of a f f a i r s ,

Ahmad I badT

'"-Ubaydli

presents

a c o n v i n c i n g argument as b e i n g founder t h e reason of Ibadism

f o r the the He

understanding as that behind t o who

o f k i t man the real

behind was.

confusion suggests hidden,

the actual

l e a d e r s h i p o f J a b i r was of the group after

intentionally

t h e naming

one o f J a b i r ' s

disciples, It but

namely ^Abdullah b i n I bad. some c o n s c i o u s leader was while i n secrecy was t o be d e c i s i o n must have been t o be h i g h l y yet in full leader educated the d a i l y control. of the point follow

appears t h a t that of t o be k e p t person

made

the real

and f a r away f r o m the public the public However, he

affairs Another movement, of view of image

t h e movement

who was t o be s t r o n g f r o m t h e m i l i t a r y and a b l e t o secure t h e movement. was to

l e a d e r s h i p and

sincerely (see Chapters of

t h e commands o f t h e r e a l t e n and e l e v e n k i tman

leader. implications The present of the Grand rule

on p o s s i b l e today).

doctrine Mufti that

i n dialogue

o f Oman s a y s o f t h a t f o i l owed:

p e r i o d , and o f t h e '-Abbasid

Ch. 2

Early History:

Page 35

many

tongues rule

shouted which

against digressed

them.... from the

despite correct

tyrannical system of

Islam. . . .

Some IbadT f l e d and with fought an off of their

to t h e i r

f a s t n e s s of first from

the Hajar

mountains, Then,

a t t a c k e r s at

successfully. the

army Al

40,000

conscripted a

AzdT's n a t u r a l attack. It the was

enemies, launched from for on the

HujaJ two

masterminded prongs, side of who one Ras fled on

determined the Batinah This

with the Azdi

coast, proved

other

west

Musandam. to exile, A revolt AzdT

t o o much Africa. AD/ 102

leaders, k i tman

some t o East 720 in the

A p e r i o d of AH, The are proved words of

followed. many the

i n Basrah, dying

unsuccessful, the song of

troops

battle. I bad"!

victorious

enemies o f

recorded; The fires of Al Mazun <a sneering reference are you to the

persianised They sought

Omanis) and

i t s peoples but

extinguished. have soldier left to no al

to k i n d l e a r e v o l t , them to follow

standard

for

nor

any

Muhal l a b ' s p e o p l e . ^ ' ^^

Back was a released

i n Basrah, from

on

the

death

of

Al

HuJaJ, 'he

Abu

-"Ubaydah teach in

p r i s o n , on

c o n d i t i o n that as

d i d not

single letter, '

Establishing himself

a basket-weaver

a basement, Abu From Oman; Habib bin author

Ubaydah t a u g h t many I mam of from from from A l - S h a r y Abu Al-Musnad Qarasan: al-HiJaz; Egypt; Abi

people; Al-Rabii bin Al-Julandy

Hamza, I mam

al-Sahih.

ImaTm

Masoud;

Hashim' b i n '"Abdullah a l Muhammad bin bin "-"Abbas a l al-Masry; from the

Qarasany; Madany; from

Muhammad

"^'Abd

Iraq;

Ghassan B a k r y

b i n 'Umru;

Ch. 2 Early History:

Page 36

Yemen;

I mem

Talib

Al-Haq,

known

as ''Abdullah b i n

Yahya a l - K i n d y , Also f r o m t h e Yemen, came Abu Sagaaf a l - M u a s ~ r y al-Yamany.=^

A watchman anyone a p p r o a c h e d lessons Abu and b e g i n

would

give

the alarm

by p u l l i n g

a chain i f stop

who was n o t among them, t o make b a s k e t s . world events,

and t h e y would

Confined

i n h i s basement, h i s students, The I bad i were

'Ubaydah w a t c h e d to influence

and t h r o u g h way.

began

them

i n a remarkable

b e c o m i n g an a c t i v e understand 'call' God; better

political than other

movement, b e l i e v i n g Muslims which their

themselves t o their

da^wah,*'^ -

f r o m God, and t h e ' c a l l '

they o f f e r Islam.

on b e h a l f o f

t o believe i n the true r e l i g i o n ,

In North perhaps view'

the next

chapter,

t h e development will

o f t h e I bad i i n I t is

Africa

and S o u t h

Arabia

be c o n s i d e r e d . with a

salutary

t o conclude

this a

chapter

'balancing J. C.

(but not necessarily The Imamate

conclusive

one) from

Wilkinson, for this The

tradition

o f Oman, one o f t h e s o u r c e s

chapter; fact i s that the origins and development of

I bad i sm were much more r o u g h the standard madhhab

and r e a d y

than appears i n and i t s The

(school

of doctrine)

history, reality to by

e l a b o r a t e d over i s that Jabir

more t h a n

a millennium,

b i n Zayd

i s h a r d l y ever Oman, and

referred that h i s largely

the early

Jurists

of

collection the work

o f ahad1th

i s probably

spurious,

o f A. Ya'qub a l - W a r j l a n i that h i s successor pupil

i n the sixth/twelth never

century; have been

A, Ubaydah c o u l d

a proper

of Jabir's the inner view

B u t , what of Ibadlsm

matters

f o r understanding

Ch. 2 Early History;

Page 37

and Imamate l e g i t i m a c y d e v e l o p m e n t o f I bad i sm

i s t h e image

of

the early

N o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s :

1.

MAAMIRY, Ahmed H, A 1 - , 1989 ( r e v i s e d e d i t i o n ) , Ibadh1sm. Lancers Books, New D e l h i ,

Oman and (drawing

pp. 6-8

f r o m al-'^^^ A w t a b l , 1:257 - 5 t h / 1 1 t h C e n t u r y ) . 2. '^^UBAYDL~, Ahmad, 1989, E a r l y Islamic Oman and E a r l y Ph.D. T h e s i s ,

I bad i sm i n t h e A r a b i c S o u r c e s . Cambridge p. 41 3. HAWLEY, D o n a l d , 1989 ( r e v i s e d e d i t i o n ) ,

Oman and i t ' s

Rena1ssance. S t a c e y 4. 5. 6.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l , London, p.166

MAAMIRY, Ahmed H. A 1 - , Oman and I b a d h I s m , op. c l t . p. 9 ibid., p. 10 taxation i n the Classic

L^KKEGAARD, F, 1950, I s l a m i c period.

Copenhagan, p. 49 I s l a m i c Oman and E a r l y I b a d i s m . op.

7.

'-UBAYDLT, Ahmed, E a r l y c i t , , p, 40

8. 9.

E I ^ , V o l I I I p,649 MAAMIRY, A. H, A 1 - , Oman and I b a d h i s m , op. c i t . p. 28 op. c l t . p. 167

10. HAWLEY, D o n a l d , Oman and i t ' s R e n a i s s a n c e , 11. EI^, Vol. I l l p.649

12. MAAMIRY, A. H. A 1 - , Oman and I b a d h i s m , op. c i t . p. 30 13. K H A L I L I , Ahmed H, A 1 - , 1986, Who a r e t h e I b a d h i s ? . translated by A,H.Al-Maamiry, Oman, pp. 4-7

14. RAZIK, S., 1871, H i s t o r y o f t h e Imams and S e v y i d s o f Oman.

Ch, 2

Early History;

Page 38

translated impression 15.

and e d i t e d by G. P. Badger, London, (new 1986, D a r f P u b l i s h e r s , London) p.1 I s l a m i c Oman and E a r l y I b a d i s m . op.

'-UBAYDLI, Ahmad, E a r l y c i t . , p.45

16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

ibid. EI^, El\

p. 45 V o l . I V , p. 1075 V o l . IV ( p a r t 1 ) , p. 498, and E I ^ , V o l . I , p. 810

MAAMIRY, A. H. A 1 - , Oman and I b a d h l s m . op. c i t . p. 42 ibid, pp. 31-2

E I = , V o l , I I I p,648 '=UBAYDLT, Ahmad, E a r l y c i t . , p. 53/4 I s l a m i c Oman and E a r l y I b a d i s m . op,

23. 24.

KHALILI,

A.

H. A 1 - , Who a r e t h e I b a d h i ?

op. c i t . p.? i n The

WILKINSON,

J. C.,1972, ' O r i g i n s o f t h e Omani S t a t e ' Society and P o l i t i c s .

Arabian Peninsular.

E d i t e d by

D, Hopwood, London George A l l e n and Unwin, p, 74 25 26. E I = , V o l . I l l p.651 K H A L I L I , A. H. A 1 - , 1989, The S p r e a d o f I b a d h l s m i n Northern 27. 28. Africa. Oman, p.9

E I = , V o l , I I pp. 168-171 WILKINSON, p. 153 J, C , The Imamate t r a d i t o n o f Oman op, c i t .

Page 39

3 .

I B A D I S M A N D

I N

N O R X H A R A B I A .

A F R I C A

S O U T H

Abu --^Ubaydah s e n t h i s s t u d e n t Salamah b i n Sa'=d (722-3 104 AH) to the Maghrib^ after he had learned while

AD/

on t h e

hal: ...of teach prophet brought the oppressions that Islam by and his of t h e Umayyad Caliphs, of t h e Bani Caliphs... and is to not who

i s represented orthodox t h e example

by t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e Umayyad

represented

the r u l e devoid of Islam. from S i r t i t was on t h e L i b y a n c o a s t , continuing

So began h i s m i s s i o n to of Western A l g e r i a ; Imam A l - H a r i t h

c o n s o l i d a t e d under al-Hadrami,

the leadership ^Abd

bin Taliyd

and h i s G e n e r a l

al-Jabbar.

But Qayrawan the Abu could across the

t h e Umayyad

agent sent

'=Abd

al-Rahman purporting

b i n Habib t o discuss was

from with

(near T r i p o l i )

people

leaders, "-Ubaydah, be

but i n f a c t who

to k i l l

them.

A letter until

sent t o

counselled Salamah Four

caution, b i n Sa'-d

""Abd

al-Rahman

exposed. Africa.

continued

h i s mission

North

students

o f h i s a r e remembered by

I bad!

historians:

From

Libya,

Isma'-il

b i n Darrar from

a 1-Ghadami sy;

from

Algeria, Qibill

-^-Asim a l - S a d r a t i ;

T u n i s , Abu Dawud a l -

al-Nafzawa;

and '"Abdul Rahman b i n Rustam.

Abdul originally

Rahman from

bin

Rustam

came

from

Qayrawan,

but

was

Iran;

as a c h i l d

he had gone on h a j J

where

Ch. 3:

The j_badT i n North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 40

h i s f a t h e r d i e d , t h e n h i s m o t h e r ' s hand was a s k e d f o r by a man f r o m Qayrawan, I m p r e s s e d by t h e t e a c h i n g o f Salamah b i n Sa"=d, he r e t u r n e d t o B a s r a h (752-3 AD/ 135 AH) t o l e a r n a b o u t h i s father, but:

When he e n t e r e d Abu word '-"Ubaydah of God, aspirations

t h e basement was teaching, Never

where he

the great forgot of his

teacher a l lhis father's

a n d began

t o c o n c e n t r a t e on p r e a c h i n g t h e thinking

belongings the Muslim

o r o f a home, he b e l i e v e d t h a t i s where he can fulfil

t h e home o f religious

his

o b l i g a t i o n s a n d t e a c h t h e word o f God.-* Imam ' A b d u l = Jabal there of Hamld b i n Maghtir al-Nafusy had a l r e a d y come from

Nafusah until

t o Abu '-"Ubaydah. Imam

he r e t u r n e d home, and t a u g h t Abd al-Wahhab, t h e successor

as an o l d man,

' A b d u l Rahman b i n Rustam came t h e r e . "

From Joined him the the this

Yemen, from

Imam

Abu' 1-Khat t a b " Africa. tribal

al-MuafTry

al-Yamany appointed prevent

the four

North

Abu "^Ubaydah

the leader; spread North time,

knowing

that

f a v o u r i t i s m would

o f I b a d T t e a c h i n g s , he saw t h e a d v a n t a g e o f p u t t i n g A f r i c a n s under t h e Umayyad an Imam who was f r o m Caliphate had been t h e Yemen. By

replaced

by t h e

' Abbasid = and

dynasty,

'who were

no 'less I n o p p r e s s i o n ,

arrogance

tyranny.'

The f o u r ,

h a v i n g .pledged

t h e m s e l v e s t o --"Abu' 1o f T r i p o l i and Choosing t h e

Khattab

as Imam, went

t o t h e '=Abbasid g o v e r n o r them, or leaving.

gave h i m t h e o p t i o n o f j o i n i n g latter, himself, he was even with until given he

enough arrived

food in

and weapons t o d e f e n d Egypt There 'proving the

magnaminity

o f t h e I bad!

even

i n war.'^

i s a story of

Ch. 3:

The Ibad! i n North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 41

t h e war u n d e r t a k e n a g a i n s t Qayrawan's u n j u s t '"Abbasid r u l e r s , when t h e dead W a r s a j u n a s o l d i e r s were l e f t l y i n g w i t h t h e i r arms i n t a c t , and a p a s s i n g woman gave t h e b a t t l e i t ' s name; t h e b a t t l e o f s l e e p - r iqada. "-"Abdul Rahman b i n Rustam was a p p o i n t e d Imam o f Qayrawan.

Under Ash^ath overthrow retreat al

t h e '=Abbasid Khuza'-T,

Caliph

Al-Mansur, of

Muhammad was

bin sent

alto to

t h e governor

Egypt, this

'^Abu' 1 - K h a t t a b .

he a t t e m p t e d

by a p p e a r i n g

b e f o r e --"Abu' 1 - K h a t t a b ' s army, w h i c h Then t h e '"Abbasid were army

t h e n went home f o r attacked The and a t Imam of

harvesting. Tawargha

counter

many

I b a d i yyah

slaughtered.

Qayrawan made t o h e l p 'Abu' 1 - K h a t t a b ; tried to return t o Qayrawan only

on h e a r i n g he was dead to find t h e people had so he

revolted resorted

and had f o l l o w e d Omar b i n --^Uthman a l - Q u r a i s h y , t o t h e h i g h A t l a s mountains.

After retreated the into

Abu' 1 - K h a t t a b ' s the interior

death

t h e I b a d i yyah

remnant into

of T r i p o l i t a n l a

or crossed

central

Maghrib. from

Rahman b i n Rustam what i s now

rebuilt

t h e town o f there, sent to

Tahirt Ibadi sort

(inland

Algiers).

Centred governor

i n f l u e n c e grew

again.

t h e "Abbasid

o u t t h e I bad i y y a h made a good s t a r t , in battle, 771 AD/ over b u t was 154 AH. a wide then This killed time,

d e f e a t i n g Rahman b i n in a I bad! even skirmish at authority was

Rustam

Qayrawan,

unchallenged Ibadiyyah '-Abbasids

area,

possibly

as f a r as t h e both the over a

o f Oman. and

A temporary a

peace was made w i t h dynasty which ruled

the Aghlabids,

Ch. 3:

The IbadT i n North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 42

territory independent

which from

included

much

of

modern

Tunisia,

largely

t h e '=Abb'aslds.

Delegations many a became IbadT

were

sent

t o West and

Africa, now

' i n Ghana

and

Mali to as

Muslims...

until

are referred The

good

example Ibadi

in straightness muslims came

and

honesty...' the east with

story i s found

told the

how

from with

a i d and

Im'am w o r k i n g

i n t h e mud

the

builders:

Such

Imam for

never

wanted

positions, were

corruption, for the

no sake

comfort of in the

t h e m s e l v e s but of the

tolling They and used to

comfort to

people. people

t o go go

naked in was

order

clothe their

their

hungry

order

to feed

people.

Thus,

their

caliphate

tantamount (S.A.W. ) Ibadiyyah bin the

to the orthodox left for

caliphate

which That

the Prophet was how the

h i s companions. Africa.

spread

i n North '=Abd

After was

Abdul =

Rahman and The and

Rustam,

h i s son

al-Wahhab

elected,

d y n a s t y c o n t i n u e d f o r more t h a n period was known as the

1V6 c e n t u r i e s . of Justice

whole was have is

period Non

famous

for

i t s straightness. that period state for and

I bad 1 a u t h o r s today Algeria in i t s and

written of

about that

until

proud and

Rustamid was known

which

prevailed

soil

which

I t s Justice,

love

fairness.^

The 8th trade bin

town AD

of

Tahirt (2nd

had

become AH),

by the

the second centre

half

of

the

century

Century

for of

Intensive Imam Aflah an of soon

south across al-Wahhab

the Sahara; (823-71 the AD/

during 208-58 pf the

the r e i g n AH) there of

^Abd

was Ghana

even or

IbadT Gao. ^ '

ambassador But for

at

court

king

North

African

Ibadiyyah.

the

best

was

Ch, 3: The jbadi_ in North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 43

over. I n 8 3 9 AD/ 2 2 4 AH, a s a r e s u l t o f a t t a c k s by I b a d i tribesmen, the Aghlabids divided the Ibadl t e r r i t o r y i n two. T h e now w e a k e n e d T a h i r t Imamate c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 9 0 9 AD/ 2 9 6 AH when i t was c o n q u e r e d by t h e a r m i e s o f Abu Abdullah al-Shi'^i, who e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e r u i n s o f t h e R u s t a m i d and A g h l a b i d states, t h e new a n d p o w e r f u l F a t i m i d kingdom. = . The l a s t Imam. Abu Y u s u f Ya'=kub f l e d 2 5 0 m i l e s s o u t h t o t h e o a s i s o f Wargla. S e v e r a l a t t e m p t s w e r e made t o r e a s s e r t I bad i power, but t h e y a l l ended i n f a i l u r e .

In AH, in five

t h e n t h and 1 2 t h c e n t u r i e s centres the i n the region I bad!

AD/

3 r d and 4 t h c e n t u r i e s (Algeria) i n the were active

o f Mzab

keeping

flame, burning, towns

and

seventeenth religious became a to

century council French Algeria. the Jabol an

there

were

seven

governed

by a common the area was

- al-'^^azzabah. protectorate, Today and

I n 1835 AD/

1251 AH

i n 1882 AD/ Africa, Jerba

1299 AH

annexed

i n North on

I b a d i y y a h a r e t o be f o u n d i n : Island (Tunisia), and i n the

Mzab

(Algeria), (Libya).

Nafusah

The L i b y a n

group

d i d t r y to e s t a b l i s h 1329 AH b u t

Imamate

i n d e f i a n c e of I t a l i a n

rule

i n 1911 AD/

without

success.

One the

consequence

of the f a l l

of t h e T a h i r t l i b r a r y , there, Another

Imamate, burnt

was

d e s t r u c t i o n of a l Shi'-M was

t h e Ma'-sumah i n 9 0 9 AD/ lost

by Abu of

^Abdullah Qasr

2 9 7 AH.'^'

library,

Wallam

also

at Jabal to

Nafusah. the

I t was common literature of lost

practice dissidents

during

Muslim

wars

destroy that

and I t was f o r t h i s

reason

t h e I b i d i yyah

Ch. 3:

The

I bad!

in North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 44

their b o o k s . ^^ Those t h a t s u r v i v e d were o f t e n s o m e t i m e s no d o u b t f o r g o t t e n a s t h e i r c u s t o d i a n some c o l l e c t i o n s d i d s u r v i v e .

hidden, died.

and But,

In Hashshan, Maghribi

the

library 32

of

Sheikh

Yusuf (pages)

Muhammad a l - B a r u n T were discovered 6th to century his Ibad 1 on his

of (in

Alold A.H., and

Jerba, hand), 18

leaves

undated, from the

but Jabir

perhaps bin Zaid,

containing followers. 'this Other Jabir,

letters These are

friends

earliest show it Is some

extant light

documents, life.''^ from AH) of

correspondence material was part legal for of a

should which Kitab

claimed (dated in

also 1797

derives AD/ 1211

al-Nikah, on marriage

containing Islam.

opinions

the

early

period

Another 1211 AH) in

treatise, the same

Risalah collection

f l al-zakat Is

(dated as

1797 from

AD/ Abu

designated to

=Ubaydah, al-Maghrlbl such are

J a b i r ' s successor, (previously to be found some

addressed

Ism'a'^^il b i n legal

Sulaiman opinions; but this

unknown) throughout of his

containing IbadT

writings, ideas

collection to the

explains

organisational showing how

relating was

taxation

zakat

system,

I bad 1 s o c i e t y

trying

to e s t a b l i s h

itself.'*^

From students the

Abu

"^Ubaydah's s e c r e t c e n t r e had come His to to him for

of

learning were

in

Basrah, also to

who

teaching

sent

Hadramawt. went

pupil

T a l i b al-Haqq with Bilji bin

=Abdullah Aqbah

bin

Yahya from

al-Kindy

Hadramawt

al-Uzdy

Ch. 3:

The Ibadi in North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 45

the as him

Batinah Imam, or and

coast gave

of the he

Oman;

t h e r e he governor

was

'unanimously option of

chosen' Joining of an

Umayyad left for

the

leaving;

San'=a' .

(Another

example

Ibad 1 moderation?). army by of 30,000 of the sold on did

The

Umayyad a g e n t

i n Sana'=a' o r g a n i s e d which was

fighters Ibadiyyah. their one not

(Ibad! s t a t i s t i c ! )

beseiged

1600 They

lives horse, incite by

for

the

sake one to

of

God. . , but

were this of

pursuing poverty

sharing them

blanket, take

advantage wanted

collecting p l e a s u r e . ^ On

wealth

stealing.

They o n l y

God's

t a k i n g San'^a' the people,

and

finding

the

wealth

the

Umayyads had

taken

from

Talib

al-Haqq gave

i t a l l back.

After Hamza

settling with under had

i n San'^a' 700, the to

(746

AD/

129 to

AH), link Abu up

he

sent with

Abu some

al-Mukhtar there who

Heggaz

Ibadiyyah bin

l e a d e r s h i p of in Iraq, he

Imam but:

al-Hurr A l l

al-Hasan When into his

h i s fortunes reached half gave as half only

revenues giving half, he

him,

would then the

divide dividing

them the

half,

alms, to the

remaining of his The the

meet

requirements for himself,

Muslims,

keeping

balance

f a m i l y and put they let

h i s guests.''^ him in prison, abuse, This an was together but at the the only to with some Shi'= i in the Abu but did was to

Umayyads where to

Makkah

suffered go.

people same 900

forced time as

soldiers

them

Hamza a r r i v e d without ensue a with

i n Makkah w i t h the city city of

army of

to A

1,000, battle Hamza threat

fight the The

surrendered Medinah thus in

him.

which an

Abu

victorious.

Ibadiyyah

became

immediate

Ch. 3:

The Ibadl i n North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 46

t h e Umayyads, c e n t r e d i n S y r i a , and Marwan b i n Muhammad s e n t a n army u n d e r t h e command o f '"Abd a l - M a l i k b i n '-AtTyyah a l Sa'^di t o t h e H o l y C i t i e s . Meanwhile, when Abu Hamza came t o t h e p u l p i t o f t h e p r o p h e t he d e f e n d e d h i s p e o p l e i n w o r d s t h a t have been p r e s e r v e d i n khutbas;

He

placed

h i s face He wept 'How

where for many a

the Prophet long have on and time

used and

to p l a c e h i s then God, said abused ruled the

feet.

grumbling: his

feet

violated his

sanctity, to had the not

prevailed law of God

servants, what

contrary prophet Ascending by

introducing

known. of the p u l p i t for he the made a speech, beginning But, out after

one

step and

praising were

God

praying by

prophet. broke of

insults Abu

hurled

a soldier, Ibadi The

fighting

i n which with Holy

Hamza

was

killed. crucified. over,

narratives IbadT on

tell

h i s body the

others Cities army.

being was Abu

o c c u p a t i o n of o f '^Abd view:

soon

presumably

arrival

al-Malik's

Hamza's body r e m a i n e d

In public

...until

the

'Umayyids

( s i c ) were of

overthrown...

thus

underlining the ride who

the corruption of the

t h e 'Umayyids a s Among age

against who

moderateness the camel wrote a Abu of

I b a d i yyah. i n our the

those

Bani

'Umayya on

is a

writer who Hamza Places Would Does killed

commentary Hamza...

Omani that

author Abu

mentioned oppressed and that Islam the All? their the led

claiming

the Muslims them away

when he the the

o c c u p i e d the Holy Muslim Muslim authority. authority! Who had

from were

Banl

'Umayya Bani

know what of

'Umayya h a d Prophet

done?

grandson

the

(S.A.W.)

Al-Hussain bin 'Umayya and from

Islam activities.

i s i n n o c e n t f r o m BanT True and Islam i s with does not

t h o s e who deviate

follow the

straight

path

which

from

Ch.

3:

The I b a d i i n North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 47

Qur' a n a n d f r o m On came from receiving San'=a'

t h e T r a d i t ion. news o f Abu Hamza's the Syrian army defeat, army from Talib al-Haqq the

to prevent

reaching

Yemen. Haqq Syrian enabled =Abb'asid the Imam

Total was

defeat

of the Ibadi

ensued,

and T a l i b a l the treaty to the

killed.

But, f o r t u n a t e l y point

f o r the Ibadiyyah. and a peace

army

was a t t h a t

recalled,

t h e Imamate state. o f Oman history

o f Hadramawt

to continue, of t h i s area

subject paid

The p o p u l a t i o n a t about

t i t h e s to

the beginning

of the 3 r d century;

subsequent

i s obscure.^*

Students as well

o f Abu '^Ubaydah a r e s a i d Iran and C e n t r a l

t o have

reached

India

a s Khurasan,

Asia.

With

t h e waning

power

o f t h e Umayyad al-'^ilm meant were that of

empire,

the influence widely.

o f Abu '=Ubaydah's The advent were able of t h e to gain of t h e

hamalat

to spread some

^Abbaslds the new

of the Ibadiyyah members

protection caliphs.

influential

of t h e f a m i l i e s

But w i t h

the death

o f Abu '=Ubaydah,

probably i n

Caliph of

Abu J a ' ^ f a r ' s r e i g n Ibadi waned,

( 7 5 3 - 7 5 AD/ and w h i l e from

136-58 AH) t h e i n f l u e n c e some r e m a i n e d there, the Arabia,

the Basrah focus

main or

of t h e i r a c t i v i t y

then

on, was e a s t e r n

Oman.

Abu bin

=Ubaydah

had encouraged i n Oman ( 7 5 0 AD/ state,

the election

of Al-Julanda

Mas=iud a s Imam the

132 AH), b u t t h e =-Abbasids suspicious of i t ' s It

attacked allegience, was Caliph

embryonic

being

and A l - J u l a n d a Al-Saffah

was k i l l e d

a t Ras-al-Khaimah. t h e i r next

who g a v e

the Ibadiyyah

chance.

Ch. 3:

The Ibadj_ i n N o r t h A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 48

when he a p p o i n t e d from B a s r a h a s e c r e t IbadT sympathiser as governor of Suhar, and the I b S d i y y a h worked to establish themselves firmly. T h e ^^Abbasids d i d n o t b o t h e r t o a p p o i n t a governor f o r t h e H a J a r , and a p e r i o d o f i n t e r t r i b a l warfare followed. T h e f a c t was, i t was s i m p l y n o t w o r t h t h e i r w h i l e ; the vast expense and difficulty in mounting military operations i n these s p a r c e l y populated a r e a s f a r outweighed any p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s i n terms of i n c r e a s e d t a x a t i o n .

Such that from could an

diversity

of

country

and

e n o r m o u s d i s t a n c e s meant a p r o b l e m and caliphate The post to Journeys another set up

communications were one part of the or

always

(= A b b a s i d ) even months. service;

take

weeks

caliphs

official

information on could the pick

stations

were

maintained messengers was up

main up new

roads, mounts;

where

official time

delivery

t o t h r e e months.^

Iba^T would relying have on

communications without been less as formal they

the

r e s o u r c e s of those

a Caliphate above,, and

that kept in

described

traders,

touch, Africa; was

politically many of

theologically, were

across Arabia t r a d e r s . ^' ^^ for IbadT to by the

and

North The

Ibad i y y a h course an

themselves

ha.1.1 At Izki

important. o c c a s i o n another centre for

meeting. influence main

in

central

Oman,

developed,

i t seems The at for the the

causing of of by the

some e m b a r r a s s m e n t one, the the '^Abd Basrah al-'=AZ/Tz

group

in Basrah. was laid

murder door act

house-guests, and they back were

IbSdiyyah.

condemned

Caliphate.

Climbing

from left

this

low-point,

some o f

prominent base in

I b a d i y y a h of Iski.

Basrah,

to develop

their

doctrinal

Ch. 3:

The Ibadl i n North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 49

T h i s I s o n e o f t h e e v e n t s b e h i n d t h e s a y i n g f o u n d i n many h i s t o r i e s o f Oman a n d a c c o u n t s o f I b a d l b e l i e f , ' K n o w l e d g e was l a i d i n M e d i n a h , h a t c h e d i n B a s r a h , a n d f l e w t o Oman.' I t was in Oman that the fledgling grew strongest; b u t I bad i

knowledge by his sea,

'flew'

by means

of t h e i r Africa

t r a d e r s , on c a m e l - t r a i n o r as well. Ahmad "^Ubayd 1 1 i n r o l e of from

t o Yemen

and North

research

of Arabic

texts,

underlines

the central

Basrah the

i n t h e development 4th Century AH/

of Ibadlsm, 10th Century

quoting

al-KudamT

late

AD, a l - D a r j T n l who died

who d i e d , 9 2 8 AH,

around 1521

6 7 0 AH,

1271 AD,

a n d a 1-ShammakhT,

AD.

In election 185 AH,

Oman,

tribal

warfare

came

to a conclusion, a s Imam,

with the

of Al-Warlth and t h i s time

b i n Ka'=b a l - K h a r u s T the IbadT s t a t e with

i n 801 AD/ against i t s

was s e c u r e d

attackers at AD/ was Suhar.

f o r a century, During a

the defeat

o f t h e C a l i p h ' s army bin Jalfa (840-851

the rule

o f Imam Mahana army

226-237AH) organised

disciplined

of defence,

o f 10,000 men, a n '=Abbasid Imamate of t h e

and s t a t i o n e d o f Oman

a t Nlzwah.

Despite

're-conquest' continue Ibadlyyah.

i n 8 9 3 AD/ I t was

2 8 0 AH,

t h e I bad! Age'

to exist.

the f i r s t

'Golden

There Irrevocably Hajar of to

were to

those,

however,

who d i d n o t commit Further south with from

themselves t h e main

t h e movement.

ranges,

and a l o n g trading,

the Batlnah were those

coast

the influence

maritime t h e Imam

there

tribes

whose a l l e g l e n c e And:

was a t b e s t

nominal.

I f not non-existent.

Ch. 3:

The Ibadl In North A f r i c a and South Arabia:

Page 50

w i t h i n t h e I b a d ! s y s t e m a s w e l l , t h e r e s e e m s t o be a ' s e l f d e s t r u c t ' m e c h a n i s m , w h i c h I s t a k e n up i n t h e n e x t c h a p t e r .

Notes and R e f e r e n c e s ;

1. 2.

EI=*,

Vol I I I ,

p.653

<m). (1989), The Spread of Ibadhism i n

KHALTLI,

Ahmed H. A1-, Africa.

Northern 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. ibid. ibid. Ibid. p.12 p.13 p.15

Oman, p. 11

I b i d . p.16. ibid. p.17 Hugh, 1981, The e a r l v 1981, p. 191. of the "Abbasld On p. Caliphate. 188 K e n n e d y Croom refers who

KENNEDY, Helm, to

London,

the

prosperity a

I b a d i yyah

i n Basrah, prior

developed death is:

commercial Malik

community i n 7 0 5 AD/

there 86 AH.

to the

of -Abdul LEWICKI,
in

His source and

pp.

T. ,

1971, T h e
d'Histoire

Ibadites
Mondiale,

i n Arabia
vol. 13,

Africa,

Cahiers

58-67 9.
KHALTLI, A. H.

A1-, T h e S p r e a d p.19

of Ibadhism

i n Northern

Africa, 10. 11. 12. 13. ibid.

op. c l t . ,

pp. 1 8 - 9 op. c l t . p . 6 5 7

E I ^ , Vol I I I , ibid. p.655

"^UBAYDLr, Ahmad,

1989, E a r l v

Islamic

Oman a n d E a r l v

Ch.

3:

The

^badT I n N o r t h A f r i c a and S o u t h A r a b i a :

Page 51

Ibadism p. 1

in the Arabic

Sources.

C a m b r i d g e Ph.D.

Thesis,

14.

ENNAMI, A. K . , 1970, i n a n a r t i c l e Ibadi documents from North

A description

o f new of

Africa

i n the Journal 1970 p. 63

Semitic 15. ibid. p.66.

S t u d i e s , V o l . 15, No.

I , Spring,

( B u t s e e comment a t t h e e n d o f c h a p t e r about reliability b i n Zaid. but of

two by

J.C.Wilkinson purporting not have

documents may an on

t o come f r o m J a b i r read this 1970

Wilkinson has read

article, by Ennami

unpublished Ibadism. 16. 17. 18. ibid. p.68

Ph.D.

thesis

called

studies

University

of Cambridge

1971.)

EI=, V o l I I I , KHALILI,

op. c i t . p 6 5 0 of Ibadhism i n Northern

A. H. A1-, T h e S p r e a d op. c i t . p.21

Africa, 19. 20. 21. ibid. p.23

E I * , Vol I I I , KHALTLI,

op. c i t . p.651 of Ibadhism i n Northern

A. H. A1-, T h e S p r e a d op. c i t . p . 2 5

Africa, 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. ibid. ibid. EI=*, ibid. p.26 p.28 Vol I I I ,

op. c i t . p . 6 5 2

pp. 6 5 0 / 1 Hugh, T h e e a r l v ''Abbasid C a l i p h a t e , op. c l t . , pp.

KENNEDY,

.31-33 27. 28. ibid. pp. 1 9 1 - 2 1989, E a r l y Islamic Oman a n d E a r l v op. c i t . p. 60, quoting

"^UBAYDLI, Ahmad, Ibadism

i n the Arabic

Sources,

Ch.

3:

The J ^ d l _ i n N o r t h A f r i c a and S o u t h A r a b i a :

Page 52

A1-KUDAMT, Abu S a ^ T d Muhammad b i n Sa'=rd Muhammad b i n Sa'=ld, < l a t e 4 / 1 0 ) , a l - I s t l q S m a h ( I - I I I ) . Oman 1985; AL-DARJINT, Abu a l - ^ A b b a s Ahmad b i n Sa-=id, ( d i e d c. 670/1271), K l t a b tabaqat al-mashaylkh bl'l-maghrib ( I I I ) ed. I b r a h i m T a l l i y , A l g e r i a 1394/1974; a n d ALSHAMMAKHf, Abu a l - = A b b a s b i n Ahmad b i n Sa'^Td ( d . 9 2 8 / 1 5 2 1 ) , a l - S l y a r . l l t h o ( Q u s t a n t T n a h ) , n.d.

Page 53

YA=RIBI SULTANS,

A'

IMMA

AND

AL.

BU

SA-=

ID I

UNTIL

1900:

The seventeenth political but,

period

of r u l e

of t h e Ya'=rlbi i f

a' Imma not

(Imams)

of t h e the

century

rivals,

I t does

surpass, Age)

power

and w e a l t h

of t h e F i r s t t h e whole

(Golden

Imamate; Into down great and

between

t h e two p e r i o d s Many Imamate, the value

region

degenerated broken a

tribal by the

disunity. first of

tribal The of a

attitudes early sound

had been

a' Imma commercial

showed

awareness the

atmosphere

problems of t h e b a s i c

a g r i c u l t u r a l economy:

Arabs

became

villagers,

and

villagers

were

Incorporated

into the t r i b a l

s t r u c t u r e s of t h e Arabs. '

Nlzwah side and

h a d become t h e ' s e a t ' f o r t h e Imam, Akhdar, and i n the best

being

on t h e i n l a n d

of J a b a l

position for Influence tribes; but n e a r side, for

where n e c e s s a r y to Rustaq

c o n t r o l , of t h e I n t e r i o r the mountains between

enough a fast

under

on t h e c o a s t a l

communication

link

them.

The quite

tracks are s t i l l ascents with

there. up

From

a distance, of

they feet and they

make of with make

impossible But, steps,

many

thousands engineering,

mountain. Interminable safe routes,

careful cut

sometimes ones,

into

t h e rock, than

and f a s t

f o r those They

fitter have

the average been years

twentieth engineered

century by

westerner.

may

originally

the f i r s t

(Persian) settlers

two t h o u s a n d

Ch.

4;

Ya^ribl

and Al Bu Sa'=ldl,

to 1900:

Page 54

before, use get

at

the

same

time

as

the

first

f ulu.1 .

To

be as

kept

in

though, easily

such

routes away;

need

constant perhaps

maintenance, only the

sections will

washed

soon

steps

remain.

I from east in be top the of

managed end Jabal of

one wad 1

such

ascent

with of

some

f i t military two

men,

Sahtan (3009

south

Rustaq, I to

kilometres many 'rest at rests and the were track, parapets Into

Shams the

metres and old

high).

needed the

the

heat

on

way of

up, the

finally mosque But

reach

thankful' felt like

ruins

(Bait some

Ma'lllat) of the of

achievement the side of

indeed.

pauses the

spent

admiring one

incredible the Hajar or

stone-work to the steps other, had

connecting had the not

where

been

eroded of the

away,

where

been

carved

rock-face

mountain.

It together. I mam to were the

was

more

influence forces

than under oath a

control the of

that

kept

the of

state the

Military small; that

direct obedience

command by the to

i t was counted,

the and

tribes live In the came the

I mam A the to

continuing desire to be maintained which

peace. Yahmad, generally BanT

delicate most be But,

balance

had

between I mam were

powerful chosen, as

Azd while

clan, the

from

the clan

nominating by J. C.

Samah.

convincingly

argued

Wilkinson:

...

as

wealth ideal of a

and

prosperity

Increase,

so

the the Into been There

religious prerogative temporal repeated

weakens; single saltanah. times in

leadership group and

becomes

degenerates pattern history. has

power several

The Oman's

Ch.

4:

Ya=rlbi

and

Al Bu

Sa-^idl,

to 1900:

Page 55

e n s u e s a s t r u g g l e f o r power i n w h i c h t r i b a l solidarity ' a s a b 1yah = I s brought into play, and every potential weakness in the country exploited until full-scale civil war i s the outcome. The situation is usually resolved by one or more of the p a r t i e s c a l l i n g i n an outside power, normally with disastrous results for the Omanls i n g e n e r a l . T h i s i s t h e s t o r y of t h e First Imamate, of t h e N a b a h i n a h , of t h e Ya'=aribah and of the

Al

Bu

Sa'^Id.

Al-Warith AH. He Is

bin

Ka'=b a l - K h a r u s i of the early was

became

Imam,

in

801 with

AD/

185 great

one

a ' imma

who to

ruled his

j u s t i c e .and

i m p a r t i a l i t y , and

merciful

enemies:

He

restored

the was those

good

of

former In his to

times

among

the

Mussulmans, encouraging restraining d i s c o r d . . . -*

upright who

administration, the truth and and

adhered and

Impiety

crime,

extortion

The

story He In but the

is had the

told

by

SalTl a a

bin

Razlk: of men

Al-Warlth in He a prison, ordered so he

died

as

he was be to

lived. caught freed, cross all his

confined middle of

number

which them to

flash-flood. risk the Some flood,

no-one torrent away, as the

would himself. were Ibadi

attempted but they to him

followed But

him,

were and

swept

the

prisoners. remained

thanks

successors,

state

secure.^

This years after

first it in

Imamate began, AD/

came the

to

an

end

effectively of Al-Salt of

hundred Malik meant broke

with 272 AH.

deposing A new round

bin

al-KharusT that the

866

alignment the

tribes tribe)

old

alliances

(centred

Yahmad

Ch.

4:

Ya^ribl

and

Al Bu Sa'=rdi,

to 1900:

Page 56

down; Batinah, called to

those

in

control to keep

of

the others many

more out.

fertile The their

coastal "Abbasid empire

strip, army

the was

needed in, and

destroyed life.

f u lu.1 ;

continued

dominate

coastal

In

the

eleventh

century a ' 1 mma power out

local were or

rule

was

only on

temporarily and off, it can but be

re-established. having said a limited any of

Several political tribe came

elected

relevance. the

If

that

on

top,

Nabahinah were the chosen

were from

such, the

branch

the But

Azd's. the

Later,

a ' imma of

Ban! of

Kharus. the Jabal who

internal were have of

affairs little more

'awdTyah

(wadls) to the

Akhdar would and not

significance than of a the little

^Abbasids, with trade the

been

Involved of

Batinah, the

there

only

because

development

along

coast.

One

inherent was An and

problem rule

for that

any to

Imam as 'get

wanting he the

to

develop not was

his own soon

power-base, property. mistrusted from an if office who

the

I mam

could rule not

I mam even

attempting if a

round'

particular

incumbent allow life for was

was the

removed of

(the proves

I bad!

specifically of

removal

Imam not

unworthy for his who

office)

then the

difficult case of

impossible bin of

successor. succeeded by the and power in

Such

was

Muhammad order out

Isma'=il, the chaos 1500 AD/

establishing of the

military Hormuzi had

created 905 as for AH, a the

collapse the the

dynasty,

around

before in

Portuguese region

established becoming a

themselves main base

(Hormuz question

Portuguese).

But

the

Ch.

4;

Y a - ^ r i b i and A l Bu S a - i d i ,

to 1900:

Page 57

then arose of how the benefits accruing should be administered. Muhammad b i n I s m a ' = l l ' s s o l u t i o n w a s t o e n f o r c e his own c o n t r o l o v e r the forts and c a s t l e s . But this meant that on h i s death, while h i s son Barakat was nominated successor and was elected I mam. two o t h e r s were elected alongside him. Castles on t h e i n l a n d (west) of t h e HaJar changed hands i n the ensuing chaos, with alarming frequency a n d w i t h much bloodshed.^

In the been

1 2 5 8 AD/

6 5 6 AH,

t h e Mongols

captured o n Oman century

Baghdad, would later,

ending

'"Abbasid

caliphate, On

but t h e Impact the coast a

not have as the the over trade, The of

significant. had wakened were

Crusades first the would

the interest seen,

of Europe

In the East, a hold

Portuguese ports have of of

who w h i l e to

establishing their the 100

Oman

i n order little

protect in

passing interior. miles

been Suhar

interested and a

Influence Muscat Then,

declined, while India

Qalhat

south

became as trade

for a with

main East

centre Africa

for

local

trade. the

and

developed,

Portuguese anchorage because forts, the of

encouraged and had

the development excellent

of Muscat. from i t . To

I t h a d good the With interior rebuilt of

protection around port. -

the mountains took over the

immediately as principal -

Muscat

the north

Arab

world, but

Ottoman make

SunnT

Empire

began i t s -

expansion, Shl'^ 1 greater

d i d not in Persia,

headway

against

the Safavid

dynasty powers.

a n d Oman

remained

un-notlced

by t h e

Ch.

4:

Y a ' ^ r i b i and

Al Bu Sa'Mdi, to 1900:

Page 58

Ibn traveller, p e r i od: ...We which are the They to at

Battutah, describes

the the

14th

Century of

AD the

8th

Century during

AH this

beliefs

Ibad 1

entered i s the

the town to of

capital Nazoua

of

the

country

(of

Oman)

(Nizwah).'. meals what in he

I t s inhabitants the has are brave, the courts of

accustomed mosques, eat thus

take one

their

each

bringing and are

provided. admitted always Ibadl te four the which and "-Ali. him man' as or upon

altogether, They

travellers strong and of

eat war

with

them.

among and go

themselves. through which a the the sermon favour over to in

They Friday I mam in of

are

sect, times,

noonday reads

prayers of in Bakr and to

after and

verses style Abu

Qur'an. he

gives

the God

qutba upon

supplicates but

the

'-Umar, When 'the ' the that him.

passes wished saying

silence -Ali

'"Uthman refer

they man', man

mention

they

' I t is They

said

concerning the divine of

the

said. ..' the

implore

favour

criminal, 'the pious

accursed of

murderer God,

'--All,

calling of

servant

the

suppressor

s e d l t i o n . '^

The of the

election

of

Imim tribe to

Nasir did

bin

Murshid seem out now any of well such

in

1624

AD/

1033 from

AH, many of In

Ya'-"ariba attempts to

not order

different local

previous no

bring

muddle,

and even

relevance towns

the

Portuguese, Muscat and

established as Seeb and

small A

between by

Suhar,

Barkah. of the but

translation

British

political not

agent only

E.C.Ross, this

Kashf

al-Ghummah character people which a

describes traits: of it of ' Uman is my

period,

underlying Now

the

are hope

endowed they may

with never of

certain lose.

qualities, They are

people

soaring

ambition,

and

haughty

Ch.

4:

Y a - - r i b l and Al Bu Sa'=idl, t o 1900:

Page 59

spirit; are

they to

brook

not the control affront;

of any S u l t a n , and yield only to

quick

resent

they ever

irresistible purpose. by their an A

force, man

and without

abandoning spirit.

their Judged

of comparatively i s on a any other

poor

standard, Amir of

par as regards people. Each hands

magnanimity individual or inthe t o be same such

with alms hands

at having of those to

t h e power he him, loves. and

i n h i s own He desires

everyone has

submissive ambition. things, blessed nor were but

h i s neighbour none i s

the of

Unfortunately those whom who God

worthy

elects,

pious, by

c h a s t e and desires, There or

persons, t o be t o be

a r e not swayed by blind

their

prone none

l e d away found,

passions. ...

whether

dwellers or

i n houses

dwellers on had the

i n tents,

whether or of

'Bedu'

'Hadhr',

whether but from

t h e mountain quaffed general

heights

i n t h e sandy terror,

levels,

the draught destruction

and s u f f e r e d

which those

encompassed f o r whom G o d from

religion, tempered by

property, their His of

and l i f e ,

except

troubles

a n d whom protection. not to

He

saved In this

the strife (the

bounteous Oman)

manner in

people of

ceased

struggle ways,

the God

abyss

desolation, to of them

walking

in evil

until

vouchsafed t h e I mam

the appearance

of h i s wise

servant, Malik

t h e Musalmans,

Naslr-bin Murshid-bin

Nasir than

b i n Murshid

d i d indeed and w i t h i n

prove

t o be a s t r o n g e r a dynasty Arabs

Imam

h i spredecessors, which

25 y e a r s

had been from t h e and east to

established, interior, African prove one was of

as well

a s removing

foreign from

also coasts.

saw o f f t h e Portuguese The IbadT Credit must : Imamate be

t h e Omani

had another to I mam

opportunity Nasir's

itself.

given

sponsor, He a l -

the Rustaqi

'- u 1 ama'

Khamis

b i n Sa'-ld

al-ShaqsT. Al-MlnhaJ

the author

of a major

I bad i

revivalist

work:

Ch.

4:

Y a ' ^ r i b l and

Al Bu S a ' ^ l d l ,

to 1900;

Page 60

Tal i b i n which d e t a i l s the w h o l e body of I b a d l law as w e l l as restating i t s ideology. He persuaded the e l e c t o r s to unite behind a 20 year old youth, from a clan which had little ( k n o w n ) h i s t o r y b u t was c o m m a n d i n g t h e R u s t a q a r e a .

By (the

the

time

Nasir

bin

Murshid's i t appeared personal

cousin. at first

Sultan that

bin they

Saif had their from

First) the as

succeeded

him, to

overcome office: their

temptation well base, had as they

aggrandisement family

from

having were

reasonable operating in

fortune In

Rustiq

through off

agents. one of now tribe the

the with

Interior, another, He by then the

Nasir and turned

succeeded

playing on the both

established his

control to been main

sides by up

HaJar.

attention who as in had his

ports,

. c o n t r o 1 1 ed defences Sultan bin one Nasir day as

Portuguese, He who appointed succeeded Muscat 1649

building General the his

their

there. Saif, by died one,

cousin

removing under Rabi'^ bin siege I, Saif

Portuguese times the

garrisons before same

came AD/

several AH);

(April

1059 was

Nasir's continued The

death.

Sultan

elected coming 1062 AH

I mam. months a

Assaults later. naval on the and of

against

Muscat, in

success 1652 later, AD/ but for

six with key of

Portuguse and coast . Bu

returned a by period dynasty and as

large

force, Oman

again went The Sa'^Id

year

'their reasons to 1131 the

bases

default that in

cowardice establishment is an the

pride.' the one, East of Al

followed 1719 AD/

AH,

exciting coast of

with

campaigns but,

Intrigues, power

reaching the

down

Africa;

developed, the

growing piety and

inability ' othei

the

Y a ' - ' r i b i a ' 1 mma

to

show

necessary

Ch.

4:

Y a ' ^ r i b i and

Al Bu

Sa'=idl, to 1900:

Page 61

worldliness' that great tensions.

should

characterise

an

I bad i

Imam,

created

As excessive, were such

funds but

came as i t

in was

from

trading

levies forced to round to

(some use

apparently Muscat so who

foreigners Oman the could had

charged, as the an

nobody building older one

from of -

seemed great be

object) fort

projects Nizwah about the

at

replacing

undertaken. into

Rules

development to bin the

of

land of the

that

fallen and

disuse

were one of Bahla (who

changed Sultan forts seized in 1679 died Land, this of

favour

developer, the area

Bal'-arab, Jabrin Sultan father's after Master not

Saif's

sons, again. him a

made His few

around Saif

and II

productive power AD, from was AD/

brother, years after

bin

their as I mam

death

and

formally 1104 AH,

recognised was given the

Bal = arab of the that the a was

1692-3 Qayd

the title

title did

al-Ard. power for was

However,

mean

growing election secret, growing expected but more

u n i v e r s a l l y acclaimed. during of this period not

Although has been

form

I mam

well-kept clearly only the

dissatisfaction about the kind

although

universal available,

candidate of swing the away

not

'rubber-stamping' particularly The fourth the I mam

next from

dynastic the 24

nomination, to the 28 to by

religious large of the

temporal. barques which the and

personally being clear the

owned

ships, extent

1,700

slaves

evidence

his

attitude '" u 1 ama ' . -

diverged .

from

asceticism

advocated

purist

Ch.

4:

Ya^ribi

and A l Bu S a ' ^ i d i ,

t o 1900:

Page 62

The a ' imma.

expansion

of

trade

with

East

Africa

by as a

t h e Ya'-'ribl commercial 1 3 9 0 AH, back to

had a

religious which

and c u l t u r a l , up of to at exiles

as well least was

significance, when Oman, son, a the with Qaboos.

lasted

1 9 7 0 AD/ welcomed b i n Taimur,

latest

contingent of

the deposition Zanzibar,

Sultan from

Sa'^id

by h i s has where

30 m i l e s many

Dar E s Salaam, ties t o Oman, caps,

still and

sizable dress of

community I s s t i l l the

with

family

the Half

dish-dash stone

and embroidered buildings of

a s i n Oman. town are

3,000 a

the

old the

crumbling. Sultans, But a many a of

After Union

revolution with want

i n 1964 a g a i n s t newly t o be independent independent issue.

Island's

was s i g n e d

Tanganyika, of Tanzania;

i t s population h a s become

referendum

a major

political

The years Ocean, the

links

between

East

Africa

a n d Oman

began

thousands of of the Indian steadiness down t h e

ago, w i t h Every

the help

o f t h e monsoon with

pattern

December monsoon from them

to February, carried April to craft

remarkable Oman

north-east coast; carried

from

south

African monsoon AD)

September,

the south-westerly Pliny (23-79

back,''

T h e Roman

author

i s recorded how many made

as telling of

i n h i s Natural ships were

History: sewn together, a r e , and as they with AD

the planks of

Arab boats

the small

i n Oman

still

use of

the north-east mounted suppress

monsoon an

for trading in but

India... through reach I found -

Trajan Iraq to

expedition

116

the pirates,

d i d not

a s f a r a s Oman... the ruins of a frankincense by port i n Dhofar and Khor

near

Rori

established

originally

t h e Sumerians,

certainly

Ch.

4:

Y a ' ^ r i b i and Al Bu S a ' ^ i d i ,

t o 1900:

Page 63

active i n Roman t i m e s - r e m a i n s o f a n c i e n t f o r t i f i c a t i o n s on what appeared to be an identical design to s e c t i o n s of Hadrian's Wall of Northern England. P e r h a p s Roman engineers reached this outpost of Empire? The r e f e r e n c e in Pliny, to the sewn b o a t s a s a d e s i g n f e a t u r e was c e r t a i n l y c o n t i n u e d t o this century, as hulks with stitched planking can s t i l l be found rotting on Oman's beaches. Tim Severin, having

previously Atlantic the

recreated leather of from timbers an

the boat,

monk

Brendan's

voyage AD/

across 1396-7 AD/

the AH, 4th

in a

recreated boom -

i n 1976-7 circa. was

Journey AH,

Omanl

design

1000 built

Century Oman,

Oman

to China;

the vessel with

at Sur,

with

stitched

together

coconut

fibre,

In winds Malaya. I bad! first decade to

the years carry But

before to

Islam, India

Nestorlan and

Christians even carried as

used

the

them i t was Oman

beyond, that

f a r as first of the closing

t h e same to East

winds, Africa, of

the

exiles 'dark

from

at the beginning i n the

age' a t

t h e hands century of

t h e Umayyads

of the f i r s t

Islam.

A written The and

sympathetic in Zanzibar, visitors lOth who

account

of

those member

times

has recently

been

by a f a m i l y came

of the recent between

exile:

to these here

regions

t h e6 t h

c e n t u r i e s came they due found to which no

f o r permanent and safety and

settlement, in their

because homeland

peace feudal

Islamic reigned These down

wars

religious during Muslim That they the

persecutions that

supreme were

in Arabia first

period... t o come

the

missionaries preferred

to these native

regions.

to leave

their

land

and s a c r i f i c e

Ch,

4:

Y a ' ^ r l b l and Al Bu S a ' ^ l d l ,

to 1900:

Page 64

material could

wealth

in and

order preach the in

to

find

place

where

they

practise

their

religious of their

ideologies, religious found a

explains fervour. wide field

clearly And for

extent these

indeed

regions

they

missionary

work,,.'^

Trade allowed well As by

between the

Oman

and

Africa

developed of

with ideas the no

the

autonomy as

'"Abbasids; a developing into ties

interchange trade,

continued

alongside Oman fell but

during

first doubt

Imamate. trade the

back the

inter-tribal remained to

wars, develop

lessened, Ya'^ribl The the

again

under

a ' imma; Seventeenth annals of century is another in that by the memorable Omani Arabs date came in in

East an

Africa,

response for

to

appeal aid of in the drove of

made

ill-governed against their

mass the might, the

military rule

their

struggle With and of

oppressive they coast and

Portuguese. them away

attacked became

and part

subsequently Imam of

the

kingdom

the

Muscat

Oman.

With battles Africa. festering. fuelled Ghafiri Ya^aribi skirmishes In 1741 by and

the

Portuguese for the

removed

from

the

shores the

of

Oman, of war

sea East was

continued But Not an in

another body inspired of

century politic by the

along of

coast civil

Oman,

only

u l ama' . m o r e warfare

immediately between the the

outbreak

inter-tribal but get civil finally on

Hinawi

tribes, to

'allowed' each

simply

by

family broke AD/ Ahmed

falling into AH, Sa'=^Id

with for

other;

smaller y e a r s . '"^ and

full

war

twenty-five both

1154 bin

with was

support elected

from Imam,

Ghafiri

Hinawi,

following

several

Ch. 4:

Y a ^ r l b l and A l Bu Sa-^idl, t o 1900:

Page 65

'preternatural nineteenth study.^

events'

as

recorded who made

by

Percy his

Badger,

century

clergyman

Arabia

particular

The years, than the

first

of

t h e A l Bu

Sa'-Td

dynasty came

was

Imam

f o r 34

but h i s strength t h e land. Perhaps there

and r e s o u r c e s because was

from

t h e sea r a t h e r e f f e c t s of His

of the d e b i l i t a t i n g apparent

civil

war,

little

opposition. 1197 AH)

second three against his Imam

s o n Sa'^^Td s u c c e e d e d years him. was h i s own

h i m i n 1783 AD/ had r a i s e d

but w i t h i n country

s o n Hamad rejection

most

of the

Hamad's made

o f any r e l i g i o u s when he left

sanction f o r as at

rule in

clear and

enough,

h i s father court

Rustaq, The

established had of

h i s own

secular

Muscat. again, without title bin that

process

reached theocracy -

the apparent epitomised Badger

conclusion, by an I mam

t h e dream

property

- was u n a t t a i n a b l e . with which Hamad

Percy

said

of the Sultan

of Sayyid

ruled,

and h i s u n c l e

Ahmad ...

who s u c c e e d e d the t i t l e to a

h i m i n 1792 AD/ was an

1206 AH: i t tended and to

so a p p l i e d distinguish corporate and

innovation; family,

moreover, give native Seyyids' them

the ruling over The 'Houses' having

dignity

a l l the 'House of of

other the has

chiefs like

grandees.

the reigning dynasty,

Europe,

become a r e c o g n i s e d the s u c c e s s i on. ^ ^ ^^

the f i r s t

claim to

Badr In 1804,

b i n Saif, b u t was ruling

nephew o f S u l t a n two years years -

b i n Ahmad later by

succeeded Sultan's

him son,

murdered f o r 50

Sa'= i d who Al Bu

became

the greatest about

of the title

Sa'=Td

princes.

B u t he

never

bothered

the

Ch. 4:

Ya'=rlbl and A l Bu Sa'^ldl, t o 1900:

Page 66

a n d d u t i e s o f Imam. I t was p r o b a b l e t h a t S a y y i d Sa'=ld b i n S u l t a n s i m p l y d i d n o t see t h e p o i n t o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e c o u r t of t h e Imam i n t h e i n t e r i o r , a w a y f r o m t h e t r a d i n g c e n t r e o f Muscat; l a t e r i n h i s r e i g n , h e was t o p r e f e r Z a n z i b a r a s a place t o l i v e . ^ ' P e r c y B a d g e r s p e c u l a t e s t h a t h a d he w a n t e d the title Imam. the tribes would n o t have accepted him. E i t h e r way, I mam Sa'-Td b i n Ahmad l i v e d o n p e a c e f u l l y i n R u s t a q u n t i l h e d i e d b y 1 8 2 1 AD/ 1 2 3 6 AH, a n d n o a t t e m p t b e i n g made t o t a k e h i s t i t l e f r o m h i m ; b y w h i c h t i m e i t was a s i f n o o n e h a d t h o u g h t a b o u t a s u c c e s s o r a s Imam.

A more p r e s s i n g p r o b l e m the in the I mam nearly interior their - t h e Wahhabi

h a d come

t o occupy

the tribes of Arabia, who

incursions from were a

central clear

zeal

f o r proselytising,

challenge f o r of a and new

I b a d l y yah. would

I n the circumstances, have inflamed

the election t h e Wahhabi,

probably

so f o r

50 y e a r s ,

a state

o f k i t m a n was a g a i n

to exist.

Sayyid interior round

Sa'=Td to

left

h i s subjects where t o be tribe by

to they

fight

their

own

battles, tribe

the point seemed an I badi Led

finally

rallied

t h e one

that

able who

t o withstand the lived between t h e semi-

Wahhabis, Hajar

t h e Y a l Sa'-'ad, and

mountains

Suhar. of Suhar

Hamud

b i n 'Azzan, had

independent given

governor

(Sayyid

Sa'-id

effectively a

h i m autonomy

i n 1 8 4 9 AD/ tribes

1265 AH) a n d b y h i s s o n S a i f , took oasis, on t h e task they of of

confederacy the

of northern from

evicting

Wahhabis,

the Bureimi i t was

which

succeeded i n 1950's AD/

doing,

(although

towards

t h e end

the

Ch.

4:

Ya-^ribl and Al Bu S a - l d l , t o 1900:

Page 67

1370'S there his

AH, was

before no love

this lost

particular between in 1850;

d i s p u t e was and may as a son,

settled.) and been Hamud with

But had the

father this

son

Saif

murdered of the Suhar, of

have Saif

encouragement his the his father British son

I bad 1 had the

zealots, concluded Gulf.

having

expelled with

from

trading

agreement long the

Resident he

Hamud by was

d i d not one of

outlive sons of for

though

was

imprisoned who to

Sayyid his Fort

Sa'=Td, T h u w a i n l Hamud was

b i n Sa'=id, tortured

regent

i n Muscat

father;

death

i n Muscat's

infamous

Jalali.===2

Meanwhile Ibadiyyah An Initial Faisal was later worked

the

Mutawi'=ah openly

the

more

devout of

among a new

the Imam. of on

more at

f o r the with

election the when AD/ his

attempt bin

alliance al Sa''ud Thuwaini died, and

Wahhabl a new

Amir attack

Riyad, Bureimi years between The

Turk!

failed, (1853 leaving

bought Sayyid

o f f by Sa'-id Oman, again

1270

AH);

three divided

empire in

Thuwaini was

in

another

son this i n the

Majld time

Zanzibar, on

alliance the

attempted, to Join

focusing

fighting curb the

Muscat

agreement

British rather

desire to than by a his open son

slave the

trade. was

Choosing the

intrigue of on Coi. by but

attack, Salim, ally. him

outcome then the

patricide turned Gulf

Thuwaini Salim Lewis an in and as

but The

Ibadiyyah in at the

WahhabT helped bin was Qais

British

agent

Pelly

s u r v i v e one (who by was an

attempt packed

his

removal Bombay),

uncle, 1868

Turki Muscat

Sa'-Td, invaded was

o f f to of Ibad!

alliance

tribesmen,

'^Azzan b i n

e l e c t e d Imam

i n Muscat.

Ch.

4:

Ya'^^ribi and Al Bu Sa'Mdi, t o 1900:

Page 68

His may have

chief wanted

m i n i s t e r was to be of I mam

Sa'^Td b i n K h a l f a n himself, But but bowed

al-KhalilT, to could that the

who

greater

electoral

influence

'"Azzan. the

neither alliance attempt

influence brought together Ghaflri. in of

sufficiently them their They to two were to

positively

strange they -

had

power. main

Neither tribal

did

to and

hold the

'backers' by the

the

Hinawl as

misunderstood the Wahhabi, of

British

being was

similar critical

outlook British It

and the by

Percy

Badger

understanding is remarkable, Government political last

situation: no means that creditable to the our

and in and

British intimate for the

India,

notwithstanding relations with of

commercial we know

'Oman that Lake

century, the

actually we do

less of

country, districts

beyond

coast, Africa.

than

the

of Central

But dead.^^ having 1288 the AH, Ban!

by Soon

the -

time with

his

views

were

published, Turki

'-"Azzan bin in the

was

Wahhabl

connivance

Sa'^Td AD/ of

escaped led

his

loose

imprisonment on Muscat was

i n Bombay, (also killed with in by

1871 help

another

attack I mam

Ghafiri), was

'Azzan to

the Pelly, his

fighting, but son, as by

Sa-=ld soon

al-Khallll as Pelly

persuaded Muscat, was

surrender alive

left

buried

with

TurkT: The new Sult'an and TurkT h i s son to they the had bin Sa'^^Td p u t by Sa'"Td burying political of bin them Khalfan alive, at and

al-Khallll and

to death British died

announcing that

agent

Muscat

diarrhoea

fright. .. . The Imamate had lasted three years.

Ch. 4:

Ya'^ribi and Al Bu Sa'^idi, t o 1900:

Page 69

Attempts overthrow mercenary from AD/ the 2

continued

t o b e made

by

the interior i n order from

tribes to t o pay h i s

the Sultan

i n Muscat.

Turki,

forces raised to 5

t h e t a x on a l l goods i n 1 8 8 1 AD/

the

Interior I n 1883 from

per cent Salih

per cent

1298 AH. into

1 3 0 0 AH

b i n ' ^ - A l l l e d some t r i b e s m e n but a British warship

Muscat

mountains TurkT. town this

behind,

i n the

harbour made as

saved on

I n 1895 AD/1302, (Faisal time b i n TurkT

a m o r e s e r i o u s a t t a c k was had succeeded h i s father

the

sultan), British

120 w e r e the

killed

and

140 w o u n d e d b e f o r e t h e to withdraw. Had he been

persuaded there

veteran

Salih

succeeded, elected attempt

i s no c l e a r I t was

picture

a s t o who c o u l d h a v e before Faisal.

Imam. was made,

1913 AD/

1332 AH

a s e r i o u s new

on t h e d e a t h

of Sultan

Notes and r e f e r e n c e s :

1.

WILKINSON, Arabian

J. C.,1972, Peninsular London,

' O r i g i n s o f t h e Omani s t a t e ' Society and P o l i t i c s .

i nIhe

E d i t e d b y D. p.77 steps the

Hopwood, 2.

George A l l e n origin B.,

and Unwin L t d , f o r these carved

The s u g g e s t i o n comes from

of Persian MILES, S.

i n an

article

'Across

Green Mountains', 3. 4. ibid. RAZIK, of p.78 SalTl bin, Oman.

Geographical

J o u r n a l 1901.

1871, H i s t o r y and

o f t h e Imams a n d edited by G.

Sevvids P. Badger,

translated

Ch. 4:

Y a ^ r i b i and A l Bu Sa'=ldl, t o 1900:

Page 70

London, p. 10

(new i m p r e s s i o n Darf

publishers,

London 1966)

5. 6.

ibid.

p. 12 19S7, I m a m a t e Press, tradition 1987, o f Oman,

WILKINSON, J . C., Cambridge

University

p.216 b y SMITH, Percy, of the

7.

MW,

1 9 3 3 No. 3 , ( V o l . 'The Ibadhites,'

1 2 ) p. 2 8 0 , a r t i c l e quoting from

the Edition

Soclete 8.

Asiatique.

V o l . 1 1 , p, 2 2 7 o f Oman. Book Calcutta, (new

SIRHAN, S i r h a n b i n Sa'Md b i n , 1 8 7 4 , A n n a l s VI, translated by E. C. Ross,

impression 9.

1984, O l e a n d e r

Press,

C a m b r i d g e p. 45 a n d Imamate i n the history of and Allen

BATHURST, R. D., government: Oman

1972, ' M a r i t i m e t r a d e two p r i n c i p a l themes

t o 1728' i n The A r a b i a n Edited b y D.

Peninsular Society London, George

Poli tics. and 10. 11.

Hopgood,

Unwin L t d , p99

i b i d . p.103 HAWLEY, Donald, 1 9 8 9 , Oman a n d i t s R e n a i s s a n c e . London (revised e d i t i o n ) p.78 Stacey

International, 12. 13. 14. 15. ibid. p. 16

SEVERIN, T i m , 1 9 8 2 , T h e S i n b a d HAWLEY, FARSI, Donald, Shaban

voyage.

Hutchinson,

London

Oman a n d i t s R e n a i s s a n c e ,

o p . c i t , p, 182 Accounts.

Saleh,

1980, Z a n z i b a r . H i s t o r i c a l Lahore, pp. 10-11

Islamic 16. 17. ibid. p.12

Publications,

KELLY, J , B., Politics Arabian

1 9 7 2 , 'A P r e v a l e n c e o f F u r i e s : and R e l i g i o n i n Oman a n d T r u c i a l Society

Tribes, Oman' i n The by

Peninsular.

and P o l i t i c s .

Edited

Ch. 4:

Ya'^ribi and A l Bu S a - i d l , t o 1900:

Page 71

D. H o p w o o d , L o n d o n , 18. RAZIK, S a l T l Oman

George

Allen

and Unwin L t d ,

p.108

bin. History

o f t h e t h e Imams a n d S e y y i d s o f b y G. P. Badger, op. c i t .

translated

and e d i t e d

p. 1 5 6 19. WILKINSON, J . C., Imamate tradition o f Oman, o p . c i t .

p. 2 2 7 20. BADGER, G. P., SalTl Seyyids Badger, London 21. 22. 23. 'On t h et i t l e o f Imam' a p p e n d i x of one; i n and P.

b i n Razik, of Oman.

1871, H i s t o r y translated (new and

t h e Imams by G.

edited Darf

London, 1986) p.377

impression

publishers,

KELLY J . B., 'A P r e v a l e n c e ibid, p, 1 1 1 J. C , Imamate

of Furies'

o p . c i t . p. 110

WILKINSON, p. 2 3 6

tradition

o f Oman, o p .

c i t .

24.

BADGER, G. P., of

i nh i s preface t o SalTl

b i nRazik,

History

t h e Imams a n d S e y y i d s J . B., 'A P r e v a l e n c e J. C , Imamate

o f Oman, o p . c i t . p a r a 7 of Furies' o p . c i t . p. 116 c i t .

25. 26.

KELLY,

WILKINSON, p. 2 3 7

tradition

o f Oman, o p .

27.

KELLY,

J . B . , 'A P r e v a l e n c e

of Furies'

o p . c i t . p. 117

Page 72

5.

C H R I S T I A N I T Y ARABIA UP T O

IN SOUTH AND 1 9 0 0 AD 1 3 1 "7

EAST AH.

Bishop nearly first Rajab rocky forty

Thomas years

Valpy as a

French,

an Englishman i n Lahore,

who h a d s p e n t becoming i t s

missionary

Anglican bishop, 1309AH cove t o open near a

arrived new

i n Muscat field. him

i n February

1891AD/ in a first

mission

H i s grave to be the

Muscat

proclaims

missionary Muscat

t o Muscat; The

but Christians Portuguese had

had c e r t a i n l y had their which

lived i n in

before. forts, time, from

chapels by

renovated French's Christians the

e v e n .a c a t h e d r a l was an arms

i n Muscat,

Bishop of the reached

store, church the near

Perhaps

some

the pre-Islamic further o f Khor up Rori,

i n t h e Yemen, coast Salalah,

anchorages port of

Arabian modern From

to

the

frankincense precursors missionaries the on

or the came known

Sur, Qalhat

and Muscat. o f t h e East,

t h e Gulf

o f t h e Church

o r a s i t became was

N e s t o r i a n Church, what i s n o w Oman, of Markabta

At l e a s t a t Suhar. in 424 AD,

one B i s h o p r i c Bishop Bishop

established

Yohannan David

attended the attended and the

Synod

consecration Samuel of

o f Mar Aba a s from

Catholicos Suhar were

i n 5 4 4 AD, present

Bishops

and Stephanus

at the councils

5 7 6 AD a n d 6 7 6 AD/ 5 8 AH.

There noted as an

were island

also

B i s h o p r i c s a t Qatar,=^ Bahrain a n d Oman -

a t Mashmahlq, this taken could over be as

between

Muharraq, Bahrain's island;

now c o n n e c t e d airport. and perhaps

t o Bahrain at

by causeway,

Darin, Bahrain,

the southern

t i p of

Bahrain

which

was p r o b a b l y

t h e mainland

Ch. 5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 73

now modern Mashmahiq.

Dahran,

although

this

may

be

the

same

as

Christians persecution. from Thaddaeus, both One said By The

came

t o Arabia Persian he

from

Persia,

t o escape

from

early and that

Church been

claims sent

i t s origins t o Edessa by of a

had

Thomas; Jesus. letter India. Edessa Century The one

are listed of the

i n t h e New of

Testament

as d i s c i p l e s church was

treasures been

t h e Edessene by them from AD,

t o have

received

S t Thomas, i n the church By the of

the middle

o f t h e second gospels a centre wais

century

possessed AD,

the four become

i n Aramaic.

third

i t had

f o r theological strengthened by by

training. more than

Christian Influx of

community refugees

there from

persecution became

Roman seat

Emperors, of the

particularly CatholIcos, as The i t stood

Diocletian. of what was

Edessa t o be

the

labelled

the Nestorian (Bishop,

Church,

against zeal

Cyril

of Alexandria

412-444AD). from

missionary t o China.

of the Nestorians church

was g r e a t , r e a c h i n g i n India an

Syria St

The C h r i s t i a n was

(the so-called offshoot of

Thomas

church)

almost

certainly

Nestorian

Christianity.^

Use history scholars: The the and. taken

Lichtenstadter speculates was 'purged' due to

how s o much o f p r e - I s l a m i c censorship of Islamic

the

silence of Arabic lack in of other as

poetry of

on r e l i g i o u s religious

beliefs

and

expressions forms of

emotions literature

i ni t were

pre-Islamlc the Arab

proof

that

did

not

possess

Ch. 5:

Christianity

i n S & E A r a b i a t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 74

religiosity a n d was living f o r the here a n d now, without m e d i t a t i n g upon s u c h r e l i g i o u s q u e s t i o n s as l i f e a f t e r d e a t h o r t h e e x i s t e n c e and p r e s e n c e o f a d i v i n e being or beings. B u t t h a t l a c k was d u e t o t h e censorship of Islamic scholars, who, generations later, purged a l l e x p r e s s i o n s o f p r e - 1 s 1 a m i c be 1 i e f s from their literary written r e c o r d s and s u b s t i t u t e d the name A l l a h f o r t h o s e o f p r e - I s l a m i c d e i t i e s . = ^

Excavations publicity, monastery 552 and -

were at

undertaken (north

in of

the earlier Bahrain) The of

1980's, a large (b.

without church/ around

Jubail

discovered was of

i n t h e sand. converted

poet

Labid

5 6 0 ) who

t o Islam, refers

'dazzled In a

by t h e b e a u t y of a

eloquence

t h e Q u r ' a n ' *.

description

Journey by

t o the coast lands of wooden

of the Hajar clappers 11san

r e g i o n , how

h e was met The was a

the beating a

calling

to worship.^ i t seems

beating . of substitute Christian

wooden

clapper naqus

a l - i aras

f o r the bell call

more u s u a l l y

associated

with the

to worship.^

In Yemen Jews had haid

the century a brief

before

t h e Prophet of dominance, anywhere

Muhammad, (the only between

t h e Jews o f time fall when of when

period

political i n 7 0 AD, of

autonomy

the

Jerusalem many been

a n d 1 9 4 8 AD/ Christian them,

1367 AH); and nuns

i t was a t i m e are said of

thousands killed. of on

monks

t o have

Among Princess letting

the story who hair

i s told before as a

the heroic was of killed, Christ."^

martyrdom insisted There Surah may

Rohaima, her

she

down made

bride

be r e f e r e n c e

to this signs:

persecution

i n t h e Qur' an

85, BuruJ

- the Zodiacal

Ch. 5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 75

Woe Of

t o t h e makers the p i t (of f i r e ) supplied fuel: they s a t the (fire). (abundantly)

Fire With 5

Behold! over And

against they that

witnessed they were doing

(All)

Against 10

the Believers persecute ( o r draw

T h o s e who into

temptation) men a n d women.

The B e l i e v e r s , And in the Perhaps the do n o t turn

repentance, penalty of

will

have

Hell.... are a reference by the to this and persecution their King of Zu-

these

verses of came Yemen,

Christians Then invaded

Najran

Jews, from out A

Nuwas.^ armies

retribution and drove there. of

Abyssinia; the Jewish great new

Christian rulers, rewas until after

establishing built the its of at

the

churches

cathedral at least

San'^a' , of

the ruins the

which

remained But

beginning

twentieth

century.^

shortly

consecration the tribes by

i t was

desecrated,

a n d v e n g e a n c e was 'Intoxicated with

demanded power and to The they -

from

the north.

fired

religious and army an

f a n a t i c i s m ' , t h e C h r i s t i a n army was made to clear the

marched

Makkah, invading were the

attempt

Kabbah.. but

included as

soldiers

m o u n t e d on e l e p h a n t s , Surah was

repulsed, Elephant. a

celebrated months

i n t h e Qur' an. later the had

105,

F l1

Two

Prophet

born,

and

within

generation

Christianity

apparently

disappeared

f rom A r a b i a . '

Ch. 5:

Christianity

I n S & E Arabia t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 76

Whatever churches have been managed little south Islam. such before as

influence to maintain

the Coptic i n north

and

Iraqi

(Nestorian) seems t o of Islam the small

Arabia,

there

C h r i s t i a n presence and e a s t What Arabia survived

i n the heartland centuries have thousand with been years

central, of

f o r many would a

after in

dawn

pockets, pass,

i n Bahrain. increase meant at

Nearly of

were t o in the of a

the

trade a

Europe

seventeenth religious

century thinking, of

least in

superficial Philip concluded included own

meeting Wylde, a

when,

1645 Company which

representative with 'That I mam we Nasir may

t h e East

India

treaty

b i n Murshid licence

a t Suhar

the right:

have

to exercise

our

religion,...'

There were o t h e r

clauses: have licence, i n any p a r t o f this was this

No C h r i s t i a n s h a l l Kingdom, It would besides that

the English Wylde's

t o supply religion

port,.,,'' = being used to

appear

protect

h i s business

interests

a s much a s a n y t h i n g

else.

There the arrival

was

a meeting

between

Islam 1811 long,

and C h r i s t i a n i t y , AD/ 1226 AH, of

with Henry

i n Muscat

in April

Martyn; stay of

although made

he d i d n o t s t a y an impact

from

h i s Journals the h i m i n h i s work 'there As is a the into them.

clearly

on him, i n s p i r i n g into of Arabic,

translating in

t h e New

Testament the sons

promise

reserve

for

Joktan''^.

nineteenth ports One of along

century

progressed,

traders continued there

to call

t h e Oman c o a s t ; an A m e r i c a n would

w e r e C h r i s t i a n s among on h i s a n n u a l him Arabic

such a date

was

captain leave

who

collection b i b l e s and

cargo,

behind

Ch,

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH;

Page 77

t e s t a m e n t s . * Society Africa,

Colporteurs

of the British on their

and F o r e i g n way from

Bible to

followed o r up i n t o

h i s example t h e Gulf.

India

The naval there navy. General

British

took

over

Aden

as a base

essential

to their between

operations and I n d i a Surveys Felix

i n 1 8 8 0 AD/ became were

1 2 9 7 AH,

and t h e coast

strategically

important

t o the British them, Major-

carried surveyed Haig's

o u t , and a l o n g s i d e t h e whole area

T.Haig

f o r t h e Church i n 1887 another,

Missionary AD/

Society.

main

r e p o r t was p u b l i s h e d Intelligencer; i n the about

1 3 0 4 AH, on

i n t h e Church t h e Yemen,

Missionary published

focusing

was

Geographleal Muscat and of the

J ourna1. ^ ^ Oman, tribes Colonel The am

A r e p o r t was w r i t t e n first based

subsequently

focusing o f Oman, Miles, Arabs

on t h e g e o g r a p h y

and a d e s c r i p t i o n theBritish

on I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m on t o s a y : are a finer i n most race

resident

He w e n t o f Oman

physically, respects,

and I than They

inclined around a manly

t o think Aden,

other

those have

as w e l l

a s much

handsomer. and a

and independent

bearing,

pleasant entire They of the is are

frankness absence think earth, the

and openness

o f manner. servility race

There

i s an

of anything

like

or cringing. on t h e face

themselves and t h e i r

the finest manner,

while of this

perfectly feeling. The p e o p l e

polite, They

natural

expression

tolerant were

t o other

religions..,. with with

generally o f an

evidently

pleased

t h e novel

spectacle

englishman in their

conversing

them on r e l i g i o u s

questions

own l a n g u a g e . . . .

The

General

admitted

h i s Arabic

was

'of t h e very

humblest

Ch. 5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 78

order.' wondering simple

He

describes pupils Perhaps

Qur'anic really

schools learned

at

work, rather

while than

h o w many

t o read,

recitation.

t h e r e was a l i t t l e

p r e j u d i c e here?

At to

Somali

I was t o l d and I I

that was

t h r e e - f o u r t h s o f t h e boys go surprised at t h e number of

school,

schools cases pupils

which under

saw,

t h e masters of t h e date them..,,

sitting, trees,

i n many their

t h e shade around

with

grouped

He

spoke

of a dispensary officer

'under of

t h e management o f an a b l e and Medical Establishment, the

much

respected

t h e Bombay

himself

a native of India', o f 'medical teaching.' importance

b u t saw g r e a t which

opportunity f o r often

establishment way with f o r Gospel

aid,,,

would

prepare t h e invested

He p i c t u r e d as a m i s s i o n

Oman a s b e i n g field, because:

additional at

i t s western Rlad,

extremity i t i s only o f Nejd, through

200 m i l e s could

distant thus be I t

from

the capital going

which

reached would route

without appear into

Turkish

territory.

that

the shortest, Arabia i s from

easiest,

and s a f e s t

central

this quarter...,

The specifically area

Oman about

report

concludes and what dialogue:

with Haig

two

paragraphs t o be one

t h e I bad!

believed

of failure The of Omanese Ibadhls,

i nChristian belong, with

few exceptions, of the teaching

t o t h e sect of AbdullahThey in not

or followers who f l o u r i s h e d the other

ibn-Ibadh, differ holding

i n theeighth century. sects of i s Mohammedanism and

from that

the Apart

Imamate from and this

elective which

hereditary. no vital

question, views

touches to

doctrine,

certain

i n regard

Ch,

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 79

predestination said of to hold evil as

and

free-will,

which

d o c t r i n e s they the

are

In such well as

a s e n s e as good, that

t o make God religion the other more

author not

their of of

does

differ

materially

from

orthodox they the be

Mohammedans. appeared Zeidiyeh most t o me of

Though to be

tolerant a more

religions people that

religious

Yemen,

The

dally and

prayers

seemed I

to

regularly has in

observed

every

village of

passed

through must,

i t s Musjid. the past,

Their have

ideas

Christianity from the

been are and

derived styled left

Portuguese, in the Arab one an

These history

Romanists of of to Oman, their

"po1ythe 1sts" behind in still a them at

least with

monument

mariolatry which

chapel exists,

inscription now used

the V i r g i n , different

though a gun

f o r very as one later of

purposes, by an

(probably american forts at

store, in

described riiined

missionary) Muscat.

the

Portuguese

The in

Omanese the

State

was of and

at the

i t s greatest height present in the century. the

of I t

power then and the

beginning Bahrein Bundar

included Linja Gulf, is to and now be and

Katar on

north-west, side of

Abbas

opposlde and

besides

Socotra,

Kishim,

Zanzibar.

Socotra

a British 3,000, or

possession. 4,000

I t s p o p u l a t i o n , supposed was once of of the Christian, religion the early in and

i n number, a corrupt the

still

preserved derived when from the

form

evidently

mariolatry took had

missionaries the

Portuguese They

island

sixteenth an

century. image but the called when

altars, The

worshipped protected the middle and

"Mariam. " they left

Portuguese about from to the

them, of

the

Island over

century, to the of

Arabs

crossed who Since

Kishim, embrace

put

sword Islam.

a l l

refused then

the have

tenets

population

b e e n w h o l l y Mohammedan',''^

Ch, 5:

Christianity

In S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 80

P r e j u d i c e again perhaps p a r t l y e x p l a i n s these views, held by o n e who i n h i s last years of l i f e became increasingly frustrated by what he considered t o be the romanising tendencies of t h e Church of England. T h e r e w o u l d seem t o be some s u b s t a n c e h o w e v e r , t o t h e c h a r g e o f i n s e n s i t i v 1 t y t o w h a t s e e m s t o be a p a r t i c u l a r l y I b a d 1 c o n c e r n a g a i n s t i m a g e s o f a n y f o r m , ( s e e b e l o w . C h a p t e r 1 1 , p a g e 1 6 3 ) . I t was o f c o u r s e n o t the Roman C h u r c h , t h e o b j e c t o f much V i c t o r i a n Protestant invective, but Cyril of Alexandria, t h e scourge of the N e s t o r i a n s , who d e v e l o p e d t h e M o t h e r o f God d e b a t e . S a m u e l Zwemer was t o l a t e r sum u p G e n e r a l H a l g ' s r e p o r t s :

These the

a r e even and

today

the best

condensed of this

statement

of

needs

opportunities

long

neglected t o be met always Arabia

Peninsula, and

w h i l e h i s account sort o f men

of the problems t o meet them,

the right

will

remain is

invaluable until

the evangelisation of

an a c c o m p l i s h e d

fact.'

In published Cambridge interview Church Aden

fact, earlier Theology with

before papers,

h i s substantive one of which

reports, read by

Haig a

had young an Free in a

was

graduate, he

Ian Keith

Falconer.

After

Haig,

obtained

the support Committee, 1303

o f h i s own and to as arrived

of Scotland at the end

Foreign of 1885

Mission AD/

early

AH, Othman

conduct the

preliminary place for as his a

survey, base.

deciding He

upon

Sheikh

best

returned and

to Britain had a

i n 1886

to

prepare even

final the time his

departure, t o attempt life in

hectic an

summer

finding to

t o persuade of

Insurance

company work in

insure

favour

h i s o l d mission

Ch,

5:

Christianity

In S & E Arabia t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 81

L o n d o n ' s E a s t End. He was unsuccessful! He s a i l e d f o r Aden a g a i n w i t h h i s young w i f e i n t h e autumn. He was there for General Halg's v i s i t I n 1887 AD/ 1304 AH, but w i t h i n three m o n t h s had been t a k e n ill w i t h f e v e r , and dled.'^ But the mission continued, w i t h h o s p i t a l a n d s l a v e s c h o o l , t o be the i n s p i r a t i o n f o r other C h r i s t i a n missions i n Arabia.

The subject

Church of

Missionary

Society to in

published Islam the way may 1888 of

a AD/

resolution 1305 AH:

on

the

C h r i s t i a n Mission the difficulties under sense

While in eye

missionary appear meeting of to

work the

lands of

Mohammedan most so

rule

well this door so

formidable, long is of as the

firmly to the

persuaded, individual clear use and of

that,

access i t is

Mohammedans bounden duty

open,

long of

the Church for

Christ the the time,

t o make Gospel of a in

Its to

opportunities in full will,

delivering that

message the

them, Spirit

expectation in God's triumph

power have

Holy

good of

signal those

manifestation lands. ' ^'^

i n the

Christianity

Bishop Muscat, slaves Oman a n d the being

Mackey

of

Uganda year, his

took his

up

the

plea

f o r a Mission fired by

in the of

following taken

concern to

being the

from He saw

Diocese

slave

markets

Zanzibar. more I men with

Muscat: than one, that for the the key is to central

.... i n Africa. and the

senses do not

deny

task in the

difficult; must of as be

selected no small

work of

Muscat Spirit ability the the

endowed besides able of to

measure

Jesus, to be

possessing reach We not

such only

linguistic the ears,

but

very pick

hearts of the

men.

need

desperately

s i x men,

Ch.

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 82

English universities... The A r a b s have h e l p e d us often, and have h i n d e r e d us l i k e w i s e . We owe t h e m therefore a double debt, which I c a n s e e no more e f f e c t i v e way o f p a y i n g t h a n -by a t o n c e e s t a b l i s h i n g a strong mission at their very h e a d q u a r t e r s - Muscat itself.

He

closed

h i s long 'May

and c a r e f u l l y be s a i d , as he

worded

plea

f o r a mission

to

Muscat: this

i t soon forasmuch the plea, a on few my

this also

d a y , i s s a l v a t i o n come t o is letter a son of Abraham. '

house,

Accompanying I

i n a personal lines on a

he s a i d : which has been

enclose

subject time. them

weighing

mind

f o r some consign only

I shall

n o t be

disappointed basket, and

I f you shall on be

t o t h e waste-paper i f , on a better be

too glad of others, be

representation taken poor up, Arabs, and

the part

the subject done

something

definite

f o r these me much

whom

I respect, past. their

b u t who h a v e g i v e n way by w h i c h convert

trouble turn

i n years of

The b e s t

we c a n their

t h e edge into

opposition

and

blasphemy salvation.

blessing

i s t o do o u r u t m o s t

f o r their

Action his Bishopric

came in

from

Bishop

Valpy set

French. out to

Having learn

resigned Arabic,

Lahore, across

he

travelling

extensively life

t h e Middle to be

East. studied on

H i s a c t i v e and In Asia and

laughterfilled Europe. guided answer American Muscat. Passing there Bishop

continues

through

t h e Red sense call, that

Sea

h i s way

t o Muscat, to

by a s t r o n g Mackey's

h e was t o be t h e f i r s t French them met some

Bishop

young him t o

missionaries, He arrived

and

encouraged i n February

to follow Rajab

there

1 8 9 1 AD/

1308 AH.

Ch.

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900

AD/

1317

AH:

Page 83

In a letter to E a s t e r , he w r o t e :

the

Church

Missionary

Society,

Just

after

There there

is

much

outvjard of

observance mosques; men in and

of

religious rather too; a the

forms; large latter and They There I they poor to by In

are

crowds of

proportion take

educated interest the

women

special lead

religious to the

questions, Gospel.

sometimes have is a

opposition and at

large g i r l s ' lepers' for

schools nigh

female hand

teachers. to the a

village the

town. shed these numbers men even

occupied have

second well

time

this

morning and fair

allotted men

t o me, and

r o o f e d over; gathered I reach in the

lepers, listen, the a

women, however, in a is

Chiefly or

educated

roadside

house for me

portico, a new

sometimes experience.

mosque, is

which

Still bitter

there

considerable yet help bright me on,

shyness, faces and

occasionally of welcome only

opposition. cheer so get The me me, and

sometimes that to

I am

surprised

much into

i s borne with. the mosques, and

I h a v e made s p e c i a l but most often this of

efforts

i s refused. to with help me This I have like

Moolahs on i n my

Muallims

seem a f r a i d or in In

coming

translations, passages and in

encountering best classics. but

more has been

difficult surprised saved

the

disconcerted the main

me

rather,

from

anything

depression

His days way he

dream after from had

was

to

reach this Sib,

into

the

Interior he open

of

Oman,

but

a on is

few his that only into

writing to on

letter, i n an

received boat;

sunstroke one story set

Muttrah insisted a

wearing

his Two

black days was

cassock later later but he

his out

protection the

black with

umbrella. some He

palm-grove a

books,

but

found was.

collapsed unconscious

under

palm-tree.

r e t u r n e d t o Muscat,

Ch.

5;

Christianity

I n S & E A r a b i a t o 1900

AD/

1317

AH:

Page 84

on

arrival

and

hardly he In

recovered died the on May

consciousness. 14th 1891 AD/

Taken

to

the 1308 cove one

British AH. He

Residency, was burled

3 Shawwal in a man', the

little as

Christian the

cemetery

behind

Muscat; on

described his tomb

'seven-tongued for

inscription other Jesus

offers that

justification to be fall laid into

several as and

missionary said:

graves

were

near

his;

'Unless

a grain

o f Wheat

the ground

die. .. '

Two Church James of

American

missionaries, Seminary at

from

the

Reformed New at

(Dutch) Jersey, the end the

Theological Cantine AD/ and

New

Brunswick, at Cairo

Samuel AH.

Zwemer, The French, A

arrived had

1890

mld-1308 as their Cantine

latter

found knowing after visit;

h i m s e l f on of the Bishop the to

same

steamer to

Bishop

neither few weeks brief

other died of out the by a

previous in the the

meeting. arrived

the by

Muscat, year

for a

end

Peter

Zwemer, for a

brother of work

Samuel, there.' who had

arrived

'find from upon was

prospects of who

mission

Learning been a set shop

experience bazaar and them there strong This was mob

Bible took a

colporteur dislike sale, of the

t o h i s wares, but suq. This presumably Peter fact with in the

rented hawking

bibles round has

offered the been

for

without Zwemer

lanes no

wrote I think, to

disturbance.

i s due, H.H. the

English to in be

political a

influence theme as

S u l t a n . '^^^ of the new In

recurrent and

journals but

mission, Muscat: The

Kuwait

Bahrain

well,

particularly

freedom

granted

to

Europeans

on

account

of

the

Ch. 5:

Christianity

I n S & E Arabia t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 85

p e c u l i a r r e l a t i o n o f t h e S u l t a n ' s Government t o t h a t of great B r i t a i n , i n an I n c a l c u l a b l e p r i v i l e g e in a Mohammedan c o u n t r y . T h e s c r i p t u r e s may b e r e a d i n public. Open d i s c u s s i o n a t e i t h e r o f t h e l a r g e c i t y gates, i n t h e presence o f a European w i l l n o t be d i s t u r b e d a n d i n s t r u c t i o n w h e r e s u c h i s d e s i r e d may f r e e l y be g i v e n .

Sales colporting on

encouraged their

the v i s i t i n g

m i s s i o n a r i e s , who d i d b e g i n either Visitors and of side o f Muscat

bibles to the villages few miles Inland.

the coast, of

and a

t o the rented there was 'an

house

the missionaries in learning them extend up

talked

freely, An attack

interest could return sailing Requests

English.'

'dingo' but they bedden. on a

fever would fast

drive and

t o Bombay their

f o r convalescence, by using a

journeys and

dhow

t o Suhar, a doctor

towns

and v i l l a g e s and

t h e way. colourful in

for of

were

frequent, receptions

descriptions the At Field Suhar: I am

their

hospitable

are described i n New

Reports

t o the Mission

Headquarters

Jersey.

given

a and

room

i n the fort,

and a number o f Arabs questions, t h e reason as various f o r the of of a

assembled and

e n t e r t a i n e d me demanding silver,

with

divergent, of

t o know as well

depreciation the Prophet

the authority o f the prophet Muscat as

o f Nazareth I am

above

that

Arabia station

determined Mission.

t o occupy

of the Arabian

At

t h e e n d o f 1 8 9 4 AD/ i n the further on

m l d - 1 3 1 2 AH, regions of was

Peter

Zwemer r e p o r t e d : inadvisable internal

Touring this

deemed

quarter,

account

t h e many

petty

Ch.

5:

Christianity

I n S & E A r a b i a t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 86

s t r i f e s , whereby m o u n t a i n p a s s e s were c l o s e d and roads rendered unsafe. A c e r t a i n S h e i k h , who i s i n s y m p a t h y with the r i g h t f u l heir t o t h e t h r o n e and leads a p o w e r f u l r e t i n u e , was o n t h e w a r p a t h t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f O c t o b e r and November, even a t one t i m e t h r e a t e n i n g t o b e s i e g e M u s c a t , a s he h a d d o n e i n 1881.^'^ The s o n o f S u l t a n F a i s a l was T a y m u r , a n d h a d : ....suddenly g o n e f a n a t i c i n 1 9 0 5 , a d o p t i n g t h e mutawwi'^ h a b i t s a n d entering Into correspondence with ' I s a (one of t h e p o s s i b l e c o n t e n d e r s f o r imam a t t h e t i m e ) b u t he was soon t o have been d i s s u a d e d by t h e B r i t i s h f r o m h i s d i s p l a y of b i g o t r y . .. ,

Peter desire the

Zwemer t o open

presumably a school

spotted which 'a

this

tendency had

earlier!

A of by

evidently

t h e agreement

S u l t a n , was

t h w a r t e d by

few Jealous

Moslem t e a c h e r s ,

intimidating

t h e p a r e n t s . '^^^

The

first of

1895 the

report city

from after

Muscat Salih's

is raid,

dominated and

by

a is

description s p e c u l a t i on: had now

there

the attacking be governed and

party by a

gained sultan

t h e day, from one

Muscat of the We

would most are

fanatical thankful has been

intolerant that

tribes the

i n Arabia. mild

therefore, restored....

former

government

By

the

next to Sur

report, and to

description between dwindled fascinating into

of is

tour

south so minds

down

the

coast

places have

offered, the

political of occur, the of

concerns

seem

in

missionaries. communities An now

Again, absorbed tack

descriptions Arabian bring

a modern headwinds

oil-state: us t o Teewe,

allnight

against

Ch.

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900

AD/

1317

AH:

Page 87

double

village which runs

nestling a stream The

on

both

sides to are

of

wadl, the

through small by two

wide two

enough

admit

coastal

craft. and

villages tribes. apart,

Inhabited are each gates of man, a not is and the and day the

different than two from

hostile yards by a

They yet wall, truth every

more

hundred the other

protected forts.

complete of the

Another 'His hand down, in

Illustration hand will be

prediction: every on our man's way

against We

against freely their

him. ' reading

remain and

here

explaining and

Scriptures, shops. Only piece of of the in of 1989 has

primitive

bazaar

coffee

the

stream which

been shows a

forded

by

road. of the

I have

video-film, tribes, to the

re-enactment music children and of

meeting

two

with

dancing of

and the

much both

brandishing villages.

weaponry,

delight

At

Sur,

an

active slaving centre being easily

was

encountered: under Sur is the the

Transportation tricolor, terminus which of

effected inspection, to the

defies British slave

several

routes

interior...^

But find to

the the

missionaries slave-trade by road,

did in they

not full took

have

t o go

so

f a r from When i t was

Muscat too to

to hot

operation. the easy

travel

sea

journey

Banda

J issa: Both on account of the heat, and the employment of an for was of

excellent further given Muscat, a to

language language

teacher, and

giving

opportunity no time

study

translation, .Besides and the

extensive a

tours.

vicinity

Jlssa,

most

interesting south harbour, of

peculiar was

place,

half-day's Jissa

journey

Muscat

visited. from

This

i s a small

entirely

invisible

Ch.

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia t o 1900 AD/

1317 AH:

Page 88

the

sea, and

and

owned

by are

a the

wealthy only

Arab

sheikh, and

whose who,

family in this

retinue

inhabitants; to the with

secluded

place, and

with

i t s road in

Interior, a free

avoid hand.

customs

dues,

trade

slaves

It the

i s now

20

minute to reach

drive

on

an

amazing Muscat.

road

sliced

through

mountains,

Jissa from

In established, slave-boys, rescued

1896 not

AD/ with

1314 children

AH, from

the

hoped-for but

school rather having with such

was freed been the freed be

Muscat,

'signed-for' from a the slave dhow,

the

British in

Embassy,

from of

raided

accordance Normally

permission slaves found tracts; American tract. major to were work. at

'Brussels by the

Conference.'

taken A one

British

t o Bombay w h e r e press was

they

would

small time to as

printing the Sultan the in to

evidently

printing the

intervened

in requesting of one

Consul Then,

stop

distribution the the on 1896/7

offending two first

reported undertaken and

Field by

Reports, camel;

tours

were

interior the way,

Rustaq as

and the

towns

villages

S c r i p t u r e s were Mullah' a few

sold gave

missionaries the tracts The

progressed; should be of

one

'fanatical but only

orders

returned, Samall

apparently still wadT.) The has

were.

wad 1 t o w n plantations

i s described, a long

(which shallow

large date

either

s i d e of

Samail in

valley Eastern

is Oman

perhaps and the

the home

most of the

populous famous by two and

district Muscat hostile

date. tribes

Unhappily the

the

valley and

is inhabited the Hlnawee

Ghaferi

Ch.

5:

Christianity

In S & E Arabia

t o 1900

AD/

1317

AH:

Page

89

there

i s almost

continual

intertribal

war.^^-*

few

years

later

Cantlne town

was

to describe with, two are and the a

Zikkl,

beyond

Samail -

The

queerest

I h a v e met

threefold split the the towns, third

three

distinct of the

settlements, hostile castle and

heavily is the

walled, immense between either deputy, virtually

tribes, held not the of by a

fort the

or two I

Sultan

directly from

hundred of

yards the

pitied man a the a

condition his own

Sultan's which was was boy, on safe

young that by of the of

family, (Another

prisoner. clanking on

tragedy a mere and

recalled. ...) the

SLirvivor

chains the

of

massacre had a

mountains,

fleeing keeping, with the

to

Sultan with

been to

imprisoned some

for

probably

view

future

dealing

murderer. . .

The took

second

inland over

'tour' Jabal

was

in

1897 to

AD/

1414-5

AH,

and

Peter

Zwemer and

Akhdar with

Nizwah, on

'divided a l l sides, AH,

between and

Sultan

i t ' s Sheikh,

suspicion 1898 AD/

frequent

hostile back

out b r e a k s . ' I n i n the United but

mid-1316 off

Peter

Zwemer was he

States, then

fighting

fever He over dead

attacks; was the from

seemed by a

to

recover, missionary,

died

i n October. who too took was

replaced ex-slave fever.

new

George a few of

Stone, he

school, His on

but

within

months Bishop speaks

grave the

i s near Bishop's

that

French, for

Another a l l the

Inscription missionaries Even but many. as to

grave

buried the Son

there: of Man and came n o t to give to His be ministered a ransom unto for

minister,

life

Ch.

5:

C h r i s t i a n i t y i n S & E Arabia t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 90

Notes and references:

1.

TRIMINGHAM, In

J. Spencer,

1979, C h r i s t i a n i t y Longman London

among t h e A r a b s

Pre-Islamlc

Times.

2.

STEWART, R e v d J o h n , the Story of a

1928, N e s t o r i a n Church

Missionary Enterprise. Christian Literature

on F i r e .

Society Narsai Beth Qatar

f o r India, Press,

Madras,

republished

i n 1 9 6 1 b y Mar On being p. 5 3 , where

Trichur,

Kerala, as

pp. 2-16. probably

Qatraye i s now,

i s described although on

t h e map

i n the article: Times A t l a s o f plOl, Island Beth off

'Expansion World

of Christianity 1986, Times as b e i n g

6 0 0 - 1500,' Books opposite

History.

London, Maslrah

Qatraye the east

i s marked coast Cyril

o f Oman.

For d e t a i l

of the controversy o f Ephasus, of the

between see

of Alexandria, Hans

and N e s t o r l u s

CAMPENHAUSEN,

Von, 1963, The F a t h e r s London, pp. 162-8

Greek Church. 3. LICHTENSTADTER, Arabic 4.

A and C Black,

U s e , 1976, I n t r o d u c t i o n Schocken,

to Classical

Literature.

New Y o r k , p . 1 6 Washington Square

ULLAH, N a j i b , Press,

1963, I s l a m i c L i t e r a t u r e . p p . 10, 3 0 Christianity

New Y o r k ,

5.

TRIMINGHAM, J . S p e n c e r , Pre-Islamlc Times,

among t h e A r a b s i n

o p . c l t . p. 2 8 2 Arab

6.

LYALL, C h a r l e s Poetry

James,

1930,T r a n s l a t i o n s o f A n c i e n t University Press, New Y o r k ,

Columbia

pp. 92-93 East

7.

BAILEY,

Kenneth,

1989, i n l e c t u r e

t o t h e Middle

Council 8. Qur'an.

o f Churches

(Gulf Churches)

conference.

p.1714 - f o o t n o t e 6055

Ch.

5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 91

9. 10. 11 12.

ZWEMER, S a m u e l , ibid. p. 3 1 0

1900, A r a b i a ,

t h ecradle o f Islam,

p. 3 1 3

Qur'an.

p . 1 7 9 1 , a n d p.1792 - f o o t n o t e s 1970.

6270-6275

SKEET, I a n , 1 9 8 5 , Oman b e f o r e Faber Muscat and Faber, London,

t h e end o f an e r a . published as

p.212 ( F i r s t

a n d Oman, t h e e n d o f a n e r a 1 9 7 4 ) Arabia, thecradle o f Islam, op. c i t .

13.

ZWEMER, S a m u e l , p. 3 1 8

14. 15. 16.

ibid.

p. 3 2 0 Journal. London, V o l I X , p. 4 7 9 o f General London, F. T. pp.178-

Geographical

HAIG, C. A., 1 9 0 2 , M e m o r i e s Halg 181 by h i s w i f e .

o f t h eL i f e

Marshall

Brothers,

17.

CAMPENHAUSEN, Church.

Hans v o n ,

1963, The F a t h e r s London,

o f t h e Greek

A. a n d C. B l a c k , Arabia,

p, 166 op. c i t .

18.

ZWEMER, S a m u e l , p. 3 2 2

thecradle

o f Islam,

19. 20, 21. 22.

ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid.

P' 3 4 1 P' 3 7 4 P- 3 3 0 P' 3 2 9 York 1897, pp. 4 1 7 f f . ) which appeared i nt h e Church 1891.)

23.

ibid.

p. 3 5 0 ( q u o t i n g l e t t e r s Missionary

Intelligencer, 1894,

f o r May a n d J u l y p.7

24. 25. 26. 27.

NA/AC. ibid. ibid. ibid,

1stquarter,(No9)

2nd and 3 r d q u a r t e r , 2nd and 3 r d q u a r t e r , 1stquarter,

( N o s 10 a n d 1 1 ) 1 6 9 4 , ( N o s 10 a n d 1 1 ) 1 8 9 4 , p.9

p.7 p.10

(No 13) 1695,

Ch, 5:

Christianity

i n S & E Arabia

t o 1900 AD/ 1317 AH:

Page 92

28.

WILKINSON,

J . C.,

1987, The Imamate T r a d i t i o n P r e s s , p , 242 1915 l A , 588

o f Oman. (India

Cambridge Office 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. NA/AC. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid. ibid.

University Lorimer

quoting

Report?)

1stquarter, 3 r dQuarter, 4 t h Quarter, 4 t h Quarter, 3 r dQuarter, 4 t h Quarter, 3 r dQuarter,

(No 1 3 ) 1 8 9 5 , p . 9 (No 1 5 ) 1 8 9 5 , p . 9 (No.16) 1 8 9 5 , p. 10 p.10

(No 1 6 ) 1 8 9 5 ,

(No 1 9 ) 1 8 9 6 , p . 9 (No 2 0 ) 1 8 9 6 , 1901, p. 14. p.10 This report also recorded

the warm the 36. 37. ibid.

death

o f Major

General

F.T. H a i g ,

and g i v e s a very much t o inspire

glimpse

o f t h e man who h a d d o n e

m i s s i o n a r i e s o f t h e 1890's t o A r a b i a . 1 8 9 7 , p. 11 1 9 8 2 , Thomas V a l p y London French. Church Centre)

1stQuarter,

STACEY, V l v i e n n e , Missionary

Society,

(Christian

Study

Ch.

6;

S u l t a n and

Imam, 1900-1930 AD/

1317-1349 AH

Page

94

in

Muscat of

for

their

distribution. Banl and

The Ruwaha they whose

leaders Rustaq

of

the

coalition joined Tanuf, with Salim 1331 for

Hinawi with by of of

Sharqiya the

tribes at and I mam

forces convened

Ghafiri, bin

came home

together i t was,

Himyar

Nasir

the bin AH. this

support Rashid

'-'Abdullah the Ban!

al-Saliml; Kharus, had with

they

e l e c t e d as AD/ long

i n May

1913

I Jamada and hard

^Abdullah moment, movement, and the of

al-Saliml up

been the

working growing In North they Two that bin

linking

international Africa, succeeded months point the the in

I bad 1 Algeria

particularly Within

leaders a

Tunisia.-* Sultan's the and I mam the

month Nizwah, At

expelling the army

g a r r i s o n from reached reign of Samail, Sultan

later old

Sultan in

died,

Taymur

Faisal

began,

less than

auspicious

circumstances.

Another death of 94 in

milestone year 1914 old AD/ and

in

I bad I

history bin Yusuf He

was bin a

passed, '^Isa

with bin

the Sallh of the

Muhammad 1332 had He AH,

Atfiyash, '"Abdullah west in -

was

contemporary insights real in

al-SalimT,

maintained brought

I bad! a

in North

Africa. through to was

about

renaissance (his Mzab in of to his to

Ibad~

studies, remains which

his extensive the Ibadl

literary scholars

activity of the

library today), religious the the book

Inspire paralleled and social in the

with life,^

increasing Clearly, decades, al-Sallmi

strictness the vigour much with much

practice of of

I bad i y y a h leadership Tuhfat the

Oman

following well ahl full as

owed who

Atfiyash, bi-sTrat

as

al-a'-yan I bad 1

'^-Uman c o n t r i b u t e d s o Imamate,^

Inspire

to restore a

Ch.

6:

S u l t a n a n d Imam, 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH

Page 95

The c o n f e d e r a c y a t T a n u f , a s w e l l a s e l e c t i n g Sa11m b i n R a s h i d a l - K h a r u s i a s I mam, h a d d e c l a r e d S u l t a n F a i s a l d e p o s e d . S u l t a n T a y m u r t h e r e f o r e h a d t o move f a s t t o attempt t or e establish what little authority t h e Muscat S u l t a n s had been able t o e x e r c i s e over the interior. The B r i t i s h government a u t h o r i s e d a b o m b a r d m e n t o f t h e f o r c e s o f t h e Imam f r o m t h e sea i n April 1 9 1 4 AD/ J u m a d I 1 3 3 2 , i n s u p p o r t o f t h e S u l t a n , and despite pre-occupation with larger t h e a t r e s o f war, i n e a r l y 1 9 1 5 AD/ 1 3 3 3 AH, h a d 7 0 0 A n g l o - I n d i a n t r o o p s d u g i n a t Bait-a1-Fa 1aj, d e f e n d i n g M u t t r a h and Muscat f r o m a t t a c k f r o m inland. 3 , 0 0 0 s u p p o r t e r s o f t h e Imam w e r e d r i v e n o u t o f t h e coastal Batinah plain, and back into t h e mountains."^ The unity of t h e Imamate forces broke up, with t h e usual skirmishes, and f o r t s changing hands, With t h e end o f t h e W o r l d War, t h e B r i t i s h focused more a t t e n t i o n o n Oman, a n d e n c o u r a g e d t h e S u l t a n t o i n c r e a s e customs dues on d a t e e x p o r t s f r o m 5% t o 2 5 % , p e r h a p s i n t e n t i o n a l l y t o p r e c i p i t a t e a c r i s i s . The crisis came f r o m a n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n h o w e v e r : I mam S a l l m b i n R a s h i d was k i l l e d i n J u l y 1 9 2 0 AD/ S h a w w a l 1 3 3 8 AH, b y a Wahiba t r i b e s m a n .

Muhammad Salim's who as with

b i n '"Abdullah grandson

al-KhalTlT

was

elected

I mam

as

successor,

o f Sa'=id

b i n Khalfan

al-Khallll, b i n Qa i s to settle

h a d been I mam 60

instrumental years

i n the election His f i r s t

o f ' Azzan task was Agent

previously. applied

t h e heavy

pressure

by t h e B r i t i s h whether village

Wingate,

acting the

f o r the Sultan, Treaty of

and t o d e c i d e Seeb, a small

or not t o sign on t h e coast

proposed

Ch,

6:

S u l t a n and

Imam, 1900-1930 AD/

1317-1349 AH

Page

96

opposite Muhammad so, to be

the

gap

through did to that was

the

mountains and perhaps and good

at

Samail. by

I mam doing

al-Khalili aqulesclng to prove

sign, the he

appeared British

Sultan was as

his a

backers. as the 1339

Events Sultan. AH.

were The

compromiser 1920 AD/

Treaty himself

signed

In October that document intention they had

Safar

Wlngate the

commented of that the the that

phraseology and

was was their

deliberately to lead the

ambiguous tribes while deny Into at to

believing same

independence could made

the the

time that

the the

British

government they had

Sultan

arrangements sovereignty.^

derogated

from

his overall

The over Sultan than to thirty and any for

fact

that

the is

Treaty tribute

of

Seeb to

did the

in

fact

hold

for of

years, Imam, clever and

more

personalities

their

desire But

for

peaceful Wlngate fitted but also

co-existence, can be only given the the

wording. a

perhaps that

credit

producing of the

treaty

not

personality complicated did not do,

main of

protagonists, their

accepted the

history was of

relationship. easier for

What

treaty in

make

i t any

those

Interested the agent

development established one of The these

Oman's

resources, Edward his

particularly Henderson, difficulty: although overall an the the

newly for

o i l companies. companies, in bin

described was was

problem Sa'= I d the

Oman

that the under

Sultan, a In the

Salyid part 1921 senior of an

Taimor

sovereign, I mam.

i n t e r i o r , , , was had

I bad i

agreement tribal and

been were

signed.,,, granted

whereby

sheikhs

considerable autonomy In this

freedom, In

in effect, affairs.

something The I mam

approaching not named

a l l local

was

Ch. 6:

S u l t a n and Imam. 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH

Page

97

document,

the Sultan

d i d not of course as Imam. .

wish

to

imply him

recognition would rather imply than

of h i s o f f i c e that the he was

t o recognise of This ^ the

the sovereign himself.

state,

Sultan

agreement

represented

a difficulty

f o r o u r company.'

In the

1923 AD/ in

1 3 4 1 AH, which be

S u l t a n Taymur he said, 'We

gave will within

an u n d e r t a k i n g t o not our exploit any

British, which not

petroleum and will

may grant

found

anywhere

territories without the

permission Agent

f o r i t sexploitation at of have Muscat India.' given and

consulting approval Qatar, of and

the

Political

without

t h e High

Government States AD/ part Sa'-Td

Kuwait, similar

Bahrain, assurances

the Trucial In 1925

previously.'"^ Company, two year (later

1344 of

AH,

t h e D'Arcy Petroleum) various

Exploration obtained a

t o be from into were

British

licence explored They

Taymur,

and of

exploration from the

parties Batinah.

the mountains not able well

the Hajar, t o where

to penetrate from

o i l was

eventually Saudis which control fact not well

discovered t o send also

inland

t h e HaJar,

because t h e area, to

decided the I mam

tax collectors an armed

t o the Bureimi t o assert

sent

force,

Imamate The

( i n t h e event there was

of Sultan

Taymur's

prevarication).

that having

stalemate

f o r a time, from

was d u e t o t h e I mam involved, as

sufficient

confidence

the tribes

as Saudi

t en t a t 1 veness . '

Ten companies, the company

years having

elapsed, formed

before the

consortium Petroleum Oman.'

of western o i l Company, formed

Iraq

'Petroleum

Development

I t i s significant

Ch.

6:

S u l t a n and

Imam. 1900-1930 AD/

1317-1349 AH

Page

98

that the

the title The

apparently 'Oman' problem and D'Arcy 'The a

abltrary of

d e c i s i o n had the originally frontiers 12) was

been

made t o

replace

i n place of

proposed was taken the

'Muscat'.

defining

studiously from the

avoided 1925

clause

(Article to

concession company

meet' that at

political parts for to

situation: of its use for and the

recognises are not

certain

Sultan's

Territory The

present on

safe

operations. h i s good

Sultan with the a

undertakes view

his part

offices

t o making to enter soon words Political will as

i t possible such such the parts parts 1925 Muscat as the

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of will inform the The

company as

company additional of the

become document

safe.' 'The the word

from

decision safety of

Agent be

regarding too the

any

area

final,' in

' Independent'

before

'Ruler'

preamble

w e r e d e l e t e d a t H.M.G.'s s u g g e s t i o n . ' ^

As were being

for

I mam

Muhammad as far

al-Khalill, as those and

his of

diplomatic of his

skills Imamate

stretched The even to

any

predecessors. sheikhs, own was, ideas Imam of or as

-ulama' . of the I mam

the

Tamlmah

(paramount their fact the coup top

Ami r ) how bin the

various should

tribes, be the the

a l l had I mam. ' The of a on

Salim the

Rashld tribes, they

had who

not saw

had his

support as

T a m i mah by the

Hinawl tribe; to the

election but

Ghafiri i t was came

had

aqulesced, of I mam to

came o u t

when There main

election

Muhammad see that start,

al-Khalill. two yet of the

constant

vigilance In the

needed, Imamate He was

tribal

groupings

d i d not

again,

tearing astute, been

themselves as he In showed command

apart. when of the -

certainly Sallm's of

politically he had

during major

Imamate, the

left

fort

Samall,

family

Ch, 6:

S u l t i n and Imam, 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH

Page 99

home

b u t chose a war,

t o surrender

I t t o t h e I mam.

rather

than

precipitate task

( H i s f a t h e r who h a d e n t r u s t e d h i sother help brother against t o steer

him with the sent t o never course

of holding

out, while

had been t h e I mam, a middle

Muscat forgave

to obtain Muhammad).

t h e Sultan's

But h i s a b i l i t y

was f i r m l y

established.

The Interior, the in

Hinawi, would

Ghafiri,

and a l l t h e o t h e r t h e Sultan's

tribes

ofthe with coming clearly

n o t have

condoned

flirting

British under

politically, wing. and

and t h e American m i s s i o n a r i e s Sultan Faisal b i n Turk!, was

their

beyond M u t a w w i '=

redemption,

h i s son, despite o f t h e I bad i ) . t h e Imam -

flirting

with the being

(an extreme a t peace very meet along

sect with

and d e s p i t e

officially was still

v i a the Treaty Muhammad

o f Seeb,

suspect.

B u t , I mam

al-Khalilidid their

eventually presence,

themissionaries, w i t h many o t h e r s

a n d came

t o appreciate Akhdar.

i n t h eJabal

NOTES AND REFERENCES:

1.

KELLY,

J. B.,1972,

'A P r e v a l e n c e

of Furies:

Tribes, Oman' i n T h e Edited b y D.

Politics Arabian Hopgood, 2.

and R e l i g i o n Peninsula.

i n Oman a n d T r u c i a l and P o l i t i c s .

Society

London, George

A l l e n a n d U n w i n L t d , p. 116 t r a d i t i o n o f Oman. p.187-9, There is a

WILKINSON, J , C., Cambridge

1987, The Imamate Press,

University

Ch.

6:

S u l t a n and Imam, 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH

Page 100

d e t a i l e d d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t h e ' u 1 a ma' . Also on pp. 179 o f t h e r o l e o f gad i (judge appointed o f f i c i a l l y ) a n d o f a wa1 I ( g o v e r n o r o f a c i t y , t o w n o r V i11 age).

3. 4. 5. 6.

i b i d . p.241 ibid. p.244

E i ^ , V o l . I , p. 7 3 6 . '"UBAYDLT, the Ahmad, E a r l y Sources, I s l a m i c Oman a n d e a r l y Cambridge battle, Ibadism i n p. 5

Arabic

Ph. D. T h e s i s , with mural

7.

Dramatic

accounts

of this

paintings, military

retell museum, Muscat, 8. SKEET,

the story opened in

to visitors in the .old

t o the Sultan's fort at

Beit-a1-Fa 1 a j ,

1989. t h e end o f an e r a

I a n , 1 9 8 5 , Oman b e f o r e . 1 9 7 0 . and Faber, London, p.99 strange

Faber 9.

HENDERSON,Edward, Quartet books,

1988, T h i s London,

eventful

history

p. 4 1 tradition o f Oman, op. c i t . ,

10.

WILKINSON, J . C., p. 2 7 4

The Imamate

11. 12.

ibid. ibid.

p.259 p,276 the 1982, U.S. In a footnote, Department also W i l k i n s o n says: of February 'The present A report of 1938 (Porter is

of State notes:

57-68)

Sultan

somewhat and the

sensitive

i n the matter

of B r i t i s h

control on

i s inclined point.'

t o become

increasingly

assertive

Page 101

V.

CHRISTIANS 1930
1901 AD/

IN

OMAN

1900

AD/

1317

134.9 AH:
connected Although Agency to a telegraphic state,

1 3 1 7 AH Europe gave

saw M u s c a t

cable this the

between Inevitably India

and I n d i a . the British so

a sovereign

greater

i n f l u e n c e , as and Lord where Curzon

Office prompt

could military

easily

give when

advice

necessary, visited

support

needed.

Muscat

i n 1903 as V i c e r o y

of India.'

The d e a t h Oman Gulf and

of the f i r s t others.

nineteenth James

century

missionaries to down from the

d i d not deter

Cantine AH,

came

a t t h e e n d o f 1 8 9 9 AD, after some months with

mid-1317

t o man

the station, up t h e Samuel north of and half

t h e school

managed

t o tour

coast Zwemer,

north

o f Muscat. Oman

Later from

i n 1 9 0 0 AD/ using

1 3 1 8 AH, a pass

entered

t h e east,

BureimI, then an

(skirting

t h e main made before

dissaffected

tribal

areas) t o spend

by camel hour with

and boat Cantine

i t t o Muscat leaving

i n time mail

on a

steamship t o that trip, in

return Cantine Muscat:

t o Bahrain. described a

I n t h e same visit

journal

recording of

t o the brother

the Sultan

There the each all

i s t h e usual

oriental

jealousy

and f e a r they

between

Sultan other

and h i s b r o t h e r except He

- i t i ssaid

never see followers, In his

i n t h e presence of t h e i r had in a prominent

armed. . . room

place

reception he

a copy wished

of the Bible to Impress

a n d New T e s t a m e n t , with h i s openevident very

evidently

me

mindedness, that his

but from

h i sconversation, with the

I t was book

acquaintance

was

siIght...=

Ch.

7;

C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman; 1900-1930 AD/

1317-1349 AH:

Page 102

Another early with Jabal 1318 AH,

missionary Harry to but

arrived He

in

the

summer an

of

1900

AD/ visit

Wiersum. arid of far the first, was soon

managed around tribal

interior edge of

Cantine, Akhdar, not

towns because too and

villages news o f into

the

the were the

battles, 'God

they

advised visit for last his me'

to press Akhdor

t h e wadi . beyond

willing,

t o Gebel he

region and a

is s t i l l out

in store to be his took

wrote as he

in his too was at

what victim

turned of

report, life

fever,

which

w h i l e he

Basrah.^

Samuel 1316 Islam Initial regard east, and not AH, was

Zwemer,

brother

of

Peter

who

had the

died

in

1898 sects

AD/ of

beginning his

to enquire was

about

different around

that

mission were He

encountering revised, another trip

the

Gulf. with the

descriptions to this the time Ibadl.

later made

particularly across from

staying nearly

at

Bureimi,

with

i t s seven although

villages, they do into

'the

people

a l l Wahhabi pf he

moslems, their

observe up

a l l the into the here up

strictness mountains,

sect.'

Passing

Oman a n d The

observed: feud with with and each other. by

tribes

perpetually armed and goes

Everyone gets his side. of The

t o bed

a rifle

people crops to

cultivate by

the s o i l

raise a l l They of soil in than the of i t s the

sorts belong

small

careful

irrigation. one the rigid

mostly

the sects

Abadhi that and is in

sect; grew less on

heretical Persian orthodoxy Wahhabis.,^

Moslem

speculation, and more

lax

i t s

practice

Ch, 7:

C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman: 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH:

Page 103

By

1911

however, about

Samuel

Zwemer as

was

writing

much

more

sympathetically Magazine. Sultan

t h e I bad i . a positive

In the National was a

Geographic of a

Alongside

'article,

photograph and

Faisal of

b i n Turk! him as a

resplendent progressive of India.

i n h i s regalia, ruler with

description relations with Arabs an

the closest concludes

with

t h e government and

The a r t i c l e

enigmatic

tanta 1isIng1y

brief

d e s c r i p t i o n of the

o f Oman a s : free from fanaticism, simple In their of

...remarkably habits, them in and

wonderful

i n their sect,

hospitality. which h a s many

Most

belong

t o t h e AbadhI

beliefs of our only them

common w i t h C h r i s t i a n i t y , has but been willing that to

and t h e e x p e r i e n c e the people learn, and

missionaries accessible, eager

are not many of

not only

f o r medical

help,

b u t f o r teaching.

The

rest

o f Zwemer's

long

life

was d e d i c a t e d

to furthering his

understanding

o f t h e mind consider

and t h e o l o g y his first

o f Muslims, hand observations h i s most he and

Some s c h o l a r s discerning

accounts

of popular

Islam

exacting was one

contribution of the better

to scholarship. informed Muslim

Undoubtably

Westerners

o f h i s day

regarding

contemporary Surveys' each with and

belief

and p r a c t i c e . on the Muslim

His 'Factual World he within shared Mus11m

statistics into

decade others

fall

this his

group,

and w h i c h of

through

editorship

The

World.^

Contacts difficult century. severely during The

with the

the first

I bad I two

heartland decades

became of the

much

more

twentieth were t o be tribes

Interior as

travels

of the missionaries of

curtailed,

the simmering

the mountain

Ch. 7;

C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman: 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH:

Page 104

reached

again

boiling

point. was made,

Another this

attempt

at

re-

establishing

t h e Imamate

time s u c c e s s f u l l y .

During continuing its school

this

period,

the American Mission i n Muscat

had been

quietly and

i t s medical i n Muscat brother A great for needed of deal

work

and nearby

Muttrah,

f o r freed slaveboys; Sultan Faisal

f o u r sons o f

Sayyid the

Mul^ammad, school.'^ buildings purchased bowl

b i n Turki,

attended

of energy work.

was e x p e n d e d o n t h e n e c e s s a r y buildings that heat had been

their

Old

replacing; i n the incredible

o f Muscat's

of mountains: operations was as a t hand mission were carried on only when the missionary such

to direct, meetings, then

and whenever touring,

other

claims,

vacations as , i t

e t c . , took was found upon,

precedence, that not

t h e work workmen

had t o s t o p , could not be

the native even

depended

f o r one day. been put

When o t h e r up

buildings of an

foreign and was seen what the

design

have

i n Muscat from

architect but t h i s having

contractor entirely nearly we

have beyond

been our

obtained means.

India,

However,

every

stone

put i n i t splace, assured beyond

we k n e w J u s t doubt of

had,

and

were

permanence

o f o u r work.

The

fact

the building well for James

still

remains

i n use

by

the

Mission

speaks Unlike

Cantine, being

the

resident

missionary.

a neighbour's of which

building fell

erected

at the time: whi1e i t was foot

...parts being thick

down s e v e r a l

times

p u t up, walls,

T h e new m i s s i o n made o f h a r d , mountainside,

building rock up

had t h r e e broken in a of

brittle laid

o f fthe mortar lime,,,

neighbouring composed A half of

mud, iron

with

little which

sprinkling

dozen

beams,

excited the admiration

Ch.

7:

C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman; 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH:

Page 105

and wonder o f t h e n a t i v e s presume, f r o m England.

from

the interior,

were,

The

workforce Balooches

comprised

several

nationalities: wages w e r e

'Arabs, 'between

Persians four

and Negroes',

and t h e i r

and t h i r t y They also

c e n t s aday.' insisted that t h e blood be shed of a sacrifice (of i n thefoundation

course

an e d i b l e

o n e ) must

trenches

b e f o r e work

was b e g u n .

In 35 years a

Muttrah, later

Dr S h a r o n

Thoms a r r i v e d , i n 1 9 0 9 , a s r e c a l l e d Mission d o c t o r C. S. G. Mylrea, who

by a n o t h e r service

spent

lifetime's

i n Bahrain

and Kuwait,

but visited

Oman s e v e r a l t i m e s . ... t o They I

D r S h a r o n Thoms came w i t h of medical house

h i s family: I n Oman.

lay the foundation living i n a funny

work

were

little

on t h e beach. little over Wells the

can s t i l l and

see, w i t h

t h e e y e o f memory, leaning father Thoms and

Thoms

h i s sisters watch their

f a r out

verandah courtyard for

to

operating was a n his

i n the man

below pioneer

Sharon days

ideal

those

friendships, through the i n t h e towns beloved. His

accumulated country of

i n t h e course endure

of h i s travels day, w h i l e

round,

to this

Muscat

a n d M u t t r a h h e was u n i v e r s a l l y 1 9 1 3 was a h e a v y blow

death

i n January

t o o u r work. '* ^

Others school -

came Revd

t o share Fred

t h e work, Dr

both

a t t h e h o s p i t a l s and Mr and Mrs D y k s t r a . i f rather

Barny, it,

Harrison,

'Touring' strenuous, Muttrah. One

as they

called from

was, c l e a r l y

a pleasant, and heat

diversion

the pressures

o f Muscat and

As D r M y l r e a of the things

observed: which Impresses the visitor t o Oman

Ch.

7:

C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman; 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH:

Page 106

i s t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y f r i e n d l i n e s s o f t h e people. Most travellers t o Oman h a v e s t r e s s e d t h i s p o i n t , . a n d t o me, c o m i n g f r o m t h e d o u r W a h h a b i n o r t h , t h e r e c e p t i o n we r e c e i v e d e v e r y w h e r e was d e l i g h t f u l .

His

welcome

was t o b e r e p e a t e d , workers.

both

t o m i s s i o n a r i e s , and t o

expatriate

Notes and references:

1.

HAWLEY,

Donald,

1 9 7 7 , Oman a n d i t s R e n a i s s a n c e . London, p.48 p.9 p.11

Stacey

International, 2.. 3. 4. 5. 6. NA/AC. ibid. ibid.

1900, 2nd Q u a r t e r , 3 r dQuarter, 2nd Quarter, 1900,

1901, p.12 January 1911, pp. 89-98 Mission t o Muslims St. ,

N a t i o n a l Geographic. WERFF, L y l e L . V a n d e r , the Record.

1977, C h r i s t i a n Carey USA, of

William 91030,

Library, p. 2 3 2 . The I-VI

5 3 3 Hermosa Samuel

South editor World

Pasadena from after

Zwemer was (Muslim Christian VII-XXVII XXVIIIHartford,

1911-1938 1947).

Moslem published

World by

Vols. for

Literature by

Society

India,

London.

Vols. Vols.

Missionary by

R e v i e w Pub. Co., New Y o r k , Seminary

present Conn. 7.

Hartford

Foundation,

USA. a n d ZWEMER, S a m u e l Fleming M. , 1 9 3 8 , T h e G o l d e n

CANTINE, J a m e s , Mllestone.

H. R e v e l l Co., L o n d o n , p . 1 0 0

Ch. 7:

C h r i s t i a n s i n Oman: 1900-1930 AD/ 1317-1349 AH:

Page 107

8. 9. 10. 11.

ibid.

pp.130-1

i b i d . p.132 NA/AC. Ibid. 1943, f i r s t p.6 half year, p.4

Page 108

8:

SULTAN, IN OMAN

IMAM. S I N C E

AND 1930

CHRISTIAN AD/ 134-9 AH

Travelling American with

had

continued

t o be

priority

with the in

missionaries,

but inevitably,

having

t o be f i t t e d school,

the pressures where half

of running t h e year

hospitals

and a would

in a reach

climate 40 of

temperatures reports reveal

regularly

degrees the

centigrade.

Their

i n the Quarterly the

Journal and

Mission they

consistently

friendliness

welcome noted always it was

received, of

b u t as seen the last I think

i n C. S. G.My 1 r e a ' s I bad! Islam

comment, was n o t

at

t h e end

chapter, from

given

credit. that

t h e tone does not

of the articles, seem to be a

simply

the question ' I sthis

significant with what

one t o them: t h e I bad i

something

t o do

inherently course

believe?'

Samuel

Zwemer

had o f

implied seems were this, i n h i sNational sufficient, Geographic. that 1911 a r t i c l e , but i t

generally trying

t h e people friendly

the missionaries

t o serve,

were s i m p l y

Muslims.

Travelling always they on calling

missionaries first on

d i d however,

keep

the courtesy of of the villages b e e n among those

the Wall u l ama'

o r headman would have

visited. they

TamTmah a n d called,

whom

a n d t o whom This

they

were o f t e n a b l e to direct

to offer with

medical the

assistance.

d i d lead

them

contact

Imam,

i n the person

o f Dr W e l l s accounts

Thoms,

s o n o f Dr.

Sharon with the

Thoms. Imam

There

are detailed al-KhalTlT

of h i s f i r s t

meeting 1359 AH;

Muhammad

a t t h e e n d o f 1 9 4 0 AD/

Ch. 8:

Sultan,

Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 109

first 1941 : I

account

appeared

i n the Mission Quarterly

News,

January

have

been

over

the

Jebel

Akhdar

( t h e "Green For years t o see them and beckoned (1940) Monday

Mountains" I have one one came clinic of Oman

o f A r a b i a ) and i n t o about

Oman b e y o n d . hoping

dreamed Just

t h e mountains,

day.

t h e name h e l d them out. Into On

enchantment the 26th

t o search my

November busy

chance. intruded bearing

t h e midst

o f my soldier Sheikh me

a white-1urbaned a letter from

o f t h e I mam Sulaiman b i n t o come with

Himyar all

o f t h e mountain to treat

region

urging

haste

one o f h i s s u b j e c t s

who h a d b e e n

gored

by a b u l 1 . . . ' '

Dr which Hajar. clinics a

Wells

Thorns fifty

was a b l e

to drive from

from

Muscat

t o Rustaq,

was o n l y After with

kilometres days

Nizwah, which

but across the open-air

several

journey,

included

people ascent

who h a d n e v e r

b e f o r e met a w e s t e r n e r , a n d vertical and h i s their had

strenuous on

up one o f t h e z i g - z a g g i n g , a l m o s t of Jabal Akhdar, Tanuf, Journey t h e Doctor only away,

paths

the

face

travelling patient survived, and

companions one more

reached day's

t o discover The patient

was

despite

the accident being and severe pain;

t w e n t y - t h r e e days he soon then responded

before to the Sheikh ( a s he

despite

a fever

Doctor's Suleiman, thought) visited

ministrations. and treat

The D o c t o r people

had t o v i s i t being

i n h i s village, to call there, But

t h e second four years with

Doctor

as a c o l l e a g u e had turned out i n

previously. the wife

i t then that

conversation treated that

of h i s guide, previously f o r Joy...

s h e had been

by S h a r o n

Thorns

28 y e a r s s h e wept

'When I t o l d h e r she s a i d t h e y had

h e was my f a t h e r ,

Ch.

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 110

never was his the Imam the

known

man

like

him.

On

t h e 7 t h December, t o meet

Nlzwah

reached. account fact

There,

Wells

Thoms was i n v i t e d he w r o t e

t h e Imam: records

i n the report 'we

immediately,

simply

that,

treated inside

patients

on a r r i v i n g , tower left

v i s i t e d the which forms about written,

i n h i scourtroom central part A fuller of

o f a huge round and

h i s citadel,

Nizwah

sunset. ..' and i s worth We were

account

of t h e meeting

was l a t e r

recording in full: l e d past a crowds o f people large outer gate standing outside the and a s m a l l e r inner

fort, gate or

through and then

up two f l i g h t s

of s t a i r s

t o t h e maj l i s became saw a

audience

chamber

o f t h e imam.

When o u r e y e s we

adjusted thin and long men

t o the dim l i g h t wearing on a On

of the interior,

o l d man sitting room. similarly

a large white

t u r b a n on h i s head end o f a rather

rug at the further were

h i s right

a couple side

of other o l d o f h i m were

attired

and on e i t h e r o f armed men.

seated arose even he not me that

h i s bodyguard t o shake

When we e n t e r e d h e h i s frailness t o sway was

o u r hands

and t h e n

more

apparent,

f o r h e seemed position with

a b i t when was

was

i n the upright

and h i s hand-clasp h i s hand that

strong.

He I n d i c a t e d

he wanted said

t o s i t next Mr Dykstra he a s k e d

t o h i m b u t when was my elder

I p r o t e s t e d and and a l s o my

spiritual a n d me passed While about

adviser on and this our

Mr D y k s t r a

t o s i t on h i s r i g h t were over next us.

his left. then

The c o f f e e water

and halwah

t h e rose

was s p r i n k l e d

was g o i n g purpose

on he a s k e d

us numerous q u e s t i o n s to live Jesus,

i n leaving our country him that

and work i n the Anointed

Muscat. one, go

When we a n s w e r e d followers

whose

we w e r e ,

ordered

h i sfollowers t o heal the of the 'Do

to a l l nations and s h a r e (the

t o teach

men H i s d o c t r i n e s , t h e good news

sick In.1 i I you

with

a l l men

Arabic that

word God

f o r t h e Gospel),

he s a i d ,

believe

i s One?'

When we s a i d

'yes' he

Ch. 8:

Sultan,

Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/

1349 AH:

Page 111

s a i d , 'You a r e n o t a n i d o l a t e r o r k a f 1 r . y o u a r e ' t h e p e o p l e o f t h e book. ' We b e l i e v e y o u a r e m i s t a k e n i n some o f y o u r d o c t r i n e s b u t we r e s p e c t y o u b e c a u s e y o u f e a r God, t h e P r a i s e d a n d E x a l t e d One; t h e r e f o r e you may p r o c e e d i n s a f e t y i n o u r l a n d . May God g i v e y o u skill a n d w i s d o m t o h e a l t h e s i c k man. I will send another guide t o take you t o your p a t i e n t . . . ' This began a l o n g and happy a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h this most unusual Muslim spiritual leader. He lived very

simply. or of three

He a n d h i s o n e w i f e rooms i n part

and d a u g h t e r round

lived

i n two fort a few pillows

of the great visible

tower were

Nizwah. rugs,

His only two score a rifle, was

possessions

worn and

books, a

a few mattresses, and a a

blankets, He

dagger to be

few changes o f and were were person strict usually turned t o be

raiment.

known

Just

disciplinarian. tracked over dealt the by to down and

Murderers punished of

and -

thieves

the former

the relatives

t h e murdered

with,

t h e means o f r e t r i b u t i o n o f t h e murder. On more

being modelled i n punished I saw

fashion

T h e f t was u s u a l l y than around means one

imprisonment.

occasion

prisoners, of which

bearing shackles was fastened, iron of balls, the by

the ankles of with

t o each long

three-foot

chains, the

heavy

sitting fort,

the soldiers at coffee kind and and

entrance

drinking He was

conversing sympathetic his from lifetime palm

quite

cheerfully. orphans income

t o t h e poor, most gardens of of

and widows. from to sale of

During dates or

the

belonging

the was

awqaf.

department poor and

religious He man

endowments, himself was

given

to the and

needy. a poor

incorruptible

remained

until

t h e day o f h i s d e a t h . ^

The felt as

influence

of the hospitals

a t Muscat

and M u t t r a h

were Imam, to

across people

the Jointly-ruled would undertook

territories many days

o f S u l t a n and in

Journey

order

Ch,

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n

s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH;

Page 112

receive 1940's

medical several

attention of the

from

the mission were

hospitals. India.

By t h e Many form-* as

staff

from

conversations well treks as

and

written

tributes, many

also

i n novel are told

i n the Mission cures

Journal, from

stories

of long Wells

to receive

the Mission

hospital.

Dr.

Thoms r e p o r t s Dr of

i n t h e 1943 M i s s i o n J o u r n a l ; able work. tours, Indian assistant, put i n a full year I was

J o b , my steady on

Including he was

two t o u r s . . . i n charge of

While the

away

hospital,

conducting and on She able year.

the regular Nurse at

morning Mary,

services f o r the staff also from India, carried

patients..., the c l i n i c s had a busy

t h e Muscat and with open

dispensary excellent every

f o r women. health was

year,

t o keep

the dispensary

weekday

i nthe

In

t h e same a r t i c l e An leg Arab qad1

b y Dr Thoms, h e a d e d , who was b e i n g dream

'A r e m a r k a b l e treated which

dream':

(judge) a

f o r a huge

ulcer

had

remarkable The u l c e r

considerably us f o r q u i t e o f eczema we did for the

affected a long

his life. time.

had b a f f l e d

I t was

surrounded no

by an a r e a what

which it.

seemed One

t o g e t worse I

matter to

evening area with

decided

t r y painting

edematous a paste

a triple

dye s o l u t i o n zinc area. with had oxide

and a p p l y i n g mixed with

of

sulphonamide

and

shark when of

liver I came he He

o i l t o the ulcer to treat told said; me

The n e x t this a

morning

h i s ulcer that he

combination vision about that my

drugs

had

night. leg. not Then tell bring them

'Last that

night

I was

worried

I was a f r a i d sleep well

i t would

not heal,

and I c o u l d and itching. t o me a n d would apply He

because

o f 'the b u r n i n g

I saw a p e r s o n me

i n shining He said

c l o t h e s come that

not t o worry. dark my lotion and

the doctor and

some to

and that.

white

ointment

leg

i t would

heal.

Ch. 8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 113

s p o k e t o me s o k i n d l y t h a t I k n e w i t m u s t be J e s u s t h e Christ who s p o k e t o me. He l e f t me a n d I f e l t sure that I would get w e l l , so I f e l l i n t o a deep and restful sleep. I am s u r e t h a t t h i s m e d i c i n e t h a t y o u h a v e b r o u g h t w i l l h e a l my l e g . ' The r e m a r k a b l e t h i n g is that the l e g healed completely i n a very short time. B e f o r e he l e f t t h e h o s p i t a l he r e a d a l l o f t h e four Gospels and t h e Acts o f t h e A p o s t l e s , and took t h e m w i t h h i m , b a c k t o h i s home I n t h e m o u n t a i n s . The man's e n t h u s i a s m was a n I n s p i r a t i o n t o u s a 1 1 .

When S u l t a n son in Sa'^Md,

Taymur

b i n Faisal

abdicated

i n favour

of h i s change

i n 1932 AD/ with

1 3 5 0 AH,

there each

had been no g r e a t apparently Similarly, his bin

relations

t h e Imamate, than

side

finding i t within rule Hamyar On at the was was least

easier

to live of

peaceably I mam

a t war.

territory considerably clearly two a ' de

Muhammad

"al-Khalill, Sulaiman the high

dispersed: facto'

Sheikh on

i n control

Hajar.

occasions, hospital on

he e n c o u r a g e d the mountain.

Dr Thoms The

t o consider first time, to build f o r land on Dr

establishing offering a road on w h i c h when by and to in

letter to

a house; a

t h e second and The

time

promising t h e I mam called

provide a

truck,

t o ask Sheikh

build Muscat and

Hospital.^ t o hold

Thoms, between

together

t h e uneasy

alliance

mountain

coast.

The S u l t a n staff, there the inviting and back, wells

continued t h e Thoms and

t o value family

t h e presence

o f t h e medical flying how them

twice

to Salalah, advice by on

receiving from

valuable

t o keep with

Dhof ar

free

mosquitoes

stocking

them

Ch. 8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 114

fish,"^ any and

Both

Sultan

and

I mam

could

hardly of

have

been

under

illusions could

as

t o the preaching have been ignorant

work of

the missionaries, slowly growing and in from

not

the

congregation which the

i n Muscat,

which

included

indigenous regularly encourage

Omanis, reported support

necessitated Mission

church

extensions, to

Quarterly was

Reports, happy

home.^

The S u l t a n a plaque

t o open

t h e new M u t t r a h i n 1949.'^

hospital

unveiling

commemorating

t h e event,

Relations I mam as

must

have grew

been older,

deteriorating no d o u b t of

between

S u l t a n and

the latter and

due t o h i s i n c r e a s i n g The Saudis as t h e discuss and t h e authority from

frailty, attempted agent the I mam to Dr of

consequent over

loosening Bureimi

authority.

t o take t h e Imam.

i n 1952 AD/ came

1 3 7 1 AH; to

Talib

b i n ''Air himself

t o Muscat

incursion, sent

but then

went

t o Saudi

Arabia, any

an a n g r y Twice but

letter t h e I mam

t o the Sultan, asked

denying

Tallb. Thorns,

f o r treatment

i n Nizwah

t h e Doctor

reported:

' t h e Muscat But

government i n t h e same

forbade Mission Now,

the t r i p , Report,

for political

reasons.'

the f i r s t the

o f 1 9 5 4 , i t was itself

recorded: has issued the and his

however

government

invitation, Christmas increasing

a n d we h o p e <'53). blindness The

t o go between T h a n k s g i v i n g I mam is disturbed over

due t o c a t a r a c t s . . . ' ' * ^

According

t o Wendell of

Phillips, Sultan

who

was the

Economic Sultan

Adviser issued who

and the was

Representative invitation,

Sa'=Td, as

referring

t o t h e I mam

'hisold friend

much h o n o u r e d

i n a l l o f Oman.'

Dr Thorns w e n t .

Ch.

8;

Sultin,

Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 115

wearing the I mam

Arab

clothes

and o b s e r v i n g h i m t o do. d i dnot live eye,

Arab

etiquette

as was

had r e q u e s t e d b u t t h e I mam sight of

The o p e r a t i o n long

successful restored died. '

t o enjoy t h e 1954 he

his right

for in

The July She

visit

i s more

fully

described

in a letter Beth

t o me

(22nd

1 9 9 0 ) by t h e w i f e records My g o i n g meet It

o f Dr W e l l s final visit

Thorns,

Thorns

Dickson.

the Doctor's t o Nizwah

t o m i n i s t e r t o t h e I mam: I would what with

with

Wells

was no g u a r a n t e e towards women

t h e I mam.

Arab

attitude saw him,

being

i s . ...

I not only t o me.

b u t he shook hands surprised

me a n d s p o k e open,

I was p l e a s a n t l y

by h i s Sheikh

friendly knew him;

unostentatious he h a d b e e n also a

manner...

Suleiman trusted The going water Just

Wells, he

a p a t i e n t o f h i s and of t h e I mam

was

son-in-law justice

two o f them together rights

administered to villages They

In the interior, disputes over

to settle

etc.

had t h e r e p u t a t i o n o f making

decisions.

The read who

I mam

had advanced

cataracts.

He

no

longer

could

t h e Our' an. treated him

The n a t i v e were

medicines

and t h e Arabs Suleiman t othe on h i m d i d and

ineffective.

Shaikh

urged Sultan In

him t o c a l l asking

on W e l l s :

So t h e I mam Wells This

wrote

him t o request he lived.

t o operate the Sultan

Nizwah

where

Wells

s e t about

planning

the tour.

It was

was N o v e m b e r home from She along a

1952. Boarding and with I

Our

14 y e a r

o l d daughter

Lois

School were

f o r the long included in

winter tour Wells up stay

vacation. personnel knew, before during was

the

hospital staff. and would would

The need

I mam.

sick

man, This

building a long

surgery. which time,

necessitate we

Wells

decided,

would

s e t up a

Ch.

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930

AD/

1349

AH:

Page 116

clinic all the

for

the

people. no

Besides pharmacy or

staff drug

we

had

to

take

supplies

stores

anywhere

there.

We We'd to

arrived no meet

i n Nizwah got our His found floor. had and

after

three legs

day than an

trek we

by were

camel. taken the a

sooner the

walking

I mam. We the

ma . 1 1 s was 1 him He seated,

upper

room of on

great pallet saying hands Arabic hal tray

Fort. on

Arab

fashion, not He Lois,

apologised weakened us warmly. gift, a he

for him. To

rising, shook whose

illness with name us

greatly greeted

I s '' a t i y a h m e a n i n g as he picked him and out

said:

' a t i yah from a

"-at 1 y a h ' of fruit

pomegranate i t to her.

beside

handed

We was

were

a l l put

to

work

in

the

clinic suffered

while from People

the

I mam

getting of

treatment. and from

He'd

repeated came a to

bouts our to a a

malaria

dysentery. Every i t was

clinic be used

in great on each

numbers. visit. and got was to a On

p a t i e n t got written He the

card name, made the had

number, small of

a diagnosis, payment each we and

prescription. his/ Bible who her

then On also

medicine. We read.

back Bible

card gave

verse. could

tracts

those

One 'You they and

day

when the

Wells

was

with have

the

I mam

he to

said me

to about

Wells: you, cards Tracts.

know don't they the

M u l 1 ah Bible

complained to are be on

like are

verses you

patients' out

disturbed first.

handing the

About to

verses the

I asked

Mul 1 ah

who

came

complain

"What d o e s He read

verse fear

say?" of the Lord is the beginning of

"the

w i sdom." I s a i d "What's wrong about He answered i t be" can " I t ' s from I told the him, people the that?" Ini i 1 . " points to the Qur'an

"Let you

" i tonly that."

tell

Ch,

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH;

Page 117

"Then sell Like their and

about them any

the tracts"

he

went

on, " I s u g g e s t them

you away.

f o r a small commodity

sum i n s t e a d o f g i v i n g i n t h e Suq i f people solution

buy, i t ' s by a wise

choice."

I t was a n a m i c a b l e

tolerant

leader.

The They was We

tracts were no were

went

on s a l e

f o r a f e w ba 1 za clear

coppers print.

each. There

attractive matter

and i n good around We

reading soon

other found

than

t h e Our'an. were

sold

out.

the booklets

being

r e - s o l d and f o r a h i g h e r

p r i c e a t each

selling!

A was

small

room

with

good

light

at the top of the Fort I n windows and was t h e a strong sprayed Not one oasis

s e t up f o r s u r g e r y . f o rscreening. table and

G a u z e was h u n g A wooden door

doors

on s t r u t s provided thoroughly

operating beam with fly where "Flit"

flashlight was

needed. as were

The room

a l l who w e r e around i n that

t o enter.

of the millions I n that

date-growing without able

survived The I mam

room.

Surgery

went

incident.

recovered

sight,

a n d was

t o read h i s

Our'an

again.'

The rarely elected disputed in The

last

sixteen

years,

of the rule

of Sultan

Sa'=ld was tribe, was was

peaceful. I mam.

Ghallb although

b i n '"All from the validity The r e a l danger

t h e Hinawl of

the election

by t h e S u l t a n . brother, Reports

t o the Sultanate lay traitor in 1952. 'In

Ghalib's Mission

Talib, were

who h a d t u r n e d optimistic about

the result won a

December victory the o i l

1955 t h e S u l t a n over t h e Imamate and

o f Muscat o f Oman

a n d Oman

bloodless In reality them had

a t N i z w a h . . . ''^ forces of Ibri between

company

tiny

British

managed

to 'influence' thegarrisons

and Nizwah

out of

Ch.

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 118

Tallb's control; a t t h e end o f 1954, a s m a l l f o r c e o f T a l i b ' s men surrendered t o an even s m a l l e r force at I b r i . ^ ^ The s t r u g g l e c o n t i n u e d f o r many y e a r s i n t h e m o u n t a i n s , a n d was c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e e m e r g i n g d a n g e r o f Yemeni i n c u r s i o n s f r o m the south. S u l t a n Sa''id n e e d e d t h e s u p p o r t o f f e r e d b y t h e British, and t h e o i l which, fortuitously, was s t r u c k 100 k i l o m e t r e s west o f Nizwah. The s p r i n g 1957 M i s s i o n Report s t i l l spoke o f t h e war c o n t i n u i n g ' i n a s m a l l area...' There was also a description of a v i s i t t o Tanuf f o r 'almost 100 trachoma o p e r a t i o n s . . . ' and a l s o o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e v i l l a g e j u s t a f t e r t h e i r v i s i t , ' ' ' * when i t was bombed a n d s t r a f e d a s a reprisal i n t h e war; b u t t h e v i l l a g e r s had been p r e v i o u s l y warned, and were s a f e i n numerous l i m e s t o n e caves nearby.''^

The 'the and first

same

Report

had as i t s f r o n t s p i e c e , a photograph Consistory with an o f t h e Muscat others, Dr Church',

of Dr

(indigenous)

M r s Thorns in By

had r e t i r e d ; beginning t h e concern

and Mrs that

Bosch

arrived still. Reports, The be

Oman, 1962,

association i n several Pastors

continues Mission

previous

was r e s t a t e d b y A m e r i c a n Mission a truly looks forward

K a p e n g a a n d Dunham; there shall A

t o t h e d a y when of Christ

national

Church

i n Oman,

church working

o f Arab with

C h r i s t i a n s supported the world-wide leadership. such

by Arab C h r i s t i a n s We need

Church.... What

responsible Mission we leave

national

c a n we d o a s a What do

to help that

develop

leadership?. .. should

i s permanent, The c h u r c h

lasting,

we h a v e t o

leave

tomorrow?

MUST b e i n d i g e n o u s . , . '^

By

1 9 7 0 AD/

1 3 9 0 AH,

Sultan

Sa=Id

had s l o w l y

gained

Ch.

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/

1349 AH:

Page 119

ground, military the Neil

both

militarily who

and were

politically, not afraid Maxwell other

with t o get

mainly involved

British behind men; these

advisers,

scenes. McLeod

Brigadier Innes, among him: up at

Colin

epitomises chroniclers

such of

several

events, At

remembers Sohar, to

I put the

the

resthouse.... of the Batinah invited as now, who the the

I sent Force, me a has

note Capt. to

across Colin dinner.

Commandant he

Maxwell, I

immediately Colin known then,

over

found I had by

delightful not liked to you

character. him. . . be He

have

no-one

arrived the to

i n Sohar from to

previous Sultan: he had

year

greeted with

question Bureimi?'

'will of

ride

me

which

course

a s s e n t e d , . , . '^

Colin

set

out the

to

explore of

the the

Ibrl I mam

to

Khaburah Sumall up the

route, with wrong he was best nothe sense the

avoiding his

country at

through going him, He

headquarters Saudi to

Nizwah. , But forces met

wadl ,

occupation the Saudi

and was

escorted person one

commander. from his such

the

to extricate him

himself doubt

a situation, he was

meeting of

could

integrity, and a

essence of day McLeod and heavy a Innes radio fire'

goodwi11, displayed

Common on

sense

sound won

humour

both

sides

had

describes message that he

Maxwell to the his

in action Sultan, men was

on

the

Rustaq the

road'^, 'fairly near

describing under.

with

Arriving

Nizwah, all

the Sultan greets the way up me, my

Colin: people have you, been you greeting and and your they, and men, who

congratulating who should be

but

i t is

congratulated. country.^'

I t i s you,

h a v e r e s t o r e d my

Ch.

8;

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH;

Page 120

Brigadier of

Maxwell

was

officially o r as Nell

appointed Innes

Military

Governor of the

t h e Jabal

Akhdar,

p u t i t 'Lord

Green

Mountain.

Twenty-five to officiate

years

later,

I t was a h i g h of Brigadier held,

privilege

f o r me high deep

at the funeral

Maxwell,

The

regard love death,

i n which

h e was s o o b v i o u s l y when we

and t h e very together

that

h e h a d f o r Oman a deep

prayed on me.

before h i s a great

made

impression

I t was about grave Ra's

privilege, pastures Christian some of

reading o f God

the twenty-third

psalm,

t h e green i n t h e new al Hamrah; were

t h e Shepherd, in a Oman! barren

a t Col i n ' s defile at

graveyard t h e many

officers, myself.

and hundreds

o f men

clearly

moved

together with

But and with

progress British

was n o t f a s t encouragement,. coup,

enough Sultan

f o r t h e younger

t a m i mah

Sa'--' i d was e v e n t u a l l y The S u l t a n a t e old. AH, the

deposed of Oman,

i n a bloodless Inaugurated

b y h i s s o n Qaboos, 1 3 9 0 AH,

i n 1 9 7 0 AD/

i s now 20 y e a r s mid-1411 despite

National were as

Day c e l e b r a t i o n s a t t h e e n d o f 1990 AD/ flamboyant still war. as f o r 10 and 15 years,

restraint looming place, producing 1970 could AD/ find

i n operation But a amazing

after

t h e boom

years,

and t h e taken now Up t o men

material

development

has

alongside many

thorough

educational

programme, state.

of the s k i l l s only a

needed

i n a modern

1 3 9 0 AH, an o u t l e t

f e w o f Oman's energies

aspiring

young

f o rtheir

a t home,

a n d many h a d

Ch,

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 121

been coup,

working

i n other

countries,

such

as Z a n z i b a r .

After the

the invitation

to return

home was c l e a r ,

a n d many d i d .

Talib, Arabia, There present Imam having i s now Grand

brother failed no

of Ghalib to raise talk

remains

i n exile of the Jabal

i n Saudi Akhdar.

the tribes of

official

t h e Imamate, al-KhalilT, present

although the i s related to no

MuftT,

Sheikh

Ahmed The

Mohammad's

predecessor. of reviving

u 1 a ma'

have

apparent

intentions Qaboos

t h e Imamate,

I n 1 9 8 9 AD/ 1409

AH, S u l t a n publically not

l e d the prayers h i s ultimate

a t t h e new M o s q u e a t N i z w a h , right t o lead, or at least

declaring

t o be l e d ,

i n matters

spiritual.

Considering Sultanate Behind unlike largely giving of exercises

that a

only

two decades influence

have

passed,

the

moderating a r e Oman's States,

through

diplomacy. forces; are

the diplomats most other Gulf

businesslike military i n Dhofar (SOLF)

armed

Oman's

personnel

indigenous, the Sultan

To d a t e ,

tension

has continued, and t h e S u l t a n

o f Oman's L a n d (SOAF) a r e a l o f Hormuz

Forces

Oman's

Air-force

j o b t o do i n t h e s o u t h , and with SOAF Iraq more a and t h e S u l t a n o f war k e p t and more t h e armed o f Oman's system, de-

patrolling Oman's forces towns the Navy on

the Straits (SON), their

during

the Iran/ year, by Gas

toes.

Each

and v i l l a g e s o f many seawater As

a r e connected states.

metalled from

road

envy

modern

the oilfields large areas as

salinates Capital,

sufficient

t o 'green'

of the anywhere.

careful

investment

o f o i l revenues

Ch.

6:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930

AD/

1349

AH;

Page 122

means d e v e l o p i n g industry.

agriculture

and

fisheries

as

well

as

some

new

Then now and been

there

are

all in

the

Hospitals most

and

Schools areas

that of

have desert or are

established

the are

inaccessible always the

mountain. but

Teachers many This in

nearly of

Muslim,

Omani staff

Egyptian, Christians, Mission, their that

hundreds the 1391

hospital made by

follows 1971 AD/

decision AH the they new to as

the

American over idea

when

voluntarily government as part

turned the

medical

i n s t i t u t i o n s to would

with of

missionaries programmes, That

continue than

work staff

government in private that where guestin as had to

health

rather must are course

members to the

hospitals. Christian requested, workers 1989 many begun AD/ not

have

contributed' in all

fact

services with to of

allowed the

hospitals taken as

necessary I

care

offend AH,

their

hosts.

took

another

funeral as well who

1409

which

Omani it

government was for India, AH, Dr. and

officials Habel had

nationals as a

attended; doctor in 1971

Das,

mission service

from AD/

transferred

government

1391

But 118). of the As

the the

Consistory Sultanate world, simply

of of so not In

the

Muscat

church

has

gone to be to

(see the

p.

Oman h a s now for

opened an

Itself to

rest a

Arabian is

Omani

openly

Christian, exists for

acceptable. rooms and well in on as or

Freedom near land his

worship and

expatriates, a l l over the the

hospitals for

work-camps building by

country, Sultan as

given father.

church

present

Ch,

8:

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/

1349 AH:

Page 123

What i s now t e r m e d t h e O l d M i s s i o n C h u r c h i n M u s c a t , was built i n i t s p r e s e n t f o r m d u r i n g t h e 1930's, and i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e memory o f P e t e r Zwemer, The M u t t r a h H o s p i t a l o p e n e d a chapel i n 1956 AD/ 1375 AH, which is s t i l l i n use by exp a t r i a t e congregations. The m a i n C h u r c h s i t e i n Oman i s a t Ruwi, where a Roman Catholic Church and a Protestant/

Orthodox priests' British

Church houses; military AH. in A

share this

large developed who

compound around during by the

with a the

number

of for AD/

graveyard 1950-60's for

personnel site was the

died

1370-80's building Christian at the

given first

Sultan

church for a l l

Salalah,

ecumenical recent Area; site the

church to be

denominations. side Holy of the

The

most

given

is

eastern of the

Capital was

(Roman C a t h o l i c ) 1988 AD/ of AH, in

Church 16 the

Spirit AH,

consecrated with the

i n November 50th of

Rabia

I I 1409 of

co-inciding Maddi

anniversary the Capuchin AD/ 1367

priesting

Father (He

Barnabas, at Bahrain where 1394

Franciscan and worked

Order, in

arrived Abu Dhabi

i n 1948 he and AH, was

Aden, building

involved

considerable arriving completion 1989, 19 in of

development in 1974 Roman the AD/

Sharjah, to

before the

Muscat the

oversee In

Ruwi

Catholic Church of and

Church), the Good

November was

Rabia for and

I I 1410, use 201, by

Shepherd

consecrated, see pages 164

Protestant

Orthodox

Christians -

The countries, increasing

Christians the biggest of

who

meet

for

v^;orship from

come India,

from and

many an the

group

coming

number

Philippino

guest-workers

swell

Ch,

8;

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH;

Page 124

Christian small

congregations. one

Two E g y p t i a n Orthodox,

Arab one

priests

quss.

have ex-

congregations, Christians.

Protestant, half

for

patriate so Easter

Denominationally, at t h e end be of

o f t h e 10,000 o r would be

communicants one-third

t h e 1980's one-sixth once

Catholic, Many the their that

would

Orthodox, only

Protestant. a year, on

of these public Omani Islam

communicants of other

worship faith

or twice little

practice hosts,

their than

making

impact

perhaps faith.

confirming F o r many

the belief Christians church together Sometimes, the question The f i n a l dialogue.

i s the only from

practical Capital

working

away

the

Area, while

occasional some meet

attendance in small

I s a l l that groups, a

i s possible, freedom workers your allowed are faith

i n Oman. faced mean with

conscientious from a n Omani:

Christian 'What

does

t o you?'

chapters

attempt

to identify

pointers for relevant

Notes and r e f e r e n c e s :

1. 2. 3. 4.

NA/AC. ibid,

1941, 1st, p, 5

Quarter,

p, 3

PHILLIPS, MAHLI,

Wendell,

1 9 6 7 , Oman, a H l s t o r v . L o n g m a n s , p , 1 8 7 o f Oman. G r e e n Prakashan, of Sultan Thoms t h e

G, S.,

1983, The L i g h t 144002, accession, doctor. India.

Jalandhar, Qaboos's resident 5. NA/AC.

Set a t t h e time Dr Wells

b u t making

1943, 3 r d Q u a r t e r

( v o l . 201),

pp. 1 0 - 1 3

Ch, 8;

S u l t a n , Imam and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH:

Page 125

6. 7.

NA/AC, NA/AC.

1947, ( o n l y

e d i t i o n - v o l , 2 1 1 ) , p.4 ( v o l . 2 0 4 ) , p p . 6-8; a l s o 1951,

1944, 3 r d Q u a r t e r

2nd Q u a r t e r 8. NA/AC.

( v o l , 2 2 4 ) , p p . 7-12 ( v o l . 2 1 4 ) , p p . 8-9, w h e r e 24 church a r e recorded,

1948, 3 r d Q u a r t e r

communicant

members o f t h e Muscat

13 who h a d b e e n M u s l i m . 9. NA/AC. a 1949, 1 s t Q u a r t e r photograph ( v o l . 2 1 6 ) , p p . 13-15, Sa'id cutting including He

of Sultan

the ribbon. as

clearly Wendell reports to did take

d i d n o t have Phillips

t h e same

fears

t h e I mam:

i n Oman,

a History

o p . c i t . , p. 188, who w a n t e d

a b a t t l e of wits t h e photograph

between

D r Thorns,

o f t h e I mam, taken. will be

a n d t h e I mam who ' I f I o n mS' take t h e said the bi-

n o t want

h i s photograph

picture Doctor. shar r. 10. 11. 12. 13. NA/AC.

o f y o u , t h e blame ' ' Iwill To this

t h e I mam

replied:

ma' awanak

not help you i n doing ( v o l . 235),

evil.'

1954, 1 s t Q u a r t e r Wendell,

p.17 op. c i t . , p.188

PHILLIPS, NA/AC.

Oman, a H i s t o r y , Quarter

1955, W i n t e r Edward, books,

( v o l . 2 4 2 ) , p.14 strange eventful history,

HENDERSON, Quartet

1988, T h i s London,

p. 132 ( v o l . 2 4 6 ) , p.15 op. c i t , , p.211 report

14. 15. 16.

NA/AC.

1958, Autumn Q u a r t e r Wendell,

PHILLIPS, NA/AC. in

Oman, a H i s t o r y ,

1962, March this

( v o l , 2 5 0 ) , p p , 8-9,

The l a s t

70 y e a r c o l l e c t i o n . Minister i n Oman. O l e a n d e r Press,

17.

McLEOD

INNES, N e i l , 1 9 8 7 ,

p. 37 18. ibid. p.99

Ch. 8:

Sultan,

Im'am and C h r i s t i a n s i n c e 1930 AD/ 1349 AH;

Page 126

19, 20, 21, 22,

ibid, ibid, ibid, ibid,

p, 144 p,156 p, 162 p,275

Page 127

D I A L O G U E :

F O L K

R E L I G I O N

I N

OMAN:

As century church of to been augur

this of

study

has sketched

the attempts

during an

the

last

Christian

Missionaries 1400 y e a r s

to e s t a b l i s h background

indigenous

i n Oman,

against

of t h e p r a c t i c e dedication There which has

I bad! t e n e t s of Islam, their respective

both C h r i s t i a n i s clearly of mutual

and Muslim revealed. respect,

causes

the steady well for of

development future

should the

dialogue. missionaries Ahmad w r o t e

This by

is some

unlike other

experiences communities; the

Christian

Muslim of

as Khurshid

in a recent

editorial

International With

Review of Mission: of t h e C h r i s t i a n European m i s s i o n a r i e s i n the a new That the the chapter some o f best points of of in the

the a r r i v a l of the

company began them

colonisers, relationships. motivated by

in Muslim-Christian might have been Is

spiritual dispute. Christian itself No d o u b t cost by

intentions But

not

among

the overall was such

Muslim that

experience

mission

i t failed

t o commend

as something noble

and h o l y , . . ' lose t h e r e s p e c t won could lose at such own in

Christians the American to p r a c t i s e

i n Oman c o u l d

Missionaries. their faith

They

their behave

freedom an

privately,

i f they

u n e d u c a t e d a n d r u d e way.

Omanis as

ask C h r i s t i a n s

what

they

believe,

i n modern Oman, i n 1940 who, AD/

d i d Imam Muhammad a l - K h a l T l I

o f Dr W e l l s

Thoms

1359

AH.

Such

conversations

a r e matched

by t h o s e

from a as

Christian

background,

a s k O m a n i s what

they

believe;

some,

Ch.

9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n in Oman

Page 128

the As

dally

newspapers

report to

nearly be

every to

week,

become about

Muslim. their

Christians the

continue

invited be

speak

faith,

following

points

might

considered.

A well to

fundamental state of be at

point the

that outset,

does is

not

need

expansion,

but

is

that

only

if Christians, unity As of faith,

regardless will else, Dar there

denomination, any validity to

recognise to the them but of what

their they of want at the

say. the to

anywhere Islam, the nonit be was any by

Omanis al-Islam; of

are

sensitive I bad! own of

unity will not

h o u s e of

among beliefs, the the of to

emphasise of the can

purity Muslim any

their

cost Neither Samuel

perception way

unity

Islam.

other

within

C h r i s t i a n Church. this what essential the was Gospel that: lack

Zwemer for out

certainly kind of

persuaded as

prerequisite i s about, lived

statement His

Christians. that our

perception unity

'Muslims a r e of

fully

aware

l a c k of

i s a real

strength'.^

In coming

order

to

understand will need Islam, in may But the to

where be an

an

Omani

questioner of

is

from,

there of

understanding

Islam, the that: they can from,

particularly preceding wherever are, work this

I bad!

more face

particularly of from the Ibadi of

(despite

paragraph) other Muslims wrong!

assurance thinking, the Book'

differ If the of more

Inevitably, at will a better

'People the

understanding dialogue

where

I bad 1 come

make f u t u r e

fruitful.

Ch. 9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n I n Oman

Page 129

Before Islam last

considering implications i n Oman, of which will

f o r dialogue

with

I bad i of t h e

as practised three

be t h e c o n c e r n the impact

chapters

this

thesis,

of

folk

rel iglon only from

i n Oman

should

n o t be i g n o r e d .

I t i s n o t of c o u r s e religion; into their some Muslims

Omanis

who a r e i n f l u e n c e d by f o l k background,; have have little taken

whaitever

p a t t e r n of doctrine Christians

thought in is

ideas that

t o do w i t h

official

t h e same way t h a t affected: It l_s I m p o r t a n t

the religious

t h i n k i n g o f many

forChristians facets

t o r e s e a r c h , s t u d y and Islam. today, One o f brought the more

assess the

the composite trends certain religion,

of o f f i c i a l world

major by

i n the Islamic pressure i s the

about

groups

from

within of a

official

application

puritanical faith. .. Christians as

interpretation I t

of the formal equally

t e n e t s of t h e important for

i s , however,

t o g e t t o know t h e l e s s world of popular

a d v e r t i s e d but j u s t That world i s

pervasive

Islam,

discovered of local

I n t h e hadi th

literature.

In the folklore It is

communities, worked

and i n myths

of o r i g i n .

visibly

out i n r i t e s

of passage of

and a t t i m e s of ritual a

crisis... worship strong wor 1 d.

Behind

the facade and an

established which view

l i e beliefs commitment to

practices

reveal

alternative

of t h e

Fear I bad! this

from

evil

spirits fears

has nothing are' s t i l l East

t o do w i t h felt by some

specific Omanis;

doctrine, y e t such no doubt

h a s a s much some

t o do w i t h who

African t h e matter

sources as with easy me, to

Arabian. such f eairs

Among were a

Omanis

raised real.

obviously

very

I t would of such

be

respond

with

materialistic

contempt

t h i n k i n g , but

Ch.

9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n i n Oman

Page 130

New T e s t a m e n t n a r r a t i v e s p r o v i d e m a t e r i a l f o r d i a l o g u e ; like the healing o f t h e b l i n d a n d dumb man w h o s e c o n d i t i o n was a t t r i b u t e d t o e v i l s p i r i t s - Matthew 12:22ff; the healing of t h e d e m o n - p o s s e s s e d d a u g h t e r o f a woman o f T y r e - M a t t h e w 15:21ff; Jesus commissioning h i s d i s c i p l e s t o ' d r i v e out e v i l s p i r i t s ' - Matt. 1 0 : 1 . Care must o f c o u r s e be t a k e n n o t t o use fear of evil spirits as a t r i c k of proselytism. For myself, when v i s i t e d by someone e x p r e s s i n g a fear of evil spirits, I would go no f u r t h e r than t o p r a y w i t h them f o r deliverance. I w o u l d u s e t h e name o f J e s u s ; i n t h a t he i s a Quranic prophet, and one w e l l a t t e s t e d as h a v i n g t h e power f r o m God t o h e a l ( S u r a h s 3 : 4 9 , a n d 5 : 1 1 3 ) , I b e l i e v e t h i s was not an abuse o f t h e h o s p i t a l i t y o f f e r e d t o me b y my h o s t government.

Oman m i s s i o n a r i e s concentrated is no doubt

spoke

occasionally of superstition, but healing used of their patients. There

on t h e p h y s i c a l that they often

these

and o t h e r

accounts of their

Jesus'

healing

miracles would

in t h e i r

teaching,

b u t assumed that

patients/ offered healing. belief passing; thinking,

listeners while

draw t h e c o n c l u s i o n from science,

the healing God's

them,

explainable only find

was s t i l l

I could i n sixty

two references

to superstitious and those only I n such

years as

of quarterly reports, i f the missionaries capitalise upon i t .

i t was rather

'played

down'

than

However, aspects of

the fertile across

Interest the

o f Samuel

Zwemer

i n many

belief

Islamic

world,

l e d him t o

Ch. 9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n I n Oman

Page 131

Investigation published several the In

I n "The the

Familiar Wor1d

Spirit, In

or

Qarina" Zwemer possible Dead'

an

article to to

Mus11m

1916. to a of the

refers origin of

Quranic as well his

references found as in

t o gar In. 'Book

belief as

the

ancient teaching, Zwemer

Egypt,

Muslim understanding gar in. or

o f Muhammad's Jesus

concerning reports, 'As the Him was had

own

g a r 1nah. .

too,

a gar i n ; sinless, and because, Satan was like i n accordance unable that of of to with touch

J e s u s was

well-known at a His good

tradition, His "On

birth. one.

Qar i n a h

Muhammad the Holy was His Him up t o Eth Jesus the the

the authority Jesus

Ka'ab He

Spirit, gar i n

Gabriel, and

strengthened

because went was

constant until page

companion, t h e day 365

and

with taken by

wherever heaven."

he went (see

w h e n He el

Kasus of of

Anblyah

Tha'alabi). and perhaps or

While also

i n t h e case case

Muhammad other a good

and

i n the was or

prophets, spirit,

gar i n general as w e l l in

gar 1nah

became

teaching

i s that

a l l human b e i n g s , their familiar and as

non-Muslims who Is of his

as M u s l i m s , have case and Jealous, moral

spirit, the far

every

malignant, In or

cause as

physical influence

i l l , save o f f by magic

i s warded

religion...'-*

Kenneth in

Cragg,

i n The of

Dome a n d Bill

t h e Rock Musk,

also i n The

describes Unseen of

belief Face of

the concept also

g a r 1 n.

Islam, the

notes

the b e l i e f . ^ always of the cause

I t i s some t h e same s e x , of

form

double of being temper,

human

individual, with even being

freguently sudden

credited sickness,

trouble,

sterility.

Ch.

9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n i n Oman

Page 132

T h e n t h e r e a r e named o r u n - n a m e d a u t o n o m o u s s p i r i t s . i n n , o r m o r e o f t e n f o r men, 1 t h e i r . 1 nnTyah. where i t i s 'not 1 uncommon t o d e s c r i b e a man as b e i n g m a r r i e d t o h i s . 1 nnTyah. ' 1 A b e l i e f i n m e t a m o r p h o s i s - by a . i n n i n t o an a n i m a l f o r m - i s 1 one reason care i s taken, particularly w i t h d o g s and cats. S u c h c r e a t u r e s a r e t r e a t e d w i t h c a u t i o n , a n d God's p r o t e c t i o n may be i n v o k e d . J u s t i n c a s e m e t a m o r p h o s i s by a . 1 nn h a s 1 taken place. The book o f G e n e s i s i n the Old T e s t a m e n t , has of course the serpent, straight-forwardly called Satan in the Our' an. Satyrs appear i n L e v i t i c u s and a nighthag in

Isaiah. of the

Such

ideas Some

are

therefore held believe

i n common w i t h the gar i n

'People too, can

Book.'

Muslims

that

metamorphose.

Ibadl play their down

teachers in

today, the

like

the

American 'The

missionaries, world' . too is

belief

superstitious. is a (see for wary page long

real to

concern,

there

attitude 157). in

much belief A

metaphysical however, possible upon

speculation be ignored of

Popular

cannot

serious the

dialogue. is

consequence final

thinking

about

gar i n

touched

i n the

chapter.

Deceased venerated tomb are of

saints

are,

as

in

most

of

the

Islamic to

world, be the

i n Oman. Job. The to

Near mosgue i t , and seek kept

Salalah i s next is to an

i s what door,

i s claimed but the place of many

visitors prayer. barakah

attracted would

important

for the

Pilgrims of this

also

receive

something

beautifully

shrine.

Ch.

9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n i n Oman

Page 133

Barakah. literally ' b l e s s i n g ' , i s a concept common t o most r e l i g i o n s . The P a t r i a r c h s , o f t h e book o f G e n e s i s i n t h e B i b l e , l a i d much s t o r e b y b a r a k a h . w h e r e i t i s o f t e n v i r t u a l l y a physical reality - f o r i n s t a n c e , Isaac g i v i n g Jacob h i s blessing rather than Esau, or Jacob's blessing of his grandsons Ephraim and Manasseh.^ Once g i v e n , a blessing cannot be t a k e n away, the word i s t h e same i n A r a b i c and Hebrew. The t e x t of the Qur'an i s c o n s i d e r e d particularly e f f i c a c i o u s f o r b u i l d i n g u p b a r a k a h . a n d many a m u l e t s , whether on p a p e r and sown i n t o c l o t h i n g , o r e n g r a v e d o n t o s i l v e r and w o r n a s a n o r n a m e n t , a r e t o be f o u n d i n Oman. The ha.1.1 pilgrimage t o Makkah i s a l s o an opportunity to receive b l e s s i n g , w h e r e a p h y s i c a l e m b r a c i n g o f t h e ka'- b a h , and the drawing of Zamzam w a t e r is believed to transfer barakah. Kenneth Cragg says of i t : 'Barakah cannot be had without touch....'

It

cannot the

be

had

without and the I t

personal

relationship the right Was need and

between and the

desire

supply, becomes of

between a very

satisfaction. parable aspect of of the

feasible Just Lord the this

nature

faith. which and their

i t not our with

superstition t o the mothers, He token t o do saw of in the

motivated t h e woman

i n h i s welcome issue on of blood? touch a has

simple-minded true

reliance faith. this a

w i s t f u l n e s s of has

A l l that rich lesson,

with me."

barakah

within i t never person everImpulse cost the of

"Come u n t o

Salvation is be had truth by of the the

second-hand

affair; Given the

i t must Christian the

personally. accessible to and access the

universal has

lover,

superstitious The cross

i t s true of

answer. blessed form

i s the of

assurance of all.

the

accessibility i n the heart

blesser his open

I t i s the

o f God

invitation

t o m a n k i n d . '

Ch.

9:

Dialogue:

Folk r e l i g i o n i n Oman

Page 134

Whenever I r a i s e d i n c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h e guest i o n o f t h e place o f animal sacrifice within Ibad! thought, i t has been d i s m i s s e d as an i r r e l e v a n t ' o u t s i d e ' I n f l u e n c e ; b u t f o r many Omanis, t h e p l a c e o f s a c r i f i c e i s i m p o r t a n t , and an o b s e r v a n t t r a v e l l e r c a n h a r d l y i g n o r e such p l a c e s , marked w i t h c o l o u r e d c l o t h s on p o l e s and r o c k s . James C a n t i n e (page 105) r e c o r d s t h e s a c r i f i c e s o f f e r e d a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n - 1 ay I n g s t a g e o f t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e p e r m a n e n t A m e r i c a n M i s s i o n h o u s e i n 1901-2 AD/ 1 3 1 9 - 2 0 AH; s u c h s a c r i f i c e s c o n t i n u e t h r o u g h o u t Oman, a n d a t times of deliverance from danger, child-birth ( t h e = Aq1qah sacrifice), t h e laying-down of a keel a t a ship's launching, and a t t i m e s o f c e l e b r a t i o n s u c h as m a r r i a g e . Special sites for sacrifice are respected by l o c a l communities; with I n f l u e n c e s both from East A f r i c a , and growing no doubt from greater contact with Islam i n the rest of Arabia and t h e Middle East; b u t as f a r as I c o u l d ascertain, i n the heartland o f Ibadlsm, t h e Jabal Akhdar, t h e r e were no such places. More work c o u l d w e l l be done i n e x p l o r i n g w i t h t h e IbadT. their own intellectual antipathy t o such practice, a l o n g s i d e an a t t e m p t t o s a y what i s t h e C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e o f Atonement. Such an a p p r o a c h towards I s l a m g e n e r a l l y , was c e r t a i n l y a d v o c a t e d b y S a m u e l Zwemer, w i t h s e v e r a l articles, such a s " T h e "^Aqlqa Sacrifice", and "Atonement by Blood Sacrifice i n Islam", I n t h e Muslim World q u a r t e r l y , i n 1916 and 1946 r e s p e c t i v e l y . ' ' David Brown, before he became Anglican Bishop of Guildford (he died shortly after the f a i l u r e o f t h e Anglican/ Methodist Reunion Covenant I n 1981) emphasised the link between t h e cross o f Jesus and t h i s

Ch.

9:

Dialogue:

Folk

religion

i n Oman

Page 135

' r e d e m p t i o n ' s a c r i f i c e ( s e e page 159). F o l l o w i n g consideration o f f o u r d o c t r i n e s o f I b a d l s m , I w i l l r e t u r n t o t h i s t h e m e when considering i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r dialogue. To c o n c l u d e this chapter:

One sort

final of

thought. doubt about

I s n o t s u p e r s t i t i o n everywhere whether life i n general

cares

about room

life

i n particular,

whether

"what

i s " r e a l l y has fear of life's i s that in a l l is

f o r " I am"? t o me. So

I t i s an u n d e r l y i n g then i t s one s u r e the seeking we learn namely,

emnity love

antidote

of our neighbour, which final

o f h i s good in what

circumstances, superstition's the is love

solvent,

t h e assurance of compassion

o f God.

Therein

every

Christian's

i n turn

a means

t o the redemption i s known

of h i s fellow's as t h e area o f banishes

fears. pure the

When

our environment this love

"philanthropy", bogeys

o f man f o r man

of malevolence powers

and b l u n t s and

t h e ravages i n

unpredictable

i n nature

event.

Kenneth

Cragg

could

hardly

have

written hundred

specifically years by of the

more

appropriate service Mission.

description to

f o r one Omani

selfless American

offered

the

community

Notes

and

references:

1.

KHURSHID, Ahmad, ional

1976, i n t h e e d i t o r i a l

of the Internat-

Review o f Mission. M.,

V o l u m e LXV, No. 2 6 0 , p. 3 6 7 o f Islam.

2.

ZWEMER, S a m u e l

1916, The d i s i n t e g r a t i o n

Ch. 9:

Dialogue:

Folk

religion

I n Oman

Page 136

Fleming 3. MUSK, B i l l ,

H . R e v e l 1 Co., L o n d o n a n d New Y o r k , 1979, The Unseen Face o f I s l a m . U.K., p p . 2 0 3 / 4 M., 'The F a m i l i a r Spirit

p. 2 0 9

Monarch,

Eastbourne 4. ZWEMER, S a m u e l Vol. 5.

o r Qarina',

i n MW,

V I N o . 4 , ( O c t 1 9 1 6 ) p. 3 6 5 1 9 6 4 , T h e Dome a n d t h e Rock. SPCK L o n d o n ,

CRAGG, K e n n e t h , p. 179

6.

MUSK, B i l l , p. 227,

The Unseen etc

Face o f I s l a m ,

op. c i t . ,

p.

180,

7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Surah 20: Leviticus

115-8 17:7, I s a i a h 34:14

G e n e s i s C h a p t e r 48 CRAGG, K e n n e t h , ZWEMER, S a m u e l VI T h e Dome a n d t h e R o c k , op. c i t . , i n MW, p. 1 8 1 Vol.

M. , ' T h e - ^ A k l k a S a c r i f i c e ' , 1916),

No.3, ( J u l y

p.236, and 'Atonement by Blood i n MW V o l . XXXVI (1946), pp. p. 182 189f

sacrifice 12. CRAGG, K e n n e t h ,

i nIslam',

T h e Dome a n d t h e Rock,

op. c i t . ,

Page 137

l O :

D OF"

I STT I N C T ^ I A/E: I BAD I S M :

D O C T ^ R I N E S

For particular adherents next Revd

t h e purpose IbadT from

of this

chapter, which but which

I propose not only

t o focus

on

doctrines, Muslims, relevance

distinguish the The

other have

I hope

t o show i n dialogue.

chapter, G. P.

f o r contemporary such

Badger,

highlights

doctrines, b i nRazik's i n 1871.

In his History of

extensively the an

edited

translation o f Oman,

of Salil published

Imams a n d S e y y l d s appendix The be the

He

provides

'On t h e T i t l e

o f Imam.' w h e r e h e sums u p : as f a r as t h e y authorities from are to

doctrines of the Ibadhiyah, gathered from t h e Arabian

adduced i n of the 1 s t . On Will...

foregoing

dissertation, i n three 2ndly.

differ cardinal

those

orthodox the

Muslims

points.

Imamate. . .

P r e d e s t i n a t i o n and Free

3rdly. I shall

On t h e m e r i t a n d d e m e r i t follow of Badger's two

o f human a c t i o n s . . . . analysis, by a with a

century-old

consideration scholar from

doctrines Ahmed

highlighted Hamoud

modern the

Oman,

Sheikh

Al-Maamiry;

interpretation not t h e face

o f t h e Qur'an. o f God i s ever o f these

and t h e q u e s t i o n t o be seen.

o f whether o r consider chapter.

I shall

possible

implications

doctrines,

i n t h e next

' ...1st, within the was a

on t h e Imamate. . . . ' Ibadlsm would

More

recent

commentators with claim

and o u t s i d e

agree;

t h e I bad 1 s h a r e which they

Kharl.1 1 t h e d o c t r i n e theoriginal leader to

o f Imam b y e l e c t i o n ,

understanding the true

of the Caliphate. faith, t o ensure

The need f o r as f a r as

defend

Ch.

10:

Distinctive

d o c t r i n e s of

Ibadlsm;

Page

138

possible of

the

reign is

of

God

on

earth, with

and

to

unite

the

community like, that for any can

believers, the good I mam.

shared

other the an the most he

Muslims; Ibad! assert

instance, Muslim become of the.

Suhni

community, 'even resist than

character, IbadT strongly I mam, a him

Abyssianian pressure other holds

slave,' for

dynastic In power, the and

succession, addition, can be the

more

Muslims. absolute leaders the

I bad 1 by

although of

deposed who The but his his he of

council if he

religious from and

Mashaylkh narrow, a ' imma. year point this of of point The of

elect I bad 1

strays Bakr

straight

consider

Abu only of

""Umar up to

legitimate the up seventh to the At

that

''Uthman w a s The rule to

legitimate '-All is

reign.

recognised battle of

agreement became the

arbitrate

the

Safin.

apostate. Ibad! is to restore the true the original Imamates whole unity which Muslim

aim the

umma

through

establishing and

would world.^

eventually

unite

reform

The found Imamate time is of

various

political In, caused

circumstances them or to

In

which four found of

the

I badl of a

themselves existence:

develop

states during the

a1-k i tman In this -

concealment, the

persecution. and or

state

election on fear

Imam of

waived,

tag i yah of The la

dissimulation literally Surah as 3:28

grounds or

compulsion may be

threat

injury, Our'an

caution, the this,

practised. of Imran) the

(Al-i-'Imran. sanction for

family but with

interpreted

giving

warning:

Ch. 10:

D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s o f Ibadlsm:

Page 139

'....except of

b y way t h a t y e may from you them.

precaution, yourselves

guard But (To For Is

God c a u t i o n s remember) the final t o God. '

Himself; goal

If is

during

a period

of al-k1tmin may

t h e community a second

existence state of

threatened,

t h e mashaylkh which of time and

declare

defence to

a l - d i f a^ . d u r i n g 'out the task this

a temporary combating the third

I mam

c a n be

elected of the

carry

the

enemies of glory

community. shlrah won by may

During

state

expansion would be The the

be d e c l a r e d ^ , who

i n which their

special

IbadT state

sacrificed -

lives

f o r t h e cause. i s reached election when

fourth

al-zuhur

manifestation, for the

political declaration this many in state men,

climate o f an

allows Imam.

and

public

According

to historic

IbadT d o c t r i n e , as

i s achieved arms, horses

when t h e c o m m u n i t y etc., as

has a t l e a s t h a l f The Imam

t h e enemy.

elected He then the

these

circumstances the on supreme the basis

I s k n o w n a s t h e Imam a l - b a y = a . ruler who is obliged to

becomes community example

govern

o f t h e Our'an

a n d Surma,

following the

o f A b u B a k r ' a n d '^Umar.

Theoretically, geographical led t o several separation ruling

there

could

only

be

one

Imam,

but the sometimes several But

of the d i f f e r e n t time,

communities were

a t t h e same

i e : there

a' Imma a t o n e t i m e , for a time at least

i n Tahart,

i n Oman a n d t h e H a d r a m a w t . AD/ 2nd C e n t u r y

i n the 8 t h Century

AH, t h e

Ch. 10: D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s o f Ibadism:

Page 140

I badl i n t h e west and t h e east, of t h e Rustamids.-*

accepted

theuniversal

Imamate

A chief Musa b i n ' = A l i 'No army

=al I m a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d described i s raised, no hukm legal given, the ideal

century

(A. H. ) -

f o r t h e Imamate: held, no f i g h t i n g ordered, men no The

no banner

commanded, Judgement

punishments except farlda

hudud

through

t h e I mam.

Imam i s a n o b l i g a t i o n of the t h e umma. original

as shown by t h e c o n s e n s u s (i.e. t h e members o f between t h e

muhaj1 r u n and ansar community.'

The r e l a t i o n s h i p i s based

Imam a n d h i s c o m m u n i t y law as e n u n c i a t e d

o n o b e d i e n c e t o God's of election.^

i n thecontract

Throughout Inevitable two or

thehistory to limit who

of Ibadl election fight

Imamates,

there

h a s been

pressure

t o one t r i b e ,

o r between f o r the

three

tribes

between
*

themselves

nomination, family;

The Banu

Rustam

o f Tahart

kept

power

within

one

b u t t h e Mashayikh had t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y an Imam who c e a s e d t o be t r u e

t o depose i f

necessary, Sunnah

t o t h e Qur' an. t h e I mam.

o f t h e Prophet,

and t h e example o f t h e f i r s t

One

of

t h e reasons

t h e I bad?

have

been

branded

as

Khawar i J come Sunni be from i s their insistance that t h e I mam does n o t have t o This is the

t h e Prophet's and they to

own t r i b e ,

t h e Quralsh. why s u c h

claim,

s e e no r e a s o n

a Qurashi large.

cannot This

acceptable

t h e Muslim

community level

at

controversy , 1 9 8 6 AD/ Ahmed

resurfaced

on an o f f i c i a l t h e Grand

in a of

meeting i n Sheikh

1 4 0 6 AH, . b e t w e e n

MuftT

Oman,

b i n Hamed A l - K h a l T l T ,

and t h e Saudi M i n i s t e r

of Justice,

Ch.

10:

D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s o f Ibadisra:

Page 141

Sheikh

Abdul

Aziz

bin

Abdullah Abdul

b i n Ba'az; Aziz simply

challenged demanded

to a

television Grand Sheikh Mufti

debate,

Sheikh

that the that of

abandoned After

h i s own all,

ideology,

and adopted

Abdul!^

Abu Bakr - Ansar

i s on r e c o r d as s a y i n g : i n t h e name o f God, and I do have not to a not come man

'0 C o m m u n i t y we do not you

of Helpers deny i n your Islam,

generosity, but

preceded together from

t h e Arabs

and do

not listen

n o r obey

except

the Quraish....'

He

i s , however,

later

guoted

by Abu Da'ud

and A l - T l r m i d h i ,

as

recording

t h e words o f t h e Prophet: employs one a person who from a group wherein there has

'Whoever is

(another)

i s more

agreeable

t o God

betrayed So

God, me a n d t h e B e l i e v e r s . . . ' that: therefore, and of cannot be determined and the on t h e correct

i t i s argued 'The basis

Imamate, of

lineage (standard

kinship, Judging) When

magnitude power and

i s piety, these

knowledge, are

strength.

guallties he w i l l

available

i n t h e person

of a Quraish,

be more there The as God

appropriate should Prophet long as

f o r the position;

i f n o t , then f o r the Quralshi. with

n o t be a n y c o n s i d e r a t i o n has s a i d he him does 'This is still

the Quralshi and as he then

n o t provoke and

inventions them

unveils this Sheikh in not Arab

t o them

reviles

reviles

improvisation.' Hamoud Oman Al-Maamlry, and Ibadlsm i s t h e exponent book. ^ of this view,

Ahmed

h i s revised only

I t i s of relevance, seeking, Faith. A not only further

to historians, but a

but t o a l l those community of

unity,

Islamic

possible the next

conseguence Chapter.

f o r the individual

will

be c o n s i d e r e d i n

Ch.

10:

D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s of Ibadism:

Page 142

After feature features: Thirdly, his 'On of

guoting Ibadl

views

on

the G. P.

Imamate as Badger and

one

distinguishing lists as other and:

doctrine,

then

Secondly, the merit is arrived

Predestination and

Free-will...'

d e m e r i t o f human a c t i o n s ' . too easily? among more has

Perhaps

summary

at rather

'Although on these

the Sunnites d i f f e r dogmas, among and them evil, i f he the

greatly

themselves generally will he

opinion man

entertained to choose be

i s , that and do can

power and know t h a t

good

moreover and be

shall do

rewarded but that

well,

punished on

i f he God's

i l l ;

depends, i f God the other

notwithstanding, will, hand, a but are as not

power, The

and

willeth, in

otherwise. with God

Ibadhiyah,

charged t o make

holding the

predestination

i n such as

sense

author of e v i l

as w e l l

good...

A Muljommad Islamic

contemporary = A b d u l Center of Rauf. New

commentator In York, 1970. on

on

the he

guest i o n would writing of 'The

be

Dr the and

was

from Qur' an

the

issue -

Free-will' and from and AH. were the the the The they

i n The of of

Muslim

World. and of the 'had

Qadr human the

divine

determinism, i s mapped AD/ 690 64 AD/ out AH, 70 -

area time

human the on

deeds burning by

choices, Ka^ ba

i n 684 around these Rauf as:

assault

Makkah then

Umayyads God of

guest ion by the

was,

willed God?'

attacks

decree, of a

t h e Qadr

deduces

the

essential the

elements of

the Qadarite position doctrine the of area Qadr of

'they

admitted divine He as sees 'a

validity but

covering

a l l

creations, the Sunnl

excluding as

human the to

deeds.' term Qadr

position

maintaining applicable

comprehensive

concept,

both

divine

and

human

Ch.

10:

D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s of Ibadism:

Page 143

deeds; would be,

excluding in their But view,

the view, as Dr.

area a

of

human

acts

from

the with

concept God's

limitation says: was from

inconsistent

omnipotence.' 'In The by our

Rauf

neither human was

party deeds

perfectly the concept

correct. of Qadr of

e x c l u s i o n of the Qadarites Justice

unnecessary and the

f o r the protection principle of

divine

human

responsibility. tion, Yet, and the

I t

easily the

provoked views of

their their in the

condemnaopponents. the harsh hand, i t s is a human

popularised

inconsistencies of the later

implicit on was

interpretation became apparent

Sunnltes, when i t

other to use, on

pushed

conclusion... comprehensive f reedom.^ Perhaps such a

The

t e r m Qadr but

i n i t s Qur'anlc not infringe

concept

does

summary G. P.

represents Badger. by

IbadT

thinking times

rather

more

accurately Ibadi

than

Several their

in conversation, as to to what

friends

revealed

guestionlng that they their

Christians a large

b e l i e v e d on for human

the matter, freedom

wished

reserve of

area

within

understanding

Qadr.

The Kaf i r -

Ibadi

consider

a n y o n e who This in person contrast such his a

commits a major is to then

s i n t o be from

unbeliever. This who which Is

expelled

the the

community. Azarlqah, Mushr1k. marriage wives to in and

other to was be

Kharijites, a

declared meant

person property i t was a

polytheist, his his

that

confiscated, to kill

annulled, children) him

(traditionally and he became The might

lawful man,

marked

i t was not go be

lawful so f a r , able to

assassinate the hope

istl'^rad. the sinner

I bad 1 w o u l d repent and

that

thus

Ch.

10:

D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s of Ibadism:

Page 144

return t o t h e community; a militant hostility i s however maintained by t h e IbadT t o w a r d s the unrepentant. Again, a p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n of t h i s i s c o n s i d e r e d i n Chapter 10.

Sheikh differences the the that in beliefs Qur'an' that of and

Ahmed he

Hamoud

Al-Maamiry of

would

identify

other

b e l i e v e s t o be I b a d 1.

important i n i d e n t i f y i n g include: The 'Interpreting Ibadl allow

the

These would

'the C r e a t i o n of can be

t h e Qur'an. ' by is those of The

t h e Qur'an knowledge' .

interpreted, an approach

'firmly an

grounded important 3:7 Is

Such

course Qur'an.

pre-supposition given

to serious dialogue.

Surah

i n support: God To In i t i s who thee the has sent down

Book;

i t are or

verses fundamental meaning)

Basic (of

established

They a r e of Are On The

the foundation others But those follow

t h e Book;

allegorical.

whose h e a r t s i s p e r v e r s i t y part thereof discord, that and

is allegorical searching

Seeking For But Its And In In Is

i t s hidden no one

meanings.

knows God. grounded

hidden meanings except t h o s e who are firmly "We

knowledge say: t h e Book; f r o m our grasp men seems

believe

the whole of i t Lord:" and none

Wi11

the of

Message understanding. some way with the Ibadi position in his

Except Yusuf ^AlT

t o go

Ch. 10: D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s o f Ibadism:

Page 145

notes

t o t h e Qur'an where he s a y s : passage gives an important Qur'an. two clue Broadly to the

'This

interpretation it may be

o f t h e Holy into

speaking not given or

divided

portions,

separately 'foundation Book',

but intermingled; o f t h e Book', (2) the

viz.

(1) t h e nucleus ' t h e mother is

literally part which

o ft h e

and

figurative, may as

metaphorical, get the So some final light

allegorical from i t , noone

people should

o f wisdom be d o g m a t i c ,

meaning claim

i s k n o w n t o God the authority o f t h e Qur'an.

alone'.'' to look behind apparent

t h e Ibadl

meanings o f t h e t e x t

t o Interpret i t .

'The the story,

Creation that

o f t h e Qur'an': the death

Sheikh

Al-Maamlry b i n Zayd,

recounts a Jew

after

of Jabir

called

Abu ShakTr

Al-Dissany: professed of Islam with among was the the intention Muslims, of and

'ostensibly sowing declared eternal. scholars false, seeds

discord

that After was

t h e Qur' a n much

not created,

b u t was

debate, the

the ruling of

of t h e I bad! was

that

teaching

Al-Dissany

a n d t h e Qur* a n was p a r t o f t h e c r e a t e d

o r d e r . '^

But for

i t i s admitted, whom t h e Q u r ' a n simply

t h e d i f f e r e n c e between i s eternal, that i s 'only God

the Ibadl

and those such

v e r b a l ' , because

teaching such open that a

emphasises that

i s n o t dumb. could

I t i s with come with an

background, to

an

I badT by

Sheikh a

mind,

t h e suggestion i n Surah t h e death

Christian,

f o r example: i s not

t h e Qur' an denying

4: 157

(Nisa'

t h e Women)

necessarily

of C h r i s t - s e e C h a p t e r 11.

Ch. 10: D i s t i n c t i v e doctrines of Ibadlsra:

Page 146

'Sighting One issue which

God': - I s t h e Face o f God e v e r 'causes much controversy be seen among

t o be seen? Muslims I s

between and

those

who s a y t h a t t h e I bad!,

God w i l l

I n the hereafter, not.' But as

those,

like

who s a y He w i l l

S h e i k h A l - M a a m l r y goes on t o s a y : Discussing topic which) a subject like this I s t o dwell (or the truth and s i m i l a r l y on t h e about the

t h e knowledge does

o f which

not benefit

anyone,

ignorance He t h e n

o f w h i c h does n o t harm anyone.' t h e Ibadl position, quoting among many other

defends

Qur'an p a s s a g e s , S u r a h 7:143 ( A ' r a f . t h e H e i g h t s ) , Is a narrative of Moses, Interpret not this being able a to

Here t h e r e see God.

Mainstream sight that Ibadl only this

scholars while will

as b e i n g

l i m i t a t i o n of maintain aspect of

i n the mortal continue

body,

b u t t h e Ibad 1 This

i n the hereafter. considered i n t h e next

theology

i sfurther

chapter.

Al-Maamlry, lists and several

I n h i s r e c e n t l y r e v i s e d work Oman and I bad ism doctrinal d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e I bad i the which

other

other

Muslims, (Justice);

s u c h as t h e M e d i a t i o n and Fear taqlvah

(Intercession);

Balance links in

(dissimulation),

back t o t h e d e b a t e on t h e Imamate, and w i l l 11. I t i s p r e j u d i c e however, when u p h o l d i n g who support their that many

be t a k e n up I badl feel

Chapter

they the

a r e met w i t h , sheer numbers

own t r a d i t i o n

against groupings

one o f t h e l a r g e r

within

Islam.

The Grand M u f t i replies

o f Oman, S h e i k h Ahmed b i n Hamed from an IbadT student

Al-KhalTll,

t o the question

abroad about t h e s t a t u s o f h i s b e l i e f s : Many people, because of futile publicity against

Ch.

10:

D i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s o f Ibadlsm:

Page 147

I b a d i s m , w a r n a g a i n s t t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e i r books; and t h i s h a s r e s u l t e d - w i t h much r e g r e t - i n o r d e r i n g t o b u r n t h e s e b o o k s i n one o f t h e M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s . . . . Thank God anyway, t h a t many p e o p l e have now been inspired towards this sect and a r e g i v i n g i t reasonable consideration and are reading their books... I call on t h e M u s l i m y o u t h t o avoid

fanaticism apart this

and s e c t a r i a n community

tendencies an t o destroy

w h i c h have extent i t ;

ripped

t o such instead

that i t s and i t has

e n e m i e s become d i s c o u r a g e d now become a f o l l o w e r nations...

o f being a leader of the us s u c c e s s . . . . ^ *

I p r a y t o God t o g r a n t

Notes and References;

1. 2.

BADGER, op. c i t . , p. 394 WILKINSON, J. C., 1987, Imamate T r a d i t i o n o f Oman. C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , p. 154

3. 4. 5. 6.

ibid.,

pp. 1 5 1 ,

155/6

E i ^ , p. 658 WILKINSON, J. C., Imamate T r a d i t i o n o f Oman. KHALILI, pl54

Ahmed b i n Hamed A 1 - , Who a r e t h e I b a d h l s ?

*

i n a t r a n s l a t i o n by Ahmed Hamoud A l - M a a m i r y , I n Oman c i r c a 1986, page 24 7. MAAMIRY, Ahmed Hamoud A 1 - , R e v i s e d E d i t i o n I b a d h l s m . L a n c e r s Books, New D e l h i , 8. 9. BADGER, op. c i t . , p.394 MW, V o l . LX J u l y

published

1989, Oman and

p. 113

and O c t o b e r 1970, p. 296, a r t i c l e by 'The Qur'an and F r e e - w i l l '

RAUF, Muhammad A b d u l ,

Ch. 10: D i s t i n c t i v e doctrines of Ibadism:

Page 148

10. 11.

EI'', p. 658 QUR'AN. f o o t n o t e on p. 123 op c i t . p. 90

12. MAAMIRY, Ahmed Hamoud A 1 - , Oman and I b a d h i s m . 13. 14. i b i d . p.82 KHALTLI, op.

Ahmed b i n Hamed A 1 - , Who a r e t h e I b a d h i s ? . c i t . , last page

Page 149

11:

DIALOGUE

WITH

XENEXS

OF

IBADISM

In Identified Christian relates Free-will reticence one

this

chapter,

I shall

focus

on t h e f o u r

doctrines

I n Chapter dialogue.

10 - as h a v i n g A

s i g n i f i c a n c e i n I bad? / of Apostasy, as i t of the of

consideration

to thinking i n both of I bad!

concerning

t h e Imamate; I bad!

the place

C h r i s t i a n and thinkers,

understanding; the p o s s i b i l i t y

t o consider

day s e e i n g

t h e Face about

o f God;

and a c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e of Jesus as an

Christian example of

teaching Ibadi

the crucifixion of at least

acceptance

the possibllty f o r

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e Qur'an.

The f a c t States publicly of

h a s t o be f a c e d ,

that

a Muslim from

any o f t h e days be to

the Arabian t o be without

Peninsula, interested very

can r a r e l y

these

known

i n , l e t alone consequences.

convert,

Christianity,

serious

There i s

n o t h i n g new i n t h a t ; after his 1970 AD/

t h e experience t h e date

o f Omanl C h r i s t i a n s was that Sultan Qaboos deposed they

1390 AH,

f a t h e r and i n a u g u r a t e d pressure from

the Sultanate contact

o f Oman - t h a t Arabian 122.

knew g r o w i n g simply

w i t h other

States, Such

n o t t o be s e e n has been

as C h r i s t i a n s - see page by C h r i s t i a n m i n o r i t i e s faith

experience

shared

since the

dawn o f I s l a m , generations. turns from

e v e n when t h e i r When i t i s f i r s t

has been passed down f o r when an individual

generation,

Islam,

then

that

i s considered

t o be a p o s t a s y , f o r

w h i c h t h e p e n a l t i e s a r e most s e r i o u s .

Ch. 11:

Dialogue with tenets of Ibadlsm.

Page 150

The final to in as

Ibadl

p o s i t i o n c o n c e r n i n g a p o s t a t e s i s not perhaps ie:

so

f o r most M u s l i m s , I t i s relevant of the Apostasy Our'an he

a l l o w i n g time f o r the apostate t h e more u s u a l Zwemer severe 4:90, points position:

return. The Law in

to state Islam. promise Surahs

in

to several without and

Surahs being

which quotes

penalties 5:57, quoted

specific;

16:108

suggests the death by

a l s o 2:217.'

Several

a h a d l t h are Zwemer 1922 AD

t o support a paper he

p e n a l t y f o r apostasy. the Woking Mosque comment: of

quotes / 1341

from AH,

Issued

which

f o l l o w s w i t h h i s own 'We In and

read of the p u t t i n g our being traditions, that told and t o go to drove the climate the the

t o death of the party after professing o f Medlnah was State crime were of

o f '^Ukl Islam, of

who,

feigned camels were Ch. has

Insalubrious, murdered They dacolty, episode

t o t h e p l a c e where t h e h e r d s grazed, and This the herds along w i t h murder o f d e a t h has by them.

belonging

the keepers charged 5:33 the be ever f o r which

under

the punishment been c i t e d which

been p r o v i d e d i n commentators penalty for can of death

(Zwemer means S u r a h verse

5:35,36). the Qur'anic the death

generally

under ever was

ordains

m u r d e r and

dacoity;

t h e r e i s no i n apostasy

o t h e r case w h i c h

twisted

t o show t h a t

t h e punishment from Islam.'

inflicted

Zwemer r e t o r t s : "this episode" under

'We

leave the reader in of every

t o Judge

whether work on

given t h e head

standard was

Tradition to

"Apostates" and

recorded or

Illustrate

the

p e n a l t y f o r murder

robbery,

the. p e n a l t y f o r a p o s t a s y ' . =

Other law

and

' v a r i o u s books on are then quoted

J u r i s p r u d e n c e used at length, as

I n Moslem

schools'

i s Juynboll's

Ch. 11: Dialogue with tenets of Ibadism.

Page 151

E n c y c l o p e d i a o f R e l i g i o n and E t h i c s w h i c h r e f e r s t o o t h e r authorities.^ The p r a c t i c e i n T u r k e y I s t h e n q u o t e d 'The l a w of Apostasy was n a t u r a l l y t h e l a w o f t h e c o u r t s f o r many c e n t u r i e s . . . ' and t h e way i n w h i c h t h e B r i t i s h government i n 1843-4 AD/ 1259-60 AH, o b t a i n e d a p l e d g e f r o m t h e S u l t a n t h a t d e a t h w o u l d no l o n g e r be t h e p e n a l t y f o r becoming a C h r i s t i a n (for someone p r e v i o u s l y a M u s l i m ) . Subsequent paragraphs a r g u e t h a t n o t h i n g changed however.

The

c o s t o f becoming a C h r i s t i a n f r o m a Muslim Zwemer and o t h e r s n e v e r i n many articles

background

was one t h a t to that cost

u n d e i r a t e d , and r e f e r r e d Moslem World. I n an

i n The

editorial stones sentence out baby

I n October

1922, under tells alive

t h e heading:

'Where t h e

c r y o u t ' , Zwemer of being burled

the story i n concrete

emotively, of the that was carried

i n Algiers, Geronimo

upon G e r o n i m o i n 1569 AD/ 977 AH. had been captured by Spanish was

As an Arab and

raiders,

baptised; relatives, returned he was

when and

eight

years

o l d he

recaptured when he was

by h i s 25, he later

lived

as a M u s l i m

until,

again involved and

to the Christian

settlement. and was

Five years taken

i n one more r a i d f o r refusing

prlsonner to h i s Christian

Algiers faith. years

killed

t o renounce buried

The b l o c k later,

i n which

he had been

was b r o k e n

300

h i s bones b u r i e d

and a p l a s t e t c a s t

o f h i s body

now s t a n d s

i n the cathedral

In Algiers.*

W.H.Temple arrived I n Cairo

Gairdner

shared

Zwemer's

concern. a

He had life-

i n 1898 AD/

1315 AH,

and d e v e l o p e d

Ch. 11: Dialogue w i t h tenets of Ibadlsm.

Page 152

w o r k t h e r e as a C h r i s t i a n t e a c h e r w i t h a deep c o n c e r n f o r t h e Muslim world. He was i n c i d e n t a l l y a c l o s e f r i e n d o f Samuel Zwemer; as an A n g l i c a n , G a l r d n e r e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h Zwemer a creative co-operation between t h e Reformed and Anglican Churches t h a t c o n t i n u e s today i n t h e Gulf r e g i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Oman wli;h t h e D u a l C h a p l a i n c y t h e r e . G a i r d n e r ' s pen was nearly as p r o l i f i c as t h a t o f Zwemer. I n one s u c c i n c t article, 'Mohammad w i t h o u t C a m o u f l a g e ' , i n The Moslem W o r l d , he r e c o u n t s many e x a m p l e s o f t h e s e v e r i t y w i t h w h i c h I s l a m d e a l s w i t h t h o s e who do n o t y i e l d t o i t . ^

The

IbadT d o c t r i n e o f t h e Imam and t h e c o n d i t i o n s includes

under

w h i c h he may, o r may n o t be e l e c t e d , of al-k1tman. hiddenness, apply apply

the p o s s i b i l i t y These

and t a q l y a h .

dissimulation. of Faith; who,

concepts possible seeking

clearly t o also 'The

t o t h e Community

i t seems genuinely

them t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , and who decides

Way'

t o God,

the Christian include belief,

G o s p e l s t o be t h a t way. not only t h a t Jesus d i e d but that

Presumably

t h i s would

on t h e c r o s s

f o r s i n (see subsequent

discussion) true, (see within final

the C h r i s t i a n doctrine of Incarnation is. understanding such an of the Unity o f God,

a Trinitarian chapter). faith God, a

Could

individual an

n o t have t o with to

declare integrity follow,

their

i n public?

Could

individual,

before maintain

and i n t h e l i g h t personal t a q 1 yah

of the discussion in relation

t o the

c o m m u n i t y a r o u n d them - w i t h i n Let not the Believers

t h e meaning o f S u r a h 3:28?

Take f o r f r i e n d s o r h e l p e r s Unbelievers rather than

Ch.

11:

Dialogue with tenets of Ibadism.

Page 153

Believer: In Of From God:

i f any except

do by from you

that help may them. way

nothing w i l l

t h e r e be

p r e c a u t i o n , t h a t ye cautions

Guard y o u r s e l v e s But God <To For Is

remember) H i m s e l f ; the f i n a l to God. goal

And,

S i l r a h 14:38 "O our Lord!

<Surah I b r a h i m , o r Abraham): truly Thou

Dost know what we And For

conceal

what we r e v e a l : n o t h i n g whatever i s hidden

From God, Or

w h e t h e r on e a r t h

i n heaven. Such a solution new. prior at to t o an o l d and airing AD/ 1357 that often agonising have the dilemma, had, for

would

not

be

Whatever 1938

i t may AH,

generations Conference possibility the views

Missionary saw the

Tambaram

(Madras) Henry H.

year, was

certainly openly of

re-opened. of W i l l i a m E. ' spokeman wanted a

Rlggs

advocating at

Hocking, for form the

professor left

Philosophy of

Harvard, Liberalism' replace Riggs was

and who

wing

American service to missions.^ Christian

of western of the

Christian Christian Near East

the

traditional of the the

programme Report of

Chairman on

Council was

Inquiry that

E v a n g e l i s a t i o n of

Moslems

i n wh1c h i t

agreed

followers hidden within

of

Jesus

should

be than

permitted baptised He

to

remain

disciples the Muslim

(rather

converts) against

community.

advised

Ch. 11:

Dialogue w i t h tenets of Ibadlsm.

Page 154

anything interpret his of own

that as

'the

enquirer One

or

his

neighbour him

may from him In

clandestine efforts of Jesus who are

to alienate t o develop active

people. . . '

must s t r i v e

'groups

followers and

i n making they belong

known t o o t h e r s , social Islam' may

while remaining l o y a l l y t o which group.'' ultimately

a p a r t of the believers

p o l i t i c a l groups

i n hope t h a t

these s e c r e t

become an

Indigenous church

As

L y l e L.

Vander Record: by

Werff

summarises

in Christian

Mission

t o M u s l i m s - The The

ideas h e l d realised and

Rlggs

and

expressed A chorus of society postponing church of

i n t h e N.E.C.C. of with one's as a evangelical mission to Christian decision visible the The by

Report voices the and

were o p e n l y of

rejected. dangers Muslim of of the and

the ideals;

confining

permeation the

teachings witnessing

formation community;

accommodating

Gospel's c a l l majority Hocking that at and

t o repentance Riggs because tenets

and the are

disc1 pieshlp. . . . the ideas set forth by

Tambaram r e j e c t e d

basic presupposition discovered human

"theological

e x p e r i e n c e " was

not considered acceptable.^

The

pages o f The as Rlggs'

Moslem W o r l d article:

i n 1941 we

tell

the s t o r y

in

more d e t a i l , in of The

'Shall

t r y unbeaten 'The

paths Dynamic

w o r k i n g f o r Moslems?' Evangelism.'* Cross of above

i s matched

by Zwemer's: was

A f u l l e r response the Crescent:

p r e s e n t e d by Zwemer i n necessity and and

the

validity, Other books

urgency

missions t o pour i n 1952

t o Moslems.'

articles of Dr

continued nearly 85,

f r o m h i s pen, AD/ 1371 AH.

u n t i l h i s d e a t h a t t h e age At Zwemer's Internment,

A l b e r t u s P i e t e r s s a i d o f him:

Ch. 11: Dialogue with tenets of Ibadism.

Page 155

... he

i n this never

case

i tis difficult t o the fashion work t h e Gospel...''

t o sorrow at a l l . . . o f t h e day i n t o n i n g of those

yielded

down t h e a t o n i n g who l i v e w i t h o u t

of Christ or the p e r i l

The would

dilemma

remains the

however. Qur'an in

Perhaps

a short

taqlyah nor i t s would Muslim

neither

deny

i t s essence, that

conventional argue that a

intepretation? personal

I t is likely is a

Zwemer that a

t a q 1 yah could

position

enquirer for long.

about

Christianity i tcould

not maintain

with

integrity

Perhaps before The

fulfill up of

the teaching the cross'

o f Jesus, t o 'cost a is New have

ensure

that

'taking side which

the

counted''* Testament pressed, that

other

t h e argument Zwemer

from would

perspective,

perhaps

i s t h a t much o f t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e e a r l y c h u r c h was, d i d not dissemble. He would surely have

Christians

emphasised be no.' and

t h e words o f C h r i s t I n the chapter t h e Rock. Richard himself

'Let your

y e s be y e s , y o u r no i n The Arabian

'The A r t o f B e i n g a M i n o r i t y ' Cragg compares t h e two

Dome

Kenneth

explorers disguised attempt

Burton as an

and

Charles

Doughty;

t h e former made no

Afghani

she 1kh.

the l a t t e r

at disguise. instinct and

Cragg quotes to imitate, alien on a

favourably: to and deep cloke perhaps distrust your own

..."the

convictions conventions,

follow

disliked of human

i s based

b r o t h e r h o o d . " '= He goes on t o commend t h e m i n o r i t y C h r i s t i a n community t o hide. In a

m a j o r i t y M u s l i m s t a t e , w h i c h does n o t a t t e m p t

Ch.

11: Dialogue w i t h tenets of Ibadlsm.

Page 156

Some G u l f S t a t e s p o s i t i v e l y e n c o u r a g e d i s s i m u l a t i o n by expatriates, f o r Instance when clergy or Christian m i s s i o n a r i e s t r a v e l u n d e r a Job d e s c r i p t i o n such as ' t e a c h e r ' or a business t i t l e ; the real identity of the traveller i s o f t e n known t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s ; t h e y s i m p l y t u r n a b l i n d eye. The a u t h o r i t i e s o f I bad! Oman however, e x p e c t t r u t h f u l n e s s .

One is focused

other

practical

aspect

t o the question

o f apostasy, V e r s e s by t h e Muslim

by t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e n o v e l i n 1988, and t h e c a l l of from

Satanic around on

Salman world

Rushdie

f o r the execution Previously

t h e author have

t h e grounds o f that modern

apostasy. mainstream for as

i t could

been assumed about

I s l a m was p l a y i n g down t h e h a d ! t h s u c h an a s s u m p t i o n The could

the penalty

apostasy; being

p e r h a p s be now Judged however, that while be time

premature. utterly either

Ibadi

approach or anything would want

condemning Interpreted for

apostasy on I s l a m ,

could

as an a t t a c k With

t o allow

repentance.

the reported

re-aspousal

by R u s h d i e o f

h i s Muslim f a i t h , but t o date,

s u c h an a p p r o a c h c o u l d

have been v i n d i c a t e d ; have kept t h e

the

shl'=T a u t h o r i t i e s

of Iran

fatwah

i nforce.

A always Omanls repeated

discussion

on F r e e - w l 1 1

(page

142ff), Muslim

will

nearly

surface a r e no

i n any d i a l o g u e different. There restating

between

and C h r i s t i a n ; i s an o f t e n by C h r i s t i a n doctrine of of

' I s i t written?' i s work the t o be done Reformation the light

question. in

theologians, Predestination

and

Election,

in

Muslim

Ch.

11:

Dialogue with tenets of Ibadism.

Page 157

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , and p a r t i c u l a r l y o f I b a d i i n s i g h t s , seem t o be p a r a l l e l s w i t h e x t r e m e C a l v i n i s m .

where t h e r e

An

attempt

t o engage i n such a

t h e Grand debate,

Mufti, proved

Sheikh the

Ahmed b i n

Hamed A l - K h a l T l l , much more through laws s e t that as an by informed

necessity for and

groundwork. the

I put

t o him that

falterlngly the

interpreter, the Creator,

premise

within

natural and time a

human b e i n g s

do e n j o y

free-will;

difficulty no

a r i s e s o n l y when we I n dimension

limit

God's space and I had chapter,

being

bigger that

than

ours.

I n mind

speculation Jesus was and

I return of

t o , i n the f i n a l The

concerning Mufti

the

Unity

God.

response of as

t h e Grand

t o e m p h a s i s e t h e need f o r r e a l i t y , i n any future dialogue.

against

metaphysical

speculation,

I n The the

Dome and

t h e Rock. C r a g g ' s c o n c e r n of predestination

i s about and

both

theological

question

free-will;

a l s o w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o u s f a t a l i s m and In the last still analysis less what formal unto of a

e m a n c 1 a p a t I on f r o m such. matters theology, God". crude who the How Is not but do we bare living help

exegesis,

relatedness, deliver fatalism? with are find God, are the How

"alive-ness victims do we

p r e d e s 1 1 n a r 1 an are truth law? intoxicated that How do they we and

c o n f r o n t men with

scientific a l l the the true

"freedoms"

while

accountable of w i l l s ours

under

Identity wills are

between o u r s e l v e s

i f "our

t o make them h i s " ? religiously when we

These have

the questions

that matter

silenced,

dismissed,

o r awakened t h e t h e o l o g i a n s . ' - *

Cragg develops

a p a r a b l e on

t h e theme o f God

as

teacher

Ch. 11: Dialogue w i t h tenets of Ibadism.

Page 158

Al-Rabb thought' educates

t h e Lord, argue

and that

'certain t h e term

lines

of

recent

Muslim who

which

means t h e N u r t u r e r , and l e a d s them

and n o u r i s h e s h i s c h i l d r e n

on t h r o u g h

e x p e r i e n c e and e r r o r ...Human ordered the teacher authority: depend.... teacher, freedom of permitted being plainly

i n t o m a t u r i t y and s t a t u r e : as understood t o that i n Christian might faith, invoke The

freedom,

may be w e l l notion in

compared of a

which obtains a comparison

i n a well-

c l a s s r o o m , and s u c h divine is this school Within

"education" the

o f man.

unquestioned authority i n which

ultimate of the they a r e This I s

i t I s he on whom t h e o r d e r and t h e p u r p o s e president an a r e a abdicates, free there i s a modicum o f t o the extent itself, as

which never t o be t r u l y allowed t h e Quranic

f o r the children, t o be

a g e n t s even

i n t h e wrong.... I s 1 am

situation.

submission, God unnecessary

i s n o t something or impossible.

capable There

of happening i f I t Is either sense I n

i s a l l dominant.

For i n t h a t

event

i s a real

w h i c h t o be g e n u i n e l y musl1m. man must be f r e e . . . . ' ^

Concerning 10, 'Interpreting who

the third

of the doctrines Sheikh

noted

I n Chapter that

t h e Qur'an', grounded

Maamiry

suggests

those task Ibadi often (Nlsa' Christ:

are 'firmly 144).

i n knowledge' such

can b e g i n t h e that an

( s e e page Sheikh made

I t i s with

a background,

could

come w i t h

an open mind,

t o the suggestion i n Surah 4:157

by C h r i s t i a n s ,

that:

t h e Our'an denying

t h e Women)

i s not necessarily

t h e death of

That t h e y s a i d

( i n boast) Jesus

We.killed Christ The Son o f Mary,

The A p o s t l e o f God'

Ch.

11:

Dialogue

with

t e n e t s of Ibadism.

Page

159

But Nor But To

they k i l l e d crucified so i t was

him him.

not

made

a p p e a r t o them...

Could

i t

be act

that by

this of

verse laying

Is

simply his

emphasising own life? by

the This Jesus

voluntary would then

Jesus be a

down on

simply

commentary

the

statement 10:18 lay

recorded 'No

i n t h e New man takes

Testament, John Chapter my life from me, but I

i t down o f I have power

myself. to

I have power t o l a y i t down, and

t a k e 11 a g a i n . '

Such apologists concern about

an

approach

has

been

followed

by

Christian by a

t o Muslims

f o r many y e a r s ; the well heart of

I t i s generated what in

that Christ.

challenges It is

Christians believe The Cross says: me I to the have their that story whose of the

presented

M e s s i a h by D a v i d My the Muslim

Brown ( 1 9 6 9 ) . friends which have they with by

I n h i s p r e f a c e , he often explained to the cross, to and

difficulties Christian written concern of a

find of

in trying

understand

explanation

therefore,

careful this

attention I t i s my

f o r God's s o v e r e i g n t y . be h e l p e d of the t o which eternal

prayer i n the God

M u s l i m s may "sign"

book t o see love of the

the c r u c i f i x i o n ,

t h e Qur'an b e a r s serve.'^

witness,

sovereignty

t h e y p r o c l a i m and

David

Brown

sums but

up an of he

the ear his

meaning

of

the

crucifixion in full of of

for the the the

Christians, final

with

t o Muslims. chapter, my 'The

I quote

paragraph because

Theology highlighting chapter:

Crucifixion'

links

earlier

'^aqlqah s a c r i f i c e ,

w i t h t h e theme o f my

final

Ch. 1 1 :

Dialogue

w i t h t e n e t s o f Ibadlsm.

Page 160

Because this rose the gives for power triumph

a l l men

sin,

they

a l l need

deliverance,

and

t h e Lord triumphant forces of

J e s u s came over evil

to bring.

He won h i s f i n a l d e a t h and S a t a n and him. His and he

i n h i s r e s u r r e c t i o n when he d e f e a t e d a l l t h e a t t a c k s which could make against

victory

however, was n o t won f o r h i m s e l f a l o n e , who f o l l o w , God This which that time, taken truth is either him, making

i t t o those of e v i l . at

i t possible i n t h e word practice, who had o r because f o r the f o r other

them t o s e r v e

I n a new way and f r e e d f r o m t h e i s expressed from taken the those

"redemption", current lost they goods, bought of born 34: said from over evil, or like a their had

of "redeeming" through prisoners

freedom, been

poverty

i n battle:

payment

o f a sum the slave back",

o f money,

o r i n exchange could Law from return

or prisoner

be "redeemed" o r to the status firstcostly a the p r a c t i c e of too

a n d , as a r e s u l t , I n the Jewish were "redeemed" service the figure that

free

man.

redemption dedication 19-20)

a l s o had a r e l i g i o u s t o God's Using

significance:

children

by s a c r i f i c e o f speech,

( s e e Exodus t h e Messiah free

t h a t he h a d come, " t o g i v e h i s l i f e (Mark 10:45), t h e power t h e powers of e v i l by h i s v i c t o r y and of death.

t o redeem many over S a t a n and won h i s falling t o God; by that so

people"

i s t o s a y , t o s e t them He

of e v i l

victory

by r e c e i v i n g i n h i s own p e r s o n aside from the path whose

the a t t a c k s of

a n d by b e a r i n g and c a r r y i n g them w i t h o u t of obedience of others a good live shepherd (John sheep

turning

are attacked

wolves,

he g a v e h i s l i f e

on b e h a l f

they might

10:7-17).'^

The

Ibad! maintains of Just the got

with

other Surah,

Muslims, and Sheikh

the standard that for

interpretation Christians had

Nisi'

believes Maamiry

i t wrong.

Ch.

11:

Dialogue with tenets of Ibadism.

Page 161

instance, favours the c l a i m of the apocryphral Gospel of B a r n a b a s , t h a t someone e l s e was crucified i n the place of Jesus.' T h e r e i s no d o u b t t h a t among many M u s l i m s t o d a y , t h e G o s p e l o f B a r n a b a s i s Judged as b e i n g c l o s e t o t h e Qur'an i n i t s t e a c h i n g about Jesus; i t i s t h e r e f o r e commonly h e l d t o be more a u t h e n t i c than t h e f o u r Gospel a c c o u n t s o f the New Testament. An a p p e n d i x I s a t t a c h e d t o t h e t h e s i s on this subject.

Assuming attitude Gospels, in his to then the the

dialogue possible

can

move

to

the of

point the New

of

an

open

reliability the M.A.

Testament Long,

work u n d e r t a k e n by Durham . U n i v e r s i t y Chrlstology: t h e Qur'an. A

Revd W i l l i a m T. Thesis: of

recent to

C h r i s t ian Three. His the of in the

Responses F o u r and thesis Qur' an his

Islamic

critique be

Surahs tool.

Nineteen of that

would

a useful

argues and the

there with he

i s s u b s t a n t i a l agreement regard does t o Jesus, however, see with

between events

Bible while on

( i e the

death); based

limitations regard to

dialogue

textual

comparison,

C h r i s t i a n d o c t r i n e of

the I n c a r n a t i o n . ' ^

If Christian and that

and claim such

when that a

Muslim died not

in on

dialogue, the cross

could and

allow rose out by

the again the seek a of

Jesus is

claim

necessarily and the

ruled

Qur'an, further

then for

there common

i s scope

f o r Muslim as to

Christian to unity at of

understanding which

God, heart

theological

understanding

is inevitably

the

Ch. 11:

D i a l o g u e w i t h t e n e t s o f Ibadlsm.

Page 162

m i s s i o n - t o make God k n o w n . The f i n a l t e n t a t i v e 'sketch' f o r such a debate.

chapter

attempts

It nuance

is a of

debate

that

must of

be

f e d by an u n d e r s t a n d i n g Q u r ' an. An exchange this,

of of

the

Arabic

the Cragg

correspondence out Holy and of a

with

Kenneth

illustrates

arising The

concern -

for a

difference

in translation

between

Qur'an Readings 3:55 God

Text.

Translation

and Commentary by Cragg. Cragg

Yusuf A l l , translates

i n t h e Qur'an

by Kenneth

Surah

Then will while

said:

'Jesus,

I am

causing

y o u t o d i e , and I

exalt

you t o myself. .. '

Yusuf

AlT has i t : God said: I will thee take thee

Behold, "O And Surah As

Jesus! raise

t o Myself...^' translated by Cragg w i t h them, I bore t h e phrase witness t o

5:121 i s however long

as I (Jesus)

was among me

them, supporting, Earlier Re

a n d when y o u t o o k in year, 3:56 this

t o yourse 1f. . . Yusuf All's translation.

instance,

this Surah

Cragg wrote -

i n reply word

t o my Is a from am

query: force/ which you for to "to

the -crucial

passive the root calling

active means your cause

form

p a r t i c i p l e intensive a debt." '/

" t o pay account"

(God) form

is a

recognised "he

o f words

t o d i e " (eg English: The active' verb

has gone

t o meet h i s used for "to

maker.") pass

is regularly Yusuf by All's using

away," away

ie - " t o die." from that

version "/ But will

moves take

further thee the

sense i s much that

to myself" same m e a n i n g , some kind

which

freer. the Arabic

i t conveys

except

f o r m does n o t which i s not

allow

of "taking"

(eg rapture)

Ch. 11:

Dialogue w i t h t e n e t s o f Ibadlsm.

Page 163

"dying." T h i s i s c o n f i r m e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g clause relating to "exaltation" ie "rising" - which would have been i n c l u d e d i n a n y "taking to Myself." In S u r a h 5 : 1 2 0 t h e same v e r b i s u s e d i n t h e a c t i v e past t e n s e ( J e s u s s p e a k i n g ) w i t h t h e same m e a n i n g , b u t h e r e there i s no f o l l o w i n g c l a u s e about "rapture" tol e t "taking to Yourself" be a m b i g u o u s , t h o u g h i f t h e two p a s s a g e s a r e r e a d t o g e t h e r t h a t m i g h t be t h e c a s e . I s u p p o s e i n v a r y i n g t h e t r a n s l a t i o n I was f o l l o w i n g t h e r u b r i c o f t h e 1 6 1 1 AD K i n g J a m e s p e o p l e who w r o t e i n their Preface about not necessar i1y rendering i d e n t i c a l t e r m s i n a n i d e n t i c a l way ( s e e Read 1ngs. p. 55) .

On

t h e whole to write two t e x t s 4:158 with

vexed fully had

question

of

Jesus'

"death"?

tried your in

i n Jesus Joined

and with

the Muslim

where one and

t o be

the crucial Docetlsm verses

i t s associations I n both o f your

with

"apparentness." translation leave room would for

queried

either we

be v i a b l e , the form

provided of what

that

i n 3:56

follows

about

"exaltation" While Mus11m this being

or " r a i s i n g . t h e scope an of this thesis, book Jesus and t h e

beyond

is clearly

Important

resource

i n continuing

dialogue.=^

Finally, the in of Ibad i

from

Chapter

10:

The Face will

o f God. face

as

I noted, even

do n o t b e l i e v e t h e y There i n Arab t o , as a

s e e God

t o face,

Paradise. any k i n d used from

i s a general culture, i n ; some

t r a d i t i o n a l d i s l i k e of photographs cultures. couple. school, have taken

images some

even

getting letter Kapenga, We

other

In a Midge they

recent Jay

retired t o teach

missionary

and

who u s e d

i n t h e Muscat

wrote:

tend

t o think

of the Ibadi

as t h e Quakers o f I s l a m .

Ch. 11:

D i a l o g u e w i t h t e n e t s of Ibadism.

Page 164

They have been, u n t i l r e c e n t l y , r e a l l y d i f f e r e n t from the rest of Islam. T h e i r mosques were plain and unadorned, o f t e n w i t h o u t minarets.... They were v e r y strict a b o u t u s i n g s u c h t h i n g s as p i c t u r e s . In the old days a group of them came to Muscat, and complained t o t h e S u l t a n about t h e government school having pictures of animals (used to teach the alphabet). T h e y s a i d t h e M i s s i o n s c h o o l had no s u c h pictures ( p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e we d i d n ' t h a v e money f o r them). When t h e y d i d g e t t o m e e t m i s s i o n a r i e s , t h e y seemed t o want t o discuss religion and were not t h r e a t e n e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e m i s s i o n o r by t h e t h i n g s we d i d .

The Good

etched

main

window

design,

of

t h e new takes

Church

of the I badT

Shepherd

i n Muscat, A haloed from a

intentionally shepherd with

account of

sensibilities. rescuing being the a

stigmata. (the actual only

Is depicted mountains t h e back The of

sheep through

mountainside glass down as an

seen

the clear

behind);

shepherd

i s seen, t h e m e was of

reaching chosen

t o t h e sheep. alternative so as

whole on

Good S h e p h e r d the structure any

t o a cross as

the church

building,

to avoid I bad 1

f a r as who

possible have

offence

t o Muslims;

certainly

friends

visited

the church

seem t o h a v e

appreciated

the point.

The Bailey, February design

choice

of the

theme Gulf

and

name

was

encouraged in

by

Dr

Ken in the the

during 1989. outlined

Churches building and

Conference was by Peter so

Cyprus

By by

then, me,

work

about t o begin, the Chair of

refined

Protestant not easy

Church

building

committee, with

Harwood.

I t was

f o r t h e Church within the

Council,

many

denominational both a

differences

congregations

( f o r Instance

Ch.

11:

D i a l o g u e w i t h t e n e t s of Ibadism.

Page 165

b a p t i s t r y and f o n t w e r e b u i l t t o g e t h e r ) , as w e l l as w a n t i n g t o b u i l d a p p r o p r i a t e l y n o t o n l y f o r c u r r e n t e x p a t r i a t e needs but for a f u t u r e when c o n g r e g a t i o n s w i l l be s m a l l e r . S i x weeks before I left, I was privileged to be present at the c o n s e c r a t i o n o f t h e Good S h e p h e r d C h u r c h , by t h e B i s h o p o f C y p r u s a n d t h e G u l f , t h e Rt R e v d J o h n B r o w n - s e e p a g e s 123 and 2 0 1 .

Maurice Wor1d. 40:25 died under in the

S. the Old

Seale, title

writing

i n Volume

LIV

of

The from

Mus1i m Isaiah (who

'The

I m a g e o f God', then Clement

quoting of

Testament,

Alexandria

i n 220

AD) : "saw" that no i m a g e we would make would

Deutero-Isaiah do justice was

t o t h e One but "as

t o whom o u r

whole of

planet

and a l l To

things

the small dust t o make a n of the

the balance." totally i n John's

anthropomorthise of 1:18 God, God; thus

was 'bosom

image

unworthy Gospel of

Father and

referred and

to the

invisibility

ineffableness

the best

name f o r God

i s ' depth'.

Bishop attention of God: 'You are so do

Kenneth

Cragg

is

'enormously and

compelled'

by

the Face

g i v e n by

both

t h e Our' a n

the Bible,

t o the

your

alms your

desiring giving

the to

Face

of

God....

You

referring that t h e one your

the

divine Or,

magnanimity, you are not but

reproaches t o be of

the other. by your

giving In The the

alms

admired who

neighbour,

cognisance

God,

judges begins you

your with

motives.... the Aaronic of His which light

Christian 'The and

understanding Lord give lift you

blessing

upon

the

light

countenance we have

Peace.,.' Paul says:

Is this 'We have

not the

i n mind

when St

Ch.

11:

Dialogue

w i t h t e n e t s of Ibadlsm.

Page 166

o f t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e g l o r y o f God. . . ' i n t h e of Jesus C h r i s t ? What a f a c e i s t o a person, p l a c e o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n , J e s u s i s t o God.=*^

face the

Humanising degree, 'sighting 'hearing Qur' an Gabriel the too is essential. God', God'

aspects If

of Islam

the

nature

of Is

God

is,

to

some about then The God. of is

generally specifically

cautious dubious, dialogue. Word of

and makes a

Ibadism good

is for

entry-point to be the

considered

of

course

very

is believed

t o have d i c t a t e d perhaps hear Him be

t o Muhammad e v e r y that is

word

Qur'an. far from

I t could God His to

agreed but at the not

i f humankind able in of the to

speak, then

receive we we of

'second-hand' will know sight? hear the the

written of of

Word,

least sense with

Heaven hearing sense

Voice

God? God,

I f with then why

presence

N o t e s and

references:

1.

ZWEMER, S a m u e l (October 16:108 2:217, two, 1925

M., 1924)

'The p

Law 373. but The of

of

Apostasy' he quotes mean

I n MW,

Vol. 4:90 5:59, of

14 and and

Surahs not part

correctly, not 2:214. Law

must

5:57, forms

article

Chapter London,

in

The

Apostasy.

Marshall

Bros,

2.

ibid.

p379-380

Ch. 11: D i a l o g u e w i t h t e n e t s o f Ibadism.

Page 167

3.

ibid.

p383, where t h e r e f e r e n c e pedia of Religion t o other and

i s t o : JUYNBOLL, Ethics.

Encyclo-

V o l . I , p. 6 2 5 , especially Snouck 794; Matthews, Hurgronje, and E l -

referring Mishcat, Indische

authorities, 1 7 7 f ; C.

V o l . I I p. Gids.

1 8 8 4 , V o l . I , p. ul-Umma

Dlmlshqi-Targamet 138, 4. Bulaq

f i Ikhtilaf

al-A'lmat. (p.

ed. 1300.) M., 'Where T h e S t o n e s C r y O u t ' i n MW, 1 9 2 2 ) p. 331-3 without 25-57 Mission t o Muslims Pasadena, Camouflage* i n MW, V o l . Vol.

ZWEMER, S a m u e l XII

(October

5.

GAIRDNER, IX

W. H., 'Mohammed 1919) page

(January

6.

WERFF, L y l e -

L. V a n d e r ,

1977, C h r i s t i a n Carey

The Record.

William

Library,

South

California, 7. ibid., the

p.257 'These ideas a r e found i n Christian Beirut Council 1938);

page 263, a n d f o o t n o t e ; Report of t h e near

Eastern

Inquiry H. for 8.

on t h eE v a n g e l i s a t i o n "Shall MW X X X I

o f Moslems

H. R l g g s , Moslems?"

We T r y U n b e a t e n P a t h s (1941), pp. 116-26 Mission

i n Working

WERFF, L y l e Record,

L. V a n d e r , C h r i s t i a n p.265

t o M u s l i m s - The

9.

RIGGS, H. H., " S h a l l Moslems?" MW

We T r y U n b e a t e n P a t h s (1941),

i nWorking f o r a n d Zwemer, ( 1 9 4 1 ) , pp.

XXXI

pp. 116-26; MW X X X I

S.M., " T h e D y n a m i c 109-115 10.

o f Evangelism",

ZWEMER, S.M., T h e C r o s s a b o v e t h e C r e s c e n t : necessity Rapids, and urgency of missions

the validity Grand

t o Moslems

1941, pp 2 1 5 f f

Oh. 11: D i a l o g u e w i t h t e n e t s o f Ibadlsm.

Page 168

11.

WILSON,

J. C h r i s t y ,

1952, A p o s t l e

t o Islam.

Grand

Rapids,

p. 2 4 7 12. 13. Gospel o f Luke 14: 2 4 - 3 3 1 9 6 4 , T h e Dome a n d t h e Rock. S.P.C.K.,

CRAGG, K e n n e t h , London,

p. 2 2 7

14. 15. 16.

i b i d . p.168 ibid., p.169/70 1969, The C r o s s o f t h e Messiah. preface. Sheldon

BROWN, D a v i d , Press,

London, 56-7

17. 18.

i b i d . , pp.

MAAMIRY, Ahmed Hamoud A 1 - , 1 9 8 9 , J e s u s C h r i s t Mus1ims. L a n c e r s Books, Thomas, A New D e l h i ,

a s known by

p. 4 5 - 6 9 Responses Three. Durham t o Islamic Four and

19.

LONG, W i l l i a m

1988, C h r i s t i a n critique

Chrlstology: Nineteen

o f Surahs unpublished

o f t h e Qur'an.

University ch. 4 & 5

M.A. T h e s i s , 20. CRAGG, K e n n e t h , London, 21. 22. 23. Qur'an.

see-abstract 1988, R e a d i n g s

and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e Qur'an.

Collins,

p. 1 6 4

p. 1 3 7 Readings i n t h e Qur'an. o p . c i t . , p. 168

CRAGG, K e n n e t h , CRAGG, K e n n e t h , Explorat ion.

1985, J e s u s a n d t h e Muslim: an George Allen and Unwin, London Vol. LIV

24.

SEALE, M o r r i s (January

S., ' T h e I m a g e 1 9 6 4 ) p p 1-2

o f God', i n MW,

25.

CRAGG, B i s h o p K e n n e t h , with the author

i nunpublished

notes

from a meeting

i n Oxford,

F e b r u a r y 1991.

Page 169

12:

XHE <DAR AND

HOUSE

OF

ISLAM DAR OF

AND

OF

WAR

ALISLAM, THE UNITY

ALHARB>:

GOD.

The central speak

meeting question

o f M u s l i m a n d C h r i s t i a n i n Oman, o f a l l Muslim/Christian o f t h e Unity o f God? orthodox dialogue,

leads

t o the

h o w do. we be him?

together,

How c a n J e s u s Islam than views

considered

i n any other

way t h a n

How c a n C h r i s t i a n s m a i n t a i n one to o f God's p r o p h e t s ? academics, whether Middle

he i s any o t h e r

the last but t o be l e f t

I ti s n o t s i m p l y

a question only

n o r one that i n Oman b e t w e e n East between

i s relevant

f o rpolitical

peace, wider

Oman! a n d e x p a t r i a t e , o r i n t h e Muslim, usually i n t h e large I ti s harmony a

majority question between

and C h r i s t i a n ,

usually

i na t i n y

minority.

f o r p o l i t i c a l peace races,

i nB r i t a i n ,

where growing

c u l t u r e s andr e l i g i o n s of religions.

i sthreatened Cragg

b y t h e new argue

fundamentalism emphatically ....the faith

Kenneth

would

that

i t i sa b i g question: about terms: t h eChristian Spirit i snota of

misconception

i n God a s F a t h e r , of faith that

Son a n d H o l y Unity.

violation

i n God's Unity

I t i s a way

understanding go

- a way, t h e C h r i s t i a n w o u l d that unity. lies Just Perhaps o u r here. For

on t o say, o f s a f e g u a r d i n g duty

largest the

w i t h t h e Muslim mind faith

Muslim, does i t sees

i n God a s F a t h e r , t o the Divine

Son, a n d H o l y Unity. For the The as The but

Spirit

violence

Christian Muslim

expresses and i l l u m i n a t e s the with doctrine of the

theDeity, Trinity o f God. compatible

Incompatible Christian

belief these

i n t h eU n i t y n o t merely Christlanly

finds

Interdependent. not Trinity

The issue,

understood, i s The

and Unity,

but Trinity

and atheism.

Ch.

12: The Houses o f I s l a m and o f War: t h e U n i t y of God.

Page 170

Church's f a i t h i n God i s d e f i n e d i n t h i s way a s t h e form i n which such a f a i t h i s f i n a l l y possible i n t h i s w o r l d o f mystery and e v i l . '

The Hence for

whole

of Arabia

i s considered Arabia and insist

b y M u s l i m s a s a Mosque. there c a n be no place of they the

t h e WahhabT o f S a u d i Churches, precede

Christian that

when

embarrassingly, the desert

ruins sands,

churches are more that

Islam

emerge f r o m

simply

covered

up and i g n o r e d sign are

( s e e pages o f I bad 1 given

73/4).

A l l

s u r p r i s i n g , and a sure Christians There i n Oman

tolerance,

the fact to build

permission that

Churches. Ibadl in a

i s a

relaxed

confidence

enables t h e 1)

t o engage way t h a t Oman

i n dialogue most Muslims

i n h i s i s l a n d home i n other parts

(see Chapter

of t h e world t h e House,

find

harder. of the as she Islam.

i s theheart

of Daial-Islam.

o r Land where such he o r

I t i s harder i s coming when from

f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n t o understand outside Arabia, o r Muslim s t a t e where

Muslim Pakistan,

t h e Muslim

i s on t h e d e f e n s i v e , t o be living

believes

himself

or herself o f War.

i n t h e Dar-a1t o meet There i n the i s a ofthe

Harb. House

t h e House, of Islam

o r Land than

I ti s better of War.

i n t h e House

necessity, Minaret the

as Cragg

goes

on t o u n d e r l i n e f o rserious

i n The C a l l -

t o learn

Arabic

dialogue

and n o t Just

vocabulary,

b u t t h e idiom.

Such al-Islam the idea

a concept,

of t h e world

being

divided

between

Dirtrace

and Da>al-Harb. back

i s n o t Qur'anic, period

b u t had 1 t h

t o t h e Medlnah n o t o f course

o f t h e Prophet refer

Muhammad's

llfe.==

I tdoes

necessarily

t o a c t i v e war

Ch.

12: The Houses o f I s l a m and o f War; t h e U n i t y of God.

Page 171

Jihad. but sharpens understanding of the real that many C h r i s t i a n s a t l e a s t , a l l too easily, m i s t a k e n l y , t r y t o g l o s s over.

divisions, but quite

At, l e a s t Christian illustrated KhalTlT surprise

some to the

Ibad!

Muslims

keep

an open of Imam The

mind God;

as t o t h e this is

claim i n

believe

i n the Unity between 110). no doubt

conversation Thoms reply, (page was

Muhammad a l Imam's lack of

and Dr a t Dr

Wells Thoms

conditioned

by t h e

Qur'an Surah Say:

3:64 o f t h e Book! terms as between n o n e b u t God; n o p a r t n e r s w i t h Him; among than ourselves. God. ' us and y o u ;

'O P e o p l e

Come t o common That That That we w o r s h i p

we a s s o c i a t e we e r e c t

not from other

L o r d s and P a t r o n s

Yusuf In

^ A l i states t h e general the abstract,

Muslim

exposition of this would

verse:

t h e People

o f t h e Book

agree t o

all This have Unity

three propositions.

I n p r a c t i c e they of Christian how they

fail.^ theologians believe Hans who

i s not

the understanding to explain To

struggled o f God. Cragg.

t o Muslims, from

i nthe and

illustrate

Just

two:

Kung,

Kenneth

Hans Kung Trinity, point

sees

the 'central with

dogma

of Christianity' (the t o be both the

and a l o n g

i t , the Incarnation) time,

of departure

a n d a t t h e same

of dialogue

between 'fine

Christian report

and Muslim.

He commends H e r m a n n S t 1 e g 1 e c k e r ' s controversies between

on t h e t h e o l o g i c a l

C h r i s t i a n s and

Ch.

12: The

Houses of I s l a m and of War:

the U n i t y of God.

Page 172

M u s l i m s ' i n The believes:

Teachings of

Islam

(1380AH,

1960

AD),

and

the

surprisingly has

little (even in of

power compared

of

resistance so

Christianity much is weaker not

shown

w i t h Judaism, with

numerically) because

competition Islam's strength, to

Islam... military, a been major the

only and

great but.,, have

political cause of

organisational shortfall of conflict together behind

this

seems the was with the from

Inadequate dogma..." theological for the

rationale Internal element, Trinity, to withstand

"Central obviously the a

Christian second case

inadequate

Christian Islam.-*

world's

inability

pressure

Kung God has a

then Son?'

faces He

the

question: out how than

'What much to

does

i t mean Jesus or was

to

say to a

points

closer

present-day Images o f This our

Palestinian He Jesus

Arab

Byzantine

European

Jesus. Jewish time

says: had of no more notion faith "Why than in do (Mark a the you Muslim one call in God me was

would the one

weakening

(breaking good? his Yet more Kung than not No

First

Commandment). but God as

i s good

alone" "Good

10:18)

r e a c t i o n when a d d r e s s e d believes the that in

Teacher."^ "more Jesus challenging t e a r i n g down unclean, And future, "today" Just he but and God, we than Moses"

Jesus,

something

prophets

made i t s a p p e a r a n c e . forgiving and

only

t a l k e d about

s i n , about about and

every all and

hallowed

tradition

rule, clean these day"

the

boundaries them he not

separating did a l l

unjust

things. and of the for

proclaimed amid

f o r "one

eschatological No wonder and the he was

portents accused (on this

"now."

blaspheming point, Is as

condemned, have seen,

executed Qur'an's

last

image o f

Jesus

particularly

Ch.

12: The Houses of I s l a m and of War:

the U n i t y of God,

Page 173

in So,

need

of

correction).^ death, believing for and on the basis began on to their use the Easter title

after

Jesus' the

experiences, "Son" or "Son

community

o f God" an inner "Son"

him: and solid who reasoning called in giving God his

T h e r e was the name

logic to

someone

"Father"...^ Kung 2:7, King traces Psalm Is Old 89: Testament 26-27, "Son as and of precedents 2 Samuel for the title, where the in Psalm

7:12-16,

Israel's Christian and

appointed of he is

Yahweh",

i n defending through

appellation exaltation, there

Jesus says no

God's s o n

his resurrection

that of physical/ akin to sexual that of (or the even Old

trace

metaphysical) Arabian

procreation of God,"

"daughters

In

one

of in

the the Son

oldest

pre-Pauline to

p r o f e s s i o n s of Romans, his i t

faith, says:

cited

introduction of God

"designated from a the

i n p o w e r , . , by 1:4)

resurrection i n an echo Son: and of "He now

dead" psalm, t o me 'You

(Romans Jesus

Elsewhere, as

royal

i s "begotten" King, son, 13:33), One the

God's

[God] to

said

[ t o the are my

t o the Messiah, today I have

Jesus] :

begotten as king, as

you,'"

(Psalm as Son,

2:7, the

Acts

"Begotten" (Messiah, Acts but of

"Begotten" deputy and

Anointed By "today",

Christ), the

Apostles not the

unequivocally feast of

means n o t

Christmas, but about

Easter, that of the

the and

Incarnation, exaltation, clearly, what of as:

Jesus' Qur'an,

resurrection too, Kung

which

speaks q u i t e on to

goes

describe

he

considers the faith

to of

be

the Jewish

'specifically Christians was

Christian to develop

element' into,

what

Ch. 12: The Houses of I s l a m and of War: t h e U n i t y of God.

Page 174

I n t h e New T e s t a m e n t , b e l i e v i n g i n God t h e F a t h e r means believing i n t h e o n e God, a belief that Judaism, Christianity, and Islam a l l share... "Father" should n o t be u n d e r s t o o d literally, as opposed to "mother," but symbolically (or analogously)... "Father" i s a patriarchal symbol (with maternal features) f o r a primordial, ultimate reality that transcends humanity and sexuality. T h a t means - a n d t h e t h e Q u r ' a n h a s a g r e a t d e a l t o say on this power and at t h e same time compassion, c a r e as w e l l as p r o t e c t i o n , dependency and security. U n d e r s t a n d a b l y , however, t h e Qur'an, while i t has n i n e t y - n i n e names f o r A l l a h , avoids t h e name " F a t h e r " , w h i c h f r o m Muhammad's s t a n d p o i n t was h o p e l e s s l y c o m p r o m i s e d b y t h e t r i b a l religions of Arabia, w i t h t h e i r b e l i e f i n t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e Gods.

Believing revelation Nazareth. primarily hypostasis, concretely Messiah,

i n t h e S o n o f God of In t h e One t h e New not as God

means in

believing

i n the of Is

t h e man Jesus

Jesus Christ

Testament, as a an human God: God

viewed but

eternal,

intradlvlne person

historical the i n human

related word

to

ambassador, form.

of the eternal

Believing God's p o w e r this

in

t h e Holy

Spirit

means

believing

in

and might

a t work

among human

beings i n

world.^

ti

Kung biblical St Paul

further

explains t h e Holy

h i s understanding Spirit 3:17,

o f how

'from the and quotes i s the

viewpoint, in 2

i s God h i m s e l f where 'The

Corinthians

Lord

Spirit...." Therefore and with t h e encounter the Spirit with God, with Jesus Christ,

ultimately

come

down

t o one and

Ch.

12: The Houses of I s l a m and of War:

the U n i t y of God,

Page 175

the "The God

same grace and

encounter, of the

as Lord

Paul Jesus of the

says

in

the and

salutation: the be love with of you

Christ Holy

the

fellowship

Spirit

all."

(2 C o r i n t h i a n s

13:14)'

There serious dialogue. accepts, adoptionist Kung, this way

i s no in For an

doubt issue

that at

Hans the

Kung heart

Is engaging of

in a

most

Christian/ what not he

Muslim himself

many to -

Christians be i'e, at

however, i f

seems

approaching, that the God point

repeating, For and Jesus voice well Mark as in

theology would i t Son be

adopted of

Jesus.'' death that by the

Jesus'

resurrection; 'became' from God's

was at

traditionally his baptism, the as

maintained supported with Matthew follow St

heaven: as and 1:3:

'This

i s my in

Son,

Beloved,

whom I am (3:17), Paul,

pleased' (1:11), Romans The

recorded Luke

three Kung

Gospels, seems to

(3:22),

Gospel

concerning to

his

Son,

who and

was was to

descended declared the

from to be of

David Son of

according God by with

the power

flesh

according from the

spirit

holiness our

resurrection

dead,

Jesus

Christ

Lord. . .

Emi 1 B r u n n e r while Romans it of literally 1:3 text not as

speaks would

f o r many not be

however,

when he to

says regard

that the

i t

impossible

supporting adoptionism, , . the rest his of the and the statements his later

would the

harmonise w i t h both in

Apostle, Not

earlier to

writings. and the to the

only

i n the but

Epistle even

Phlllppians Epistle the to

Colossians, contain

the

First about

Corinthians

statements

eternal

Ch.

12: The Houses o f I s l a m and o f War: the U n i t y o f God,

Page 176

Son

of

God

(1

Corinthians

8:6)

which

cannot kind.'^

be

reconciled While such

w i t h any A d o p t l o n i s t i s beyond attempt

view of that

debate

t h e scope o f t h i s a tentative after

thesis

to follow perhaps briefly

much f u r t h e r , appropriate

I shall

'next

step',

i n dialogue position.

i n Oman,

considering

Kenneth Cragg's

Cragg it

approaches

the subject

by s a y i n g , that

a s we h a v e

seen,

i s i n the Unity duty about as with

o f God d e b a t e , t h e Muslim

f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n ,' t h e He Insists that

largest "debate" christian

mind that is

lies, '

God i s u n s e e m l y , long He 'Who as I t

i t i s 'un-Islamic querulous,

and unor

assertive book

doctrinaire. ..' Chapter without Let they the we 38:2,

quotes i s this

t h e O l d Testament that darkens

o f Job, by words

counsel

knowledge?' none

But: that t h e issues I f we s h i r k will meet are unreal or silence or that them i n wherever that to we a

suppose

c a n be a v o i d e d . realm turn. o f God t h e y We of we that how must silence

us e l s e w h e r e suspicion serve

banish would into

the

conspiracy But when

better

peace. must

venture

word

and c o l l o q u y

remember Cragg traces

t h e theme

i s God, made t h e same the unity stand against and Jesus Gospel

t h e Hebrews

idolatry how

a s d i d Muhammad emphatically

i n defending t h e God of

o f God; that

i t was

t h e Hebrews St also

pointed Chapter question a final

h i s followers

to.

Yet, quoting

John's

1 4 : 1 'You b e l i e v e i s posed: 'Why

i n God, b e l i e v e

i n me,,.' t h e from

i s thefact

of Christ

inseparable

understanding i s Cragg's

o f God?' answer -

Personal

revelation leading t o that then reveals

fellowship

fellowship

Ch.

12: The Houses o f I s l a m and o f War;

t h e U n i t y o f God,

Page

177

the

fact

of

evil;

the

tragic

reality

of

humankind's

waywardness I s : ,., i m p l i c i t would Divine he were not be i n the p o s s i b i l i t y a creature coming creature of f e l l o w s h i p . of responding For Man

capable t o him capable Love and

t o the unless a rebel be

goodness, also that and learn to a

in revelation, of becoming

against

goodness. remain what

obedience

cannot

compelled seeks to

truly God,

themselves.,, the sovereign and

Christianity Good, does in in man.

response It finds

this

astrayness

disobedience I t believes be alive

t h e answer not of least

in Christ, Islam, should of

that a l l to of this un-

faiths, reality 1 s 1 am. So then

insubordination, o f men 'Can t o have

disobedience,

i n the l i f e question: i s seen and

in history. ' * God an remain answer of sovereign (which his apart from of the

the -

redemption? Cragg's 'whole the

Is the heart In

book, idea

the

quintessence

theology)

of Messiahshlp, ,.' : of which When i t , varied widely as long as i t was In and the the

ideal

prospect. transforming crown of

Christ seen

came,

fulfilling and as

i t was The

t o mean s u f f e r i n g Christ

thorns. Redeemer, most of God,

s i g n i f i c a n c e of teaching, element

anointed is the

born,

suffering, in the

dying,

formative

Christian

doctrine

The

contemporary the of "He

generation Godward They seen was which

after

the

Resurrection of the their of

understood experience His claim:

significance discovered me has seen

Christ, that That has God on

truth

the

Father" only and to

(John

14:9).

in Christ they could

was

the

adequate transmit them. "Son of So

hypothesis what they their spoke

express had made of meant

experience o f Him of as

of Christ " t h e Word

flesh," their

Man"

and

"Son

God,"

"the Captain

Ch.

12; The Houses of I s l a m and of War: t h e U n i t y of God.

Page 178

s a l v a t i o n , " " t h e A u t h o r and F i n i s h e r o f t h e i r Faith." T h e i r s was n o t t h e l a n g u a g e o f p o l y t h e i s t s . T h e s e men were not idolators. They were responding to a profound experience no of God. They on w h i c h could find, as what

monotheists, Christ God he was was

o t h e r ground t o them God,

t o explain fora l l by this

has been not less more so.

and had done no less One,

mankind. belief; which

F o r t h e s i n and d i s o b e d i e n c e , H i s purpose and force and defied

formerly and

frustrated

H i s law, have had

which,

uncorrected a contrary

permanent, unsubdued

would t o good, no

constituted been

triumphantly could had

overcome,

i n a way w h i c h

punitive o f deed "You In our supreme o f "God

judgement that

do. said

I t i s out" o f t h i s to Jewish

realm

Jesus

monotheists; Can we

believe turn

i n God,

believe

also i n God

i n me."

finally

believe

sovereign like

and that

without in

believing

i n some e n t e r p r i s e

Christ

reconciling

the world t o Himself"?^^

At Grand space not also God. Grand Since been

my m e e t i n g o f Oman

with

Sheikh

Ahmed

b i n Hamed

Al-KhalilT, the that God's was

Mufti

( s e e page

1 5 7 ) , I had s u g g e s t e d than ours.

and time

are bigger a point

i n dimension, about human

This my

only was

t o make to

free-will; about

concern and the

'test'

t h e ground

f o r dialogue was of

Jesus between the

<I s h o u l d Mufti first gripped and

add, my

the meeting John

primarily Cyprus and

Bishop,

Gulf). I have

reading Christ by t h e concept world's

and Time

by O s c a r times -

Cullman, kairol -

o f God's

being

decisive four

i n this

time, also

chronology. t o St P e t e r

Cullman which

refers to

epistles the

by S t P a u l , plan eternal

a l l point to; which

redemptive times

(olxovop-xa) was

of the mystery In God"

before revealed

hidden

" i s now

to h i s saints,

t o whom h e w i l l e d

t o make i t

Ch.

12: The Houses of I s l a m and of War; t h e U n i t y of God.

Page 179

known." Titus

(Ephesians

3;9, C o l o s s l a n s 1:20)

1:26, Romans

16:25,

l:2ff,

1 Peter

When the

Paul

speaks of which

of

t h e "mystery, " redemptive with

he

means

thereby This

stages

the

history. the

expression, plan," needed plan. In

i s connected that to a gain

"redemptive was God's

Indicates In order

special this

relationship insight into

T h e C h r l s t o l o g y o f t h e New history first

Testament

Cullman

develops

this

t h e m e of. r e d e m p t i v e The Path

- He i 1 sgesch i ch t e: of a l l from the from many this In one,

leads

progressive

reduction

t o t h e one, and (of time),

who r e p r e s e n t s It leads from from

the centre creation Israel

back from

t o t h e many. humanity from to the from the

t o humanity, to the

Israel, 'remnant' the

'remnant', then

t o the incarnate Christ; Christ to from the

i t leads from

Incarnate

apostles,

apostles and

t o t h e Church,

t h e Church

t o the world

t o t h e new c r e a t i o n . *

He g o e s o n t o s a y : The New Testament about neither how we i s able nor intends to give

Information God b e y o n d really intends

are t o conceive

the being of whether i t sense. of I t God's

the history being to

of revelation,

about

is a

i n the philosophical report the great

rather

event

revelation Cullman New adds

i n Christ.' 'Criticism of time o f my description and of the has

the footnote: understanding

Testament

i n Christ this.'

Time

almost

without exception not understood

My the

premise

I s , that

perhaps

particularly

i n Oman,

where

understanding

o f t h e Qur'an

concerning

the s p i r i t

world Is

Ch.

12: The

Houses of I s l a m and of War;

the U n i t y of God,

Page 180

particularly the are realities not

noted, and

i t may

be

appropriate that we

to

emphasise of this

that world, Mufti that our the their Jesus

understanding exist; that can is, be is

have as the

a l l that warns -

(while idle) much

Oman's G r a n d fact remains o u t s i de with

rightly the

speculation God and

world

that

inhabits, the Gospel

'bigger',

world. Old

Jesus

writers the

are of

consistent the

Testament is

In emphasising God is to

dangers than

occult; powers.

message

that

greater have

a l l such over at

specifically recognised Gospel in' also appeal story to Is our by the

claimed Muslims concept

authority but,

demons, the heart

a of

claim the

generally; of

God's w o r l d , understanding

God's of

Kingdom is to the

'breaking be found

world.

This

time,

in to

the God

Our' an. for

At another about

the

end

of

Surah

23, to

ungodly in the

chance

(similar

Dives,

that

Jesus

told,

Lazarus).

So, Qar1nah our of

could Jesus and

i t be (see

useful page

in dialogue, 131), than to existing the

to

suggest course of God?

that

the

of

outside Such a

space

time,

i_s. no

less

Spirit into

suggestion

will the

inevitably

seem

fall

the

trap

that

Surah:5:17 of

Qur'an warns Indeed say

against:

... I n b l a s p h e m y Are That The The based Qur'an. correct those God son that is of

Christ Mary... could desire join only by the the be made within not real to to friendship, correct arrive the at a

suggestion on the but to

Christian, Muslim

with

i n seeking to

interpretation.

Mutual

obligation

undertake

the

Ch. 12: The Houses o f I s l a m and of War; the U n i t y of God.

Page 181

s e a r c h i s a b i g enough s t e p ; i t i s perhaps a t t h i s point that f r i e n d s h i p d e m a n d s s i l e n c e , i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n y c l e a r way forward. I t c a n o f c o u r s e be s a i d , t h a t M u s l i m s g e n e r a l l y a r e willing t o g i v e t o J e s u s , a s d o e s t h e O u r ' an. the t i t l e 'a s p i r i t o f God'; b u t t o s a y ' t h e S p i r i t o f God' I s s o m e t h i n g v e r y d i f f e r e n t , as Y u s u f A l l a r g u e s i n h i s f o o t n o t e t o Surah 4:171 -

a and

spirit

proceeding

from

God,

b u t n o t God; limited we The and

the

life

the mission o f some to

o f J e s u s were more apostles, a man with of though God.

than pay

i n the equal of are

case

other as

must

honour Trinity,

him

doctrines Sonship,

equality as

God,

repudiated Yet, despite

blasphemies.'^ pitfalls human o f such and a theory One this I f o rthe God of

the potential between the

relationship eternity, 'times' it could

Jesus

the of

in the light being help 'within', dialogue

of Cullman's (smaller

concept God's

earth's believe

than?)

time,

particularly

i n Oman.

One o t h e r between

suggestion and

that

could in

open this

t h e door crucial

i n dialogue area of

Christian about

Muslim,

difference Hinds, suggests second

who

Jesus with of of

i s , comes the God'

from

Nigeria.

Jeremy Society, as t h e with no my

until that

recently the

Church can be

Missionary considered Together and

'hands persons

and

third

the Trinity? Qar i n a h of

speculation other

concerning Ideas, a

the

Jesus, possible

doubt for

intriguing within

these

become

subjects

dialogue, and

f r i e n d s h i p based

on r e s p e c t

f o r t h e Qur'an

t h e Muslim,

and a l s o mutual

trust.

Ch.

12: The Houses of I s l a m and of War:

the U n i t y of God.

Page 182

Hans concept the of

Kung 'Jesus

sees as

fruitful the

ground -

for dialogue abd of God,'

around tracing

the in

Servant

theme

i n the s y n o p t i c Gospels the importance dialogue: to Divine to human Love, the Only need of

particularly. based

Kenneth on

Cragg in

emphasises any

friendship

service

meaningful Our

response the

will

demonstrate intruding upon and

and the from

commend soul's Whom

without Christ so

response i t derives. be

i t bespeaks a truly

will the of

Christian aspects the But

balance of

maintained and works" sent. as in we -

between the

missionary the may

"faith of

faith

receiver, persist.

works in or

the

Misconceptions can conceive terms, broken. i t is of

proportion clinic

school, force

hospital, of the these Gospel

these will be

the

misconceptions is The all implicit; was

In service explicit.

i n preaching sounded a:t t h e

warning too

b e g i n n i n g of Chapter falls a cloke short for of

Nine, Its

that

easily can

Christian no

mission than

Ideals. or

Service at the to

become

more

imperialistic

least,

condescending they do

attitudes. not have a

Certainly, monopoloy to

Christians as to what

have

recognise means, service 'the of

service and our

'Islam must new be

i s not

apathetic

i t s human and

problems to the

a l o n g s i d e , ' says Cragg, which

g o e s on both

acknowledge principle

nationalism

is developing and medical i t s

state

responsibility not only

active but

f u l f i I m e n t . ' H e service But i t through is in

traces

service, and most

refugee medical

prorammes, that

education still the

literacy. lasting

service found? even of

opportunities Funds and

will

be

buildings, concept

skills,

are

not

a l l .

The

transforming

ministry

Is indispensable to a

Ch.

12:

The

Houses of I s l a m and

of War;

the U n i t y of God.

Page

183

true West, an the

house

of

healing. with a l l They also

Governments the may may But activity assured of the will in

as the the

such, world,

East

or

cannot,

create and and on love to

ideal

hospital. as

provide private the as in

resources

machinery,

foundations devotion of

assistance which must the turn

programmes. hospital's can only Is be

personal a

community

that

consecration compassion.

human n e e d

which

born

Divine

Such It

good comes

will in of

is

no

easy

growth, of

no the

chance Cross,

product. in the from

contemplation Christ, in the

imitation the The divine

power

that

springs

grace. , . have i t be, be the little that such, Cross' problem the with of 'the imitation love so, a the of of that

Muslim

will May will of the

Christ'. Christians

quality

serving

even can be

s a c r I f 1 c i a 11y considered of Christ as as

contemplation fulfilling of

legitimate servant?

Qur'anic

picture,

Cragg India by the

specifically Missionary of

points

out

the

contribution of now

made

in and

training

hospitals are

Ludhiana in the Men

Vellore. hospitals their their

Many and

their

graduates scattered

city leave leave the family can be

wadT c l i n i c s and families, and while

a l l over i t i s the home in is

Oman.

wives

more

often at

women who India and

husbands and

families their

Philippines, back the home,

main

motive to sick

to

support they that

through blocks I was my

their for

service the

Omanis of love'

building about. part of

'community privileged in to

Cragg as and

speaks a key

greatly as

have been g i v e n , the visiting

job

Chaplain

Oman,

Ch.

12: The Houses o f I s l a m and o f War: t h e U n i t y of God.

Page 184

encouraging ministry

o f some

very

Christlike

people,

i n medica1-re1 ated

as w e l l .

Communication interchange respectively, at the the in

between relation

Muslim to

and C h r i s t i a n , da'-wah century

even and - been

dynamic mission worked -

their

has - mainly

i n the last that

i n theparts of t h eworld House House

a r e y e t i n t h e Par al-Harb

o f war, i e , anywhere o f Islam. I n such

that

i s n o t t h e Par a l - I s l a m Muslims a r e perhaps Muslims their Jesus there frank

a situation,

necessarily there,

on t h e d e f e n s i v e ; part

b u t Oman, a n d t h e I b a d i

are integrally welcome,

o f t h e Par a l - I s l a m .

Through that mind, and

hospitable offered is here

a n d i f o f f e r e d t h e same r e s p e c t who came location t o h i m w i t h an open people, help f o r open i n both

t o a l l those a unique

and

exchange, Islim

which

could

be o f e n o r m o u s

t h e D a i a 1-

and t h e Dar-al-Harb.

People word,

who k n o w Oman b e t t e r up how i n Oman

than

I , should h a s been resulting

have a

the last of

summing service

there

century

genuine and

i n t h e name o f C h r i s t ,

i n deep write

trust their

lasting t o me:

friendship.

Midge^ a n d J a y Kapenga,

letter

Presenting convinced, be

t h e Gospel after

t o Muslims

i s n o t easy. that a

We a r e

a life the

i ft h e Gulf, context of that

i tcan only personal sharing feelings, kind of i s no

presented

in

real Includes

relationship, and

a real

friendship, deepest I t i s hard what's

expressing

one's

religious t o have needed. that

questions

and doubts.

relationship, easy answer.

but that's Monologue

There

gets

us a l l nowhere.

Ch. 12: The Houses o f Islam and of War: t h e U n i t y o f God.

Page 185

Notes

and References:

1.

CRAGG, K e n n e t h , University

1964, The C a l l Press,

of theMinaret, 307

Oxford

1964, pp.

2. !=, V o l . 2, p p . 3. 4. Qur'an. p.139 KUNG, H a n s , Collins, 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. ibid, p. 117 117 117 118 120-1 121 118

126-7

1987, ed. C h r i s t i a n i t y London, pll5

and World

Religions.

i b i d , p. ibid, ibid. p. p.

, i b i d , pp, ibid. ibid. p. p.

BRUNNER, Emi 1, CRAGG, Kenneth,

I b i d , p. 3 1 1 ibid. p. 3 0 7

CULLMAN, O s c a r , CULLMAN, O s c a r , Testament,

18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

ibid. Quran,

p. 3 2 7 p. 2 3 4 The C a l l of t h eMinaret, o p . c i t . , p. 2 1 3

CRAGG, K e n n e t h , ibid. ibid. p. 2 2 6 p. 231

Page 186

A P P E N D I X :

T H E

G O S P E L

OF

B A R N A B A S

There much other

was a n e p i s t 1 e early

o f Barnabas material;

circulating

alongside occur

apocryphal

similarities

between Testament early the

the theology Book

of the Epistle

o f Barnabas

a n d t h e New i n the

o f Hebrews. after Decree Christ,

But no m e n t i o n o f a gospe1 which

i s made

centuries Gelasian

o f Barnabas, Is AD.

until

appeared,

traditionally This work Is

attributed mainly 325, house gospels

t o Pope

Gelasius

I , 492-496

an account

of t h e Acts

of t h e Council

o f NIcea

i n AD In the

and professes of

t o be f o u n d e d father.'' t h eGospel

on an o l d m a n u s c r i p t I t lists o f Barnabas. among

Gelasius's

apocryphal

and e p i s t l e s ,

Western cannot that time

scholars than give

agree

that

t h e complete Gelasian century

Decree

be e a r l i e r still

t h e end o f t h e s i x t h I t time

AD, b u t

would of

t o be c i r c u l a t i n g of and NIcea West was

around t h e primarily a

Mohammad. by

The

Council East

defence against James in

t h e Church

of

uniting An

together, a r t i c l e by appeared

the Christian

heresy

of Gnosticism, North Carolina,

Cannon

I I I , o f Durham,

U.S.A.,

The M u s l i m W o r l d

I n 1 9 4 2 AD/ 1 3 6 1 AH: contains a list o f p e r m i t t e d and "The Gospel o f t h e ground of teaching of

'The G e l a s i a n D e c r e e forbidden Barnabas." the the books,

and l i s t s

as f o r b i d d e n that

I t i s safe was

t o assume

prohibition book, since

t h e supposed itself

Gnostic

t h e Decree

was a n a n t i - G n o s t i c book appears

document,

a n d t h e name o f t h i s

particular

Appendix:

The Gospel o f Barnabas

Page 187

in the list with other better known Gnostic material. ,.. There i s no known r e f e r e n c e to the Gospel of Barnabas from the Gelasian Decree t o t h e opening o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . ... Of t h i s lost Gnostic gospel but a single unimportant sentence i n G r e e k h a s come down t o u s . A t r a d i t i o n asserts that w h e n t h e a l l e g e d b o d y o f B a r n a b a s was exhumed i t h a d a c o p y o f t h e G o s p e l by M a t t h e w c l a s p e d t o i t s b r e a s t , and that t h i s gospel c o n t a i n e d a d e n u n c i a t i o n o f St Paul. This could o b v i o u s l y be, n o t t h e c a n o n i c a l gospel, b u t an apocryphal work claiming Matthew's authority. Incidentally, the present text of the

Gospel

of Barnabas a

contains from

i n i t s opening St Paul.

and A l l

closing Gnostic

paragraphs literature

dissent

made P a u l

the object of

attack,^

James Archdeacon published and of

Cannon

explains

how

Canon

Lonsdale and

Ragg,

later Laura edited

Gibraltar AD/

(Jabal AH

al-Tariq) The MS. Gospel

h i s wife

i n 1907 from

1325

of Barnabas,

translated

the Italian

I n the Imperial of this

Library at as

Vienna'^. the

(referred

t o f o r t h e remainder

appendix,

G.B.V.): Their work gives on the Italian text and and in the a English lengthy that used since along of (AD/ had This Italian Arabic

translation introduction, Is by 1738 with Savoy. 1125 AH) known Ragg

parallel

pages,

summarises

practically The

everything manuscript a t Vienna library

about

t h e document..,.

has been 1151

I n t h e Hofb 1b 1 1othek AH).' I t came to that of

(AD/ the

literary

possessions

Prince

Eugene

I t was by

presented

t o the Prince Cramer. (AD/

i n 1713 Toland AH).

John

Frederick Cramer

Jean 1121

borrowed seems to

i t from be

i n 1709 is known

a l l that No one has

about an

this

version. ...

ever

seen

original

Appendix:

The Gospel of Barnabas

Page 188

MS.,

nor

is ever

there

any

reason

to

think

that

any

such

version

existed...

The have own

Moslem c o n t e n t i o n suppressed previous this,

i s , of the to true

course, Gospel,

that and

Christians that due to their this

inability

produce

I t was

iniquitous

Christian

conduct.-*

Cannon a Spanish

tells of

of the

how

76

years of that

later,

I n 1784

AD/

1198 t o by 1267 he he

AH, Dr AH,

copy

Gospel for

B a r n a b a s was year, In

referred 1650 AD/

White, George that

Bampton Sale the

Lecturer The

published

Koran; had

i n h i s own had a

Preface

stated then

Spanish Sale;

translation

preface;

q u o t e s George The monk

discoverer called

of

the

original who

ms, tells of

was us

a that

Christian having (among alleging, he and became that with that to the.

Fra met

Marino, with he a

accidentally others), for his

writing against of this

Irenaeus Paul,

wherein

speaks the of

St

authority, desirous mercy, V, one his

Gospel finding

Barnabas, gospel; very

exceeding God, Pope of

His

having day as

made h i m they

intimate in he,

Sixtus

were

together and

Pope's' employ first he not he

library himself, laid

Holiness

fell a

asleep, book t o be to the

reaching on at in

down proved his his of

read, very he and

h i s hand Overjoyed his prize took

Gospel

wanted. to hide

discovery, sleeve; him,

scrupled on with he the him

Pope's a w a k e n i n g , that a celestial to

leave by

carrying of which

treasure,

reading

became

convert Cannon

Mohammedanism,^ to quote from of the the work G.B.V. was of Lonsdale and on

continues in their that

Laura the

Ragg,

translation the Spanish

(presumably translated

assumption

version

from

Appendix:

The Gospel o f Barnabas

Page 189

the of

Italian). Jesus

The f i r s t

paragraph

asserts

'the true and t h a t account

doctrine the

h a s been

greatly

contaminated, a truthful on w h i c h

i ti s

purpose life been in

of the writer

t o give

o f Jesus'

and teachings. , , ' preserved, Ragg

The paper

t h e manuscript has such a s was u s e d AH); the

claims,

had a watermark <AD/ T e n t h

Italy

i nthe sixteenth century was a s u s e d puzzling InItaly

Century

hand-writing A very

i n t h e same p e r i o d . i s that years.^

Then: to a There year

reference once

i n Barnabas every hundred

"Jubilee" Is of

as f a l l i n g known

no J u b i l e e Jubilee

t o t h e Our'an.

and t h e Jewish

as d e s c r i b e d Intervals.,.. t o be

i n t h e O l d Testament The f i r s t followed jubilee

came a t in 1300

fifty-year (AD/ years, there period have

7 0 0 AH) was i n fact

by a n o t h e r

i n 100 that

i t was s o f i n a n c i a l l y 50 y e a r s even a later. renegade

successful This

was a n o t h e r during

i s t h e only could by

which

Christian

understood

the Jubilee

i n t h e sense evidence

used

Barnabas. by

A l l the other

internal

accumulated

Ragg p o i n t s

t o a sixteenth century

date.'^'

James incongruities', possible was source

Cannon

lists

further

'inconsistencies that Dante

and i sa Dante a

concluding: f o r Barnabas o f The scholar, argues

'The s u p p o s i t i o n remains

unchallenged. . .. ' and Miguel

t h e author Catholic he

Divine

Comedy, a

Asin,

Spanish AH,

published that

book

i n 1 9 2 6 AD/ 1345 drew from Dante's

i n which which

t h e G.B.V, drew from

imagery,

i nturn, who. d i e d

Dante

Ibn Arabi,

t h e Spanish

Muslim mystic

25 y e a r s

before

D a n t e was born.

A translation

year

after

t h e Raggs

published

their

English the first

o f t h e G,B,V,,

i n 1 9 0 8 AD/

1 3 2 6 AH,

Appendix:

The Gospel o f Barnabas

Page 190

known

Arabic

( s e e Cannon

above)

and Urdu

translations

of

the

G.B.V. a p p e a r e d , ^ a n d s o b e g a n Christians Gairdner, Cairo about with

t h e d i s p u t e between of

Muslims and Temple

the authenticity '-Abd'ul Ahad,

t h e G.B.V.

Sellm

had a l r e a d y

published i n But; of

'The G o s p e l wide

o f Barnabas

an Essay

and Enquiry'.

the

approval Vienna

and acceptance text)

o f t h e Gospel

Barnabas, Muslim

library h a s made

i n several

- not a l lbetween

circles,

i ta religious

issue

Muslims and C h r i s t i a n s . " ^

Professor plain, doctoral when

J a n Slomp

sees

t h eargument Luigi on

moving

onto

a new a

i n 1 9 7 7 AD/ at

1 3 9 7 AH,

CIrillo

wrote

thesis

t h e Sorbonne, which

the subject

of the

authenticity year by

o f t h e G.B.V.,

was f o l l o w e d de

I n t h e same Barnabe Cirillo, Fremaux,

publication

i n Paris

o f ; Evanglle

Recherches Texte Preface the en

sur l a composition traduction Corbln. major involved

et I'orlglne CIrillo

par Lulgi et Michel

par Luigi This,

d'Henry first

Slomp d e s c r i b e s as by s c h o l a r s who a r e not

publication themselves about

directly

i n t h e argument t h e G.B.V.^'

between

Muslims and C h r i s t i a n s , Slomp Islamo We introduces Christiana,

h i s own c r i t i q u e with the opinion;

o f Dr C i r i l l o ' s

book, i n

do n o t go a s t r a y religious (Cirillo's) allows author's zeal

i f we s t a t e

that

academic

rather behind

than his while

was t h e m o t i v a t i n g d r i v e

book)...-"^

he a l s o

The

present

(himself)

angle

o f approach i n this

i s no

secret This more

f o rthose

already

interested

subject. I am by

may e x p o s e guided

my a p p r o a c h t o t h e s u s p i c i o n t h a t my 'Christian prejudice' than

by

Appendix:

The Gospel o f Barnabas

Page 191

scientific course,

considerations. mutandis, GBV. . .

The of Muslim

same

i s true of

of the

mutatis o f the

defenders

Importance

This Christian the

explains

t h e dilemma,

which

challenges

both

and Muslims, to defend

For Christians, our own faith The

h o w d o we from challenge an

separate open and to

desire

unprejudiced Muslims: seems was

study

of history? the

i s also

f o r whom, w i t h

arrival old

o f the

G.B.V. t e x t , - i e that

there Jesus not

t o be e v i d e n c e

supporting on

traditions -

substituted again,

by Judas l_s. t h e

t h e cross

but which

are

Qur'anlc;

G.B.V. h i s t o r y ,

or fiction?

What convincing himself

follows

i n J a n Slomp's standing

article with

Is likely who

t o be

t o a Christian

Slomp,

describes

a s a: Christian of being Church Christ. deeply about as t h e convinced the four authentic with of the Gospels witness respect

...committed Importance which to and the

earnest

has received I am a l s o

Jesus

considering t o God have

sincerity which

Muhammad's my M u s l i m

witness friends

i n t h e Holy as the

Qur'an, very

accepted

Word

o f God,

For almost between

fourteen

centuries the

dispute been Holy

or dialogue on these

Muslims

and C h r i s t i a n s has about B i b l e and

based

two c o n v i c t i o n s

Qur'an r e s p e c t i v e l y . ' - *

In who agree

a footnote, with

Slomp

lists opinion

some that

o f t h eMuslim this 'gospel'

scholars i s a

h i s own

f orgery: = A b b a s Mahmud al-'"Aqqad, t h e author of a biography of

Appendix:

The Gospel o f Barnabas

Page 192

Jesus of

as q u o t e d East

by K e n n e t h Christian 'Abbas

Cragg

I n t h e News B u i 1 e t I n (Easter 1961) w i t h actually Impac t .

t h e Near

Council Mahmud

translation said.

o f what

al-'^Aqqad journal,

Sulayman

Shahid

i n t h e Muslim

published Prof. and Prof. Arabic also E.

i n London R. Hambye

i n the issue i n t h e Issue published

o f Jan.

10, 1 9 7 4 . Islam India.

o f May i n New

1975 o f Delhi

t h e Modern Mohammad text

Age.

Yahya

al-Haslml

i n Etudes b y M.

A r a b e s No. 48 I have

and

translation

Borrmans. Muslim

received

personal serious I do

letters doubts

from about free

scholars

expressing of

their

the authenticity to divulge their

t h e G.B.V,

not feel

n a m e s . '"^

Professor literary how arguments

Slomp

sets

o u t t o ' l e t t h e h i s t o r i c a l and own e v i d e n c e . . , ' and C o r b i n , He explains

provide Cirillo,

their

t h e authors major

Fremeux on

provide the and how they

second follow O.P.,

study

i n French

the subject, Father

the publication of h i s offprint Studies

by t h e D o m i n i c a n , published

Jacques

Jomier

by t h e D o m i n i c a n I n Cairo

I n s t i t u t e of 1 9 6 1 AD/ 1381 readers.

Oriental AH, which

periodical

Melanges.

introduced i n fact

t h e Barnabas

question

t o French

Jomier of

was

responding Abu

t o the challenge Zahra, who had

o f t h e Sheikh In h i s

Al-Azhar,

Professor

written

Muhadara f i 1-NasranIyya The most

(Lectures about C h r i s t i a n i t y ) ; service would to be render that to the

significant and

religions takes and

t o humanity t o study

the

church

the trouble

and r e f u t e on w h i c h

i t ( t h e G.B.V.)

t o bring

us t h e p r o o f s

this refutation i s

based.

(Jomier)

Jomier

repeats

Cannon's

record

o f George

Sale's

description

Appendix:

The Gospel o f Barnabas

Page 193

(with Jomler book, story Jesus; higher

t h e Spanish draws

translation)

o f t h ediscovery story

o f t h e G.B.V. of the

out the parallel i n the

of thediscovery 191,

o f an i n c i d e n t o r legend both clergy

book,

chapter

where a s i m i l a r t h e time o f to

seems

t o be p r o j e c t e d with a moral

back

into

stories

p a r t i c u l a r l y directed

i n medieval

Rome?'^

Jan on chapter

Slomp

concludes

his

Introduction text of the

with

'Commentary which I s an to the

12' o f t h e F r e n c h first

G.B.V.,

account G.B.V., priests. of

o f Jesus'

sermon,

delivered, by

according invitation

i n t h e temple Again,

a t Jerusalem, t o avoid

ofthe that much Muslim

i t i s hard

t h econclusion

the text

i s i n fact

dependent

o n t h e Qur' an.

and

tradition.

The

main

body

o f Slomp's

article,

i s a

chapter final

by

chapter seeks which

survey to

o f Dr. C i r i l l o ' s

book.

Cirillo's

chapter (about

clarify

the difference

between

t h e G.B.V.

there

i s only and

one pre-medieval the Epistle

reference,

i e i n t h e Gelasian Cirillo and Codex the the

Decrees) mentions

or Letter <4th

o f Barnabas. Century as AD)

t h e Codex

Slnalticis

Hlerosolymltanus Epistle; Codex

( 1 0 5 6 AD/ notes St

448

AH),

sources

f o r to

J a n Slomp

t h e omission Petersburg,

of reference which predates Latin

Corbeiensls

at

Codex text of i n a of

Hlerosolymi tanus the Epistle,

by 100 y e a r s , mentions

and i s a unique a Book which (Kltab)

Cirillo Kitab

o f Barnabas a list

Maronite apocryphal

Codex books,

al-Huda.

contains

one o f them K l t a b Barnabas.

Slomp

comments:

Appendix:

The

Gospel

of B a r n a b a s

Page

194

The Kltab to the It me

Arabic

translation was made that

of in

a 1059

Syriac (AD/ Book 451 of

original AH). Barnabas to him,

of It

the seems

al-Huda most

likely but the

this

is

not

Gospel contains

Epistle of the

attributed twelve dates

because <Cf. of in prove the the that of

"teaching The

apostles" and places point cannot of

Dldache). preserved direction, course, contained lost! The outcome by at For in of taken the of

proximity

of

codices Dr that

mentioned

above but

Cirillo the

assumes,

original

"Gospel and

Barnabas" got

J u d a e o - C h r 1 s t 1 an

teaching

therefore

this

debate

Is

important, the

because of are to

it the In

is

being

assumed that

Muslims least

defending of these a

authenticity references, circulated last ten

G.B.V,, to a

some

early book the

fact

gospel, libraries Prophet simply fact to

Instance, Britain by

many

public a Is in

during Muhammad that

years,

Jesus. it

Islam. for

''At a

ur-Rahlm,^ to the

where

granted

references

E p i s t l e are

Gospel,

Critical begins origin medieval the part learn friar, one of "ideal of his with of the

Evaluation' conclusion G.B.V. -

of

Dr.

Cirillo's Jomler contains was an

work

by

Jan

Slomp, the late

that it

correct

about

the gospel

that but the

Islamicised to

forgery; of that

then

Slomp It most

seeks I

establish this to

milieu" work In

G.B.V."

Is,

suggest, need

Christians his page

particularly that the well the as

from, Fra the

summary, (see

argument 188 of

Is;

Franciscan have been

Marino many (who means

above)

could of

thousands used of various

victims of to

medieval well as

inquisitors death as a

means

torture become

persuading

victims

Christian),

Appendix:

The Gospel

of B a r n a b a s

Page 195

with system been there of

every that

reason had

to

look so V

for a many,

means so

to

fight

back

at

treated Sixtus

cruelly.

Before at Venice

he had (known field

made as

Pope, da

had been

Inquisitor

Montalto), books V

and was

extremely

active

In the

forbidden Pope built This of in

a n d book was

sellers.... fascinated existing by books. He

Sixtus the

obviously s t i l l a

beautiful displays

Vatican large which that I

library. portrait noticed

library

conspicuously by I clergy think

h i s holiness a visit

surrounded 1977.

i n March

Franciscan edition former of t h e

Friar (of

F r a Marino G.B.V.)

of the preface to by take

to the Spanish upon the

tried

revenge

inquisitor Gospel A footnote

i n Venice

recounting

the finding

of Barnabas I s added Letl

i n the papal

library.

after: ( t h e biographer da h i s Miguel polemica 'Abdullah Accademia of Sixtus even V) took relates action in

Gregorlo that as

Inquisitor, members Of. y de of

Montalto own de

against Venice....

Franciscan Epalza, Islamica

order La contra

Tuhfa. e l

autobiograf la c h r i s t i a n 1 smo Turmeda). The took a So author

al-Tar.1uman Nazionale

( f r a Anselmo 1971, who been

Roma;

del Linei,

of t h e Tuhfa

was a c o n v e r t e d The Tuhfa Barnabas. being a

Franciscan may have

revenge

on C h r i s t i a n i t y . of

"model"

f o r the Gospel suggests, had of

J a n Slomp

F r a Marino been

Spaniard i n Spain

by

birth

(Inquisitors and later a

course

very

active

as well) very

convert

to Islam,

was s i m i l a r l y ,

and no doubt either

understandably, own or with

motivated from

in writing other at with

t h e G.B.V.,

on h i s he had or

help

sympathisers. the hand of

Whether

himself simply

suffered wanted to

directly stand

inquisitors, had, i s

those

who

another

Appendix;

The

Gospel

of B a r n a b a s

Page

196

question.

Either

way,

cruel either of

methods

used or

by

the

Church

in as

prose 1ysation, background to

stands the

directly the G.B.V,

indirectly,

emergence

Dante's anti-Muslim passing he: places those scandalo portrait, revolting economic the

Divine at

Comedy this

gives period; (in

more

evidence Dante it

of

virulent only where

feeling to

while 26),

makes one

reference

Muhammad

canto

is

Prophet by

in

that

circle he

of

hell

reserved semJnator

for dl

stained e we di

the ..

sin

calls in

scisma. find the

Already of the

Dante's

classic with

image

Muslim a

linked

violence, idea, and

distorted the

doctrine, hint

dangerous of Illicit

tantalising

s e n s u a l i ty. . . , Dante's belonging invective to the of often problem eastern is, to say as the the beings very least, where to Cox each traces horrific; Dante's other the of

same the

centuries worst human

Crusades, can do

descriptions was a l l too

made

fact.

Professor back, where: on what to

Harvey the

underlying Constantine's For the

further empire,

establishment

Arabians, of of of the the

living

were a

then

the

outskirts not only

Eastern

Empire,

i t marked In

rejection which in with the the the

non-Semitic divinity "being of

catagories were one

doctrine church

Christ's (the the

elaborated substance the

councils but to

father") helped

also

political

hierarchy in

doctrine Byzantine began were to the

sanctify, When empire the in

especially Pantocrator which of the had the

the Christ

environment. sacralIse underdogs, sense. Imperium an

Arabians

their

refusal the

doctrine created

made the

perfect cultural supplied

Alexander for which

Great

Christianity

eventually

Appendix:

The G o s p e l

of B a r n a b a s

Page 197

the

sacred

Ideology, revolt

The I s l a m i c not against what

revolt

against as

this

system

was a

the Gospel Christianity

Muslims come

understood to be,

i t but a g a i n s t implacable

had

Islam's

i n s i s t e n c e on from their

o n e God n o t fear of the

only evil later a

freed Jinn a

thousands and u n i t e d part

of people the feuding

tribes world)

of Arabia (and but a l s o function to serve. Christians became that No and

vast

o f t h e known to the was

counterIdeology

political beginning between history

Christian "rival Muslims

t r 1 n 1 t a r i a n 1sm claim" until

truth

debate this

can begin

i s recognised,

The ice-berg.

writing While

of

t h e G.B.V. Slomp

then,

i s simply

t h e t i p of t h e by again posed Ghulam

Jan

concludes of

h i s thesis

challenging the question: the

the historical i f Muslims founder Jesus -

basis

t h e G.B,V. do n o t r e g a r d movement, followers

(having Mlrza as

generally

Ahmad, teaching was to why

the

Ahmadlyya Ghulam's

correctly Jesus

about

Mlrza

believe and

crucified Srlnagar, do

b u t swooned, where

recovered c a n be

i n t h e tomb, visited -

migrated he asks, which

h i s tomb

then,

Muslims to

so gladly

accept

pseudo-Barnabas' Messiahship

gospel, to

contrary His final Must behind

t h e Qur'an,

attributes

Muhammad?

question i s ; we really believe namely the philosophy the three of history Abrahamlc

t h e G,B,V., had

that

religions to be

to wait in

f o r 1900 y e a r s to

for i t s"truth" an "harmonla

revealed

order

establish

Abrahamica"?^^

So: scholarship Gospel of

while i t may Barnabas,

from be

t h e above summarised, could

perspective that been while

of

non-Muslim was a

there

which

have

circulating

by 500

Appendix:

The G o s p e l

of B a r n a b a s

Page 198

AD (given that the Galasian D e c r e e was f r o m Pope G e l a s l u s I himself); that the text now c i r c u l a t i n g widely around t h e Muslim w o r l d was e d i t e d , i f not nearly e n t i r e l y composed, i n the Middle Ages; while i n dialogue, i t could be u s e f u l t o point out that not only d o e s t h e G.B.V. s e e k to correct the testimony of the Gospels of t h e New Testament, but adds considerably t o t h e Qur' a n a s w e l l (and should therefore not be t a k e n too s e r i o u s l y ) ; p e r h a p s i t i s i n J a n S l o m p ' s work I n trying to understand t h e "milieu" f o r t h e G.B.V., that the most l o n g - l a s t i n g l e s s o n s h o u l d emerge.

The to past begin hurts

emergence dialogue

of

t h e G.B.V. a position have

should of

encourage

Christians

from

seeking so very

forgiveness for many. I t I s for

- of which to live

there

been

Christians Christian servlce perhaps my to

o u t , n o t what of s u p e r i o r i t y against more which

are in fact and c r u e l t y , our mutual Such

totally but a

antigenuine could - as begins

sentiments to Muslims,

histories certainly

then

be

viewed

objectively.

thesis explore

has attempted

to describe such

briefly

and which

I t s implications who believed

i s t h e example been called

of

many

Christians to a

themselves i n Oman.

to have

by God,

lifetime's service

Notes

and references:

Appendix:

The G o s p e l

of B a r n a b a s

Page 199

1.

STANLEY, of

Arthur

Penryn,

pre-1908.

Lectures

on t h e h i s t o r y between before

the Eastern

Church.

J.M.Dent by

& Co, L o n d o n , Library

1861-1908, 1908. 2. CANNON Third

republished edition

t h e Everyman by Rhys,

edited

Ernest,

page 98 I n MW,

I I I , James, XXXI I

1942, 'The Gospel p. 1 6 8 which

of Barnabas',

Vol, 3. ibid.

(Apr!1)

footnote Canon

on p.170, Lonsdale

quotes: 1907, The Gospel the Italian Clarendon of

RAGG,

and Laura,

Barnabas.edlted the Oxford 4. 5. 6. CANNON Imperial

and t r a n s l a t e d Library at

from

MS. i n Press,

Vienna.

I I I , 'The Gospel

of Barnabas',

I n MW,

o p . .c 11. p l 7 1

Ibid. p.172 ibid. p.173, Laura, footnote quoting: RAGG, Canon L o n s d a l e and

The Gospel p. 1 7 3

of Barnabas, p.191

7. 8.

ibid ibid.

(CANNON),

p.175 footnote, the Divine

quoting: Comedy. London,

ASIN,

Miguel, and

1926, I s l a m abridged by

and

translated John

Harold 9. SLOMP,

Sunderland,

Murrey, 1926 - a critical with the Gospel

J a n , 1978, 'The Gospel of the first

i n Dispute' French

evaluation Italian of

translation

text

and introduction Islamo

of t h e s o - c a l l e d V o l . 4,

Barnabas,

Christiana Rome,

Pontiflcio

Instltuto 10-13. 14-15. 16. 17. ibid., ibid.

di studi

arabi,

p. 6 8

p. 6 9 p. 6 8

ibid. ibid.

p. 7 2 p. 7 4

Appendix:

The G o s p e l of B a r n a b a s

Page 200

18. 19. 20.

ibid. ibid. RAHIM,

pp. p.

78-80 105 '-Ata u i , Press, 1980, J e s u s a prophet of Islam.

Muhammad

Educational 21. 22. 23. 24. SLOMP, COX,

Karachi i n dispute', Mansions. op. c i t , , p. 107 p, 2 2 - 3

J a n , 'The G o s p e l 1 9 8 8 , Many

Harvey,

Collins,

London,

ibid., SLOMP,

p. 3 0 - 1 J a n , 'The Gospel i n dispute', op, c i t , p. i l l

Page 201 APPENDIX TWO:

The 'East' Window of t h e C h u r c h o f t h e Good S h e p h e r d , Ghala, Muscat, (as seen from t h e outside - the design i s i n fact etched on t o c l e a r glass; from inside the real mountains are c l e a r l y viewedJ Below: A r c h i t e c t ' s impression o f t hie
Church of tlTe

v4

Good

Shepl'jerd,

Page 202

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