This article was downloaded by: [193.194.88.

27] On: 19 February 2012, At: 06:21 Publisher: Taylor & Francis Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration

Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/uarc20

Structural Design of High Gothic Vaulting Systems in England

Dimitris Theodossopoulos
a a

Architecture, School of Arts, Culture and the Environment, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK Available online: 08 Feb 2008

To cite this article: Dimitris Theodossopoulos (2008): Structural Design of High Gothic Vaulting Systems in England, International Journal of Architectural Heritage: Conservation, Analysis, and Restoration, 2:1, 1-24 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15583050701516484

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

International Journal of Architectural Heritage, 2: 124, 2008 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 1558-3058 print / 1558-3066 online DOI: 10.1080/15583050701516484

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF HIGH GOTHIC VAULTING SYSTEMS IN ENGLAND Dimitris Theodossopoulos

Architecture, School of Arts, Culture and the Environment, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
The introduction of rib systems in High Gothic vaults in England initiated a period of greater ambition in the design of churches, while subsequent experimentation increased the confidence of the masons in working with more complex forms. This development is discussed through the study of the structural behavior and efficiency of vaults at the cathedrals of Durham, Canterbury, Wells, and Lincoln that represent significant technical innovations. The collapse mode and safety margin of the original designs is examined, focusing on the dominant action that results from failure of the buttressing system. The study highlights how the integrity of the fabric provided by the rib had to be enhanced by refinements of the form and lateral support. Although the discussion shows a consistent development, each of the innovations brought individual solutions that this study attempts to treat as options available to the masons. KEY WORDS: Gothic architecture, vaults, structural safety, England, structural design

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

1. INTRODUCTION The technology of High Gothic stone vaulting in England is marked by the balance between national characteristics, such as the rib systems, and established practices imported from France. The period is framed within the groundbreaking use of ribs in Durham Cathedral in 1093 and in 1192 in Lincoln with the beginning of a more ornamental approach to construction (Decorated period). Developments were driven by the introduction of advanced Norman construction technology, which led to a constant exploration of linearity in the expression of the structural elements, such as the use of shafts and ribs (Webb, 1965; Stalley, 1999). Churches of the period are also characterized by less ambitious verticality in the elevation, further combined with a particular approach to buttressing. Proportions of this layout are often as important to the strength of the vaults as their form or the reinforcement of their groins with ribs. This article aims to contribute to the study of the design principles of stone vaults in England during the High Gothic period Norman (10661190) and Early English (11751265) through the assessment of their structural efficiency. Developments in this period follow a more logical and consistent path compared with the approach of the earlier Romanesque period, but these developments often appear still as individual solutions with no direct links between them (Hoey, 1987).
Received 15 July 2006; accepted 30 May 2007 Address correspondence to Dimitris Theodossopoulos, Lecturer in Architectural Technology, Architecture, School of Arts, Culture and the Environment, University of Edinburgh, 20 Chambers Street, Edinburgh EH1 1JZ, United Kingdom. E-mail: d.theodossopoulos@ed.ac.uk 1

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

The cathedrals of Durham, Canterbury, Wells, and Lincoln represent the major innovations in a large scale and are examined here as options that were available to the masons, although an attempt is also made to define relationships and possible patterns. Understanding the design process and structural behavior of these systems is generated by critically examining geometric and construction data of the main vaults. Using finite-element (FE) models (Theodossopoulos, 2003), the loads that develop on critical areas such as the intersections (groins) and springings and the role of the major structural elements (ribs, webs, buttresses) are assessed to interpret the construction process and the behavior in service. Further examination is performed by applying the dominant action of supports spread by means of a nonlinear material and geometric analysis (NLMGA) that serves as well to assess the origin of the pathology observed in some cases.

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

2. DESIGN OF VAULTS IN THE EARLY ENGLISH PERIOD 2.1. Design and Behavior of Large-Scale Cathedrals English Gothic design resulted from the combination of regional technical advancements (such as the rib) with established patterns imported from France during the contemporary spread of Gothic design throughout Europe. England made significant contributions to Gothic technology, such as the correct application of the pointed arch or the innovative use of ribs in a large scale in Durham Cathedral (10931133), well before the seminal remodeling of St. Denis in Paris (1130). Gothic design in England is also characterized by balanced horizontal and vertical aspects and less slender buildings (Figure 1). Such proportions are adequate for the low lighting angles of the country, which in turn highlight efficiently this balance in the elevation, so often no large clerestory or wide openings at the walls were required. The prominence of the linear elements is an important characteristic, but design was not viewed as a careful arrangement of the elements to withstand the deformations. For example, structural analyses will show later that the contribution of the rib in the in-service strength of a Gothic vault is much less significant than the role of the edge beams in modern shell architecture (Dieste, 1983). The main load-bearing elements (vaults, arches, buttresses) were most probably proportionally arranged, and their layout will be discussed in more detail in the case studies. The stability of this scheme is a common issue in Gothic design and can be illustrated by the deformation of the cross-section in a typical cathedral (Figure 2a), which together with the analysis of other isolated vaults has confirmed the sensitivity of the structure to insufficient containment of lateral thrusts (Theodossopoulos, 2003 and 2004). Excessive deformations can result in spread of the vaults supports that can destabilize the nave; surveys of heavily deformed cathedrals such as Beauvais Cathedral (France) or Vitoria Cathedral (Spain) (Azkarate Garai-Olaun, 2001) define the safety margins (Figure 2b). A lateral spread of 1/30 of the span can be considered as the serviceability limit before failure occurs with the formation of a three-hinge mechanism at the supports and vertices (Figure 3). Smaller movements have less visible effects due to the use of the more flexible lime mortars, allowing stresses to redistribute through the masonry. The comparison in Figure 1 shows that the less slender lateral walls in England are less subject to instability and, in
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 1. Schematic illustration comparing the nave of a typical English cathedral (Wells, 11861215) and a French cathedral (Chartres, 11941260).

combination with this smaller scale, the lateral thrusts of the vaults can be lower, avoiding sophisticated flying buttresses. The early innovations in Durham achieved construction efficiency, as described later in text, but direct influences are quite limited (transepts of Winchester Cathedral, Gloucester Cathedral, Caen Cathedral). Later, the reconstruction of Canterbury Cathedral (11751184) introduced an unbalanced version of contemporary French forms, which ultimately due to the prestige of the site diverted any progress from the structural design advancements in Durham. At the same time, the native desire for strongly marked linear pattern, highlighted by the use of shafts and ribs (Webb, 1965; Stalley, 1999), becomes apparent in Canterbury with the innovative use of dark Purbeck marble shafts. Gradually in Early English design (11751265) all these innovations and trends start merging into a more national style. In the subsequent Decorated phase (1250 1370), ribs and elements such as bar tracery will occupy a more prominent place in the development of the entire structure. The combination of such elements with a less ambitious scale was central in the English quest to unify the classic division of the elevation (arcade, triforium, clerestory) that was bestowed by the earlier Romanesque period (Webb, 1965), improving the structural collaboration between the parts in elevation and increasing lateral stability (Figure 1). Thickening of upper walls was also a safe precaution, and in general the structural logic is much less adventurous than in their French counterparts.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

(a)

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

(b)
Deformation of lateral wall 1.0 B dead load B no fl buttr 0.9 Vitoria nave N D1 Vitoria nave N G1 0.8 Vitoria nave N H1 Normalised height 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 Aisle spring. 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 Nave spring.

0.2

0.4

0.6

Normalised displacement (%)

Figure 2. (a) Schematic illustration of the deformation of the lateral elevation in Burgos Cathedral (Spain), magnified 200 X (Theodossopoulos 2004), and (b) graph comparing the deformation of the elevation of Burgos Cathedral (finite element analysis from Theodossopoulos 2004) and Vitoria Cathedral (Spain) (survey data from Azkarate 2001); lateral displacement is normalized against the span.

Overall continuity in design characterizes most of the English Gothic phases and is often combined with a rapid construction program. At the same time, an additive approach to space is recorded mainly due to the monastic origin of most of the cathedrals, resulting in efficient structural compartmentation between the usually
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 3. Crack pattern in a cross vault (Theodossopoulos, 2003).

two transepts, the facade, and the deambulatory; such aspects will be discussed in the case studies. Typically there is emphasis on the separation of the individual parts, opposite to the French tendency of integration and subordination of the parts to the greater scheme (Hoey, 1987). This emphasis eventually led to more focused experimentation with the parts, such as the vaults, for example in St. Hughs Choir in Lincoln. This conceptual compartmentation is further assisted by a diagonal construction process, where a few bays are usually erected together and their high vaults are safely built as they are abutted by a diagonal finishing in the triforium at the last bay (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Stylistic changes indicating the diagonal addition of vaulted bays in the nave of Durham Cathedral (after Bilson, 1922). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Many of these achievements and characteristics can be summarized in the last two main buildings of the period. Wells Cathedral (11861260) is the building where a new English gothic style is explored, designed exclusively on pointed arches. Lincoln (11921280) sets a vocabulary following import of new French trends that was later implemented in Salisbury (12201284) and challenged in Westminster Abbey (1254).

2.2. High Gothic Vaults The development of Gothic vaulting has often been linked to the degree that the masons understood the role of the rib; however, this archaeological and stylistic approach misinterprets the design of stone vaults, ignoring the efficiency of the form of the shell. Historic and experimental evidence (Fitchen, 1961; Theodossopoulos, 2003) shows that the crucial interlocking at the groin was largely facilitated by the ribs during construction. Geometrically, the complex intersection of the two-barrel vaults along the groin does not follow a straight line (Figure 5) except at the square bays of the aisles. In England, rubble masonry was often used to bypass the complex stereotomy, and overall the ribs served as permanent scaffolding for the formwork of the shells, improving the quality of the intersection and alignment along the groin (Figure 6). A gradual realization of this role made the ribs, together with the shafts of the piers, a means for a visual unification of the entire structure (concordance). These linear elements must have also played a role in the overall design of the typical Gothic scheme (aisle vaults, triforium, clerestory, and high vaults [Figure 2a]), making possible an abstraction that can guide the design and the establishment of proportions that govern the layout (Singleton, 1981). This abstraction often gives the impression of a structural skeleton, further assisted by the progressive dissolution of the masonry envelope to let in more natural light and by Late Gothic attitudes where ribs are transformed into independent stone trusses, supported by an increasing confidence in the performance of the vaults. So far as the design of the vaults itself is concerned, straight and visually uninterrupted longitudinal ridges became the norm in English Gothic high vaults.

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

F R stilts L W
Figure 5. Geometry of a quadripartite high vault generated by a constant radius. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 6. Construction of the webs around the rebate of the ribs (Fitchen, 1961; author).

Since all the vertices had to attain the same height as the diagonal rib, it was the latter that dictated the form of the intersecting shells, which are profiled as a projection of the diagonal (Figure 5). As the diagonal is often a part of a semi-circle the resulting incompatibility with the longitudinal shell was resolved by another Durham innovation, the pioneering use of the pointed arch profile. When this arrangement resulted in narrow clerestory openings natural lighting could improve by placing the formeret arch on stilts. The main quest was therefore for geometric compatibility and stability during construction, and the forms are not as structurally efficient as they could have been using intuitive schemes such as catenaries. It is reasonable to assume however that the masons developed an intuitive knowledge of the limit state of their structures, which was later linked to their geometric proportions (Heyman, 1995; Huerta, 2006). The design and strength of English High Gothic vaults as part of cathedral design will be discussed next. This work focuses on the achievements of Early English design in large-scale vaulting and therefore the development between Durham, Canterbury, Wells, and Lincoln is examined in more detail through structural analysis of their high vaults. The analysis of the case studies will concentrate on the design and behavior of those high vaults that represent the original Early English design.

3. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF MAJOR EARLY ENGLISH CATHEDRALS The vaults were modeled as shell structures using FE analysis both in service conditions and collapse due to failure of the buttressing system (Figure 2a). A procedure developed earlier during the study of the collapse of the Holyrood Abbey Church in Edinburgh (Theodossopoulos, 2003) is followed. The orthotropic material properties (Table 1) were taken from the Cathedral of Burgos (Spain), which represents reasonably well a typical gothic masonry bond (Theodossopoulos, 2004). A constant shell thickness of 250 mm was assigned where not known and the unit weight of the stone masonry was assumed as 24 kN/m3. The support of the vault upon
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS Table 1 Mechanical properties considered for the stone masonry of the cathedrals Parallel to bed joint (x-axis) 4900 2 0.7 Normal to bed joint (y-axis) 1400 6 0.2

Material properties Elasticity modulus, E (N/mm2) Compressive strength fc (N/mm2) Flexural strength, Fu (N/mm2)

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

the lateral walls was simulated with beam elements of a substantial thickness in order to allow the edge to follow the supports outwards rotation. Ribs and transverse arches were also modeled mainly with beam elements. The models were analyzed with the FE program Abaqus (Abaqus, Standard version 6.4, Abaqus Inc., Pawtucket, RI, USA). Failure was simulated as a smearedcrack approach with nonlinear analysis that used a biaxial failure criterion for masonry (Sinha, 1997) based on the mechanical properties in Table 1 (Figure 7). The moments of resistance in the orthotropic directions, Mux and Muy were evaluated from the corresponding flexural strengths, Fux and Fuy. The criterion was implemented in Abaqus through a subroutine, allowing loads to shed to the stronger direction of the material once the weaker axis has failed (Theodossopoulos, 2003). Combinations of outward spread of supports were applied, simulating unfavorable conditions that may result from the degradation of buttressing. Failure of the structure occurs when sufficient cracks develop to transform the structure into a mechanism.  My Muy 2     My 2 Mx 2 Mx Mx My 0:75: : 0:25: : 1:0 Mux Mux Muy Mux Muy 1

Figure 7. Strength of masonry under biaxial stresses (Sinha, 1997).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

3.1. Cathedral of Christ and Blessed Mary the Virgin, Durham (10931133) Significant innovations such as the integrated use of the rib, the pointed arch, and the flying buttresses were for the first time applied coherently in large-scale construction in Durham (Bilson, 1922). Their effect on the design of vaults was assessed studying a double bay of the high vault that includes supports on the compound and secondary piers (Figure 8). The groins in both the high and aisles vaults, as well as the webs at the aisles, were generated by semicircular arches but the webs at the high vault had to be conveniently pointed to achieve height and radius similar to the ribs and enable standardization of the voussoirs (cf. Figure 5). Ribs were used first along the groins of the choir aisle (on a 8- X 5.9-m bay) and high vaults (on 8- X 9.9-m bays), followed by the transepts and, after the choirs completion in 1118, the nave (Figure 8). The original choir high vaults were replaced in 1235 during the addition of the Chapel of the Nine Altars at the east end, when dangerous cracks became visible, but this replacement was most probably a justification to modernize the archaic vaults. Therefore only the vaults at the nave currently belong to the original design, but due to various hypotheses on the form of the choir, the nave vaults can be viewed as the perfection of the original experimentation and on those merits they will be examined here. A more detailed discussion on the design and performance of the first rib vaults along the aisles can be found in (Theodossopoulos, 2006). The overall scheme of the cathedral is structurally and visually fully articulated and rational as expressed in the concordance between the ribs and shafts and the striving for stylistic unity. The formation of the rib by a separate voussoir at the difficult intersection of the webs along the groins (Figure 6) can be therefore interpreted within this frame (Thurlby, 1993). The ribs appear to be integrated to the web during construction, so it was adequate to simulate them at the FE model with shell elements. In terms of structural behavior, the transverse stress pattern (Figure 9) shows that this new system eventually stiffens a wide area of the vault but there is no evidence that the masons were aware of the stiffening potential of the ribs in a similar manner to

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 8. The high vaults in the nave of Durham Cathedral (11181133).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

10

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 9. Transverse stress S22 at the intrados of the nave in Durham Cathedral due to self-weight (kN/m2).

the edge beams in modern shell structures (Dieste, 1983). A realization of this potential could have completely altered the vault form but the ribs are still relatively slender and their section does not provide sufficient depth at the extrados or even follow an optimized form-active configuration that would allow stability as self-standing arches. This detail developed into a permanent guide and formwork that improved standardization in the construction process and provided confidence and accuracy as stone flags were laid to form the webs. The vaults were further secured during this delicate phase by building them together with their lateral walls resulting in a rapid construction program, and it is possible the masons felt they had to celebrate the advancements of the ribs by clearly expressing them through design (Hoey, 1987). Historicalcritical analysis of the other innovation, the quadrant rampant arches at the triforium gallery (Figure 10) shows they were mainly devised as a support of the aisle timber roof (Bilson, 1922; Gardner, 1982). Eventually, however, they improve the performance of the vault by reducing the lateral spread and the overall deflection of the vault (curve fb at 1.2 m in Figure 11). The FE model shows the optimum effect occurs between 1.2 m and 1.7 m, or one-fourth of the rise. The nave is the work of the second master mason of the original phase (1100 1133), and its performance demonstrates the earlier innovations of the design. The thrusts of the vaults are tentatively constrained by a combination of pier buttresses with a thick outer wall that is not disrupted by major window openings. The ribs have definitely allowed some of the shell thickness, and therefore the thrusts, to be reduced, even if the masons did not explicitly plan this reduction. Cracks developed, however, both in the choir vaults (prompting their replacement in 1225) and later in the nave (Curry, 1981). The movement of the springings due to insufficient bracing or the illfitting of the vault at the bay (as in the transept) was examined in the FE model in two conditions of outward spread: that of the entire wall and local movement of the minor support.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

11

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 10. Longitudinal section of the nave in Durham Cathedral (Dehio, 1901).

0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Distance from the wall (m) 2 4

6
Burgos Durham base fb at 1.2 m fb at 1.7 m

Figure 11. Deflection of the transverse vertex of the nave vaults under self-weight from the FE analysis.

The crack pattern (Figure 12) verifies the failure mechanism usually observed in gothic vaults: hinges initiate above the supports (zone 1 in Figure 12a) followed by cracks along the longitudinal vertex (zone 2 spreading to 3), which are sufficient to cause the collapse of the vault (Theodossopoulos, 2003). Cracks along the wall do not appear here because the rigid plate of the clerestory wall can follow the movement of the springing (cf. Figure 2a). The spread of the minor support (that corresponds to the cylindrical pier of the nave) results in a localized failure around the relatively stiff conoid pocket (Figure 12b), with the supports cracks developing at the last stages. Failure occurs at an earlier stage than the full spread of the nave, but is rather local and therefore less critical.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

Deflection (mm)

12

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

(a)

Cracks at extrados Cracks at intrados

2 1 3 1 2

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

(b)
Cracks at extrados Cracks at intrados

3 1

3
Figure 12. Crack development supports spread: (a) movement of all supports with failure at 330 mm (1/34 of span), and (b) middle (minor) supports only with failure at 220 mm (1/50 of span).

Maximum deflections concentrate along the longitudinal vertex (Theodossopoulos, 2006), with low transverse bending stresses (Figure 9) and major compressive axial forces around the supports. The predominance of the latter can be attributed to the fact that the pointed profile of the longitudinal barrel approximates that of the catenary curve (Figure 13) that can be traced for the span-to-rise ratio L/F 1.85 (Dieste, 1983). The original phase of the building shows the aimed coherence and continuity in the design but construction progress affected the efficiency of the innovations. The
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

13

0.9 0.8 Normalised rise (z/L) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2
Durham transverse Durham catenary Wells tranverse Wells catenary Lincoln transverse Lincoln catenary

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

0.4 0.6 Normalised span (x/L)

0.8

1.0

Figure 13. Profiles of the transverse barrel vault in the high vaults of the case studies compared with the catenary curves corresponding to their span-to-rise ratio (main dimensions are normalized).

rapid completion of the choir with the innovative yet expensive vaulting was followed by plans for a cheaper timber ceiling for the rest of the building (Bilson, 1922; James, 1993) but when stone vaults were considered once again, the south transept was already built up to the springings so the vaults were forcedly inserted. The distorted geometry resulted in an uneven distribution of the loads on the piers producing deep cracks within or at the edge of the high vaults as can be seen at both transepts, similar to Figure 13. Finally, the structural study of the vaults shows it is not straightforward to establish a relationship between geometric proportions and the structural performance of the building as the design priorities stemmed from construction considerations rather than efficiency of the form. The design is square-based, as the rise of the vault F is equal to half the span L, and therefore the transverse edge can be inscribed in a rectangle of 1:2 proportions, i.e., made of two squares. The relationship with the aisles becomes more complicated as the characteristic cylindrical piers result in an uncomfortable arrangement of the shafts at their back in the aisles. 3.2. Metropolitan Cathedral of Christchurch, Canterbury The original Romanesque cathedral of Bishop Lanfranc was damaged by fire in 1174 and a new major cathedral was constructed on the existing foundations in a very short period (11751184). The study of the construction benefits from the contemporary account by Gervase that outlines in detail the progress of the works (Pevsner, 1985). Despite the previous innovations in Durham, little reference exists in the spatial and technical solutions. These instead were imported from France by the master mason William of Sens (active between 11751179) but were applied without a full understanding by the local masons. Application of the unitary approach of Durham could have produced a structurally and visually less abrupt junction of the piers with the overwhelming, archaic sexpartite vaults of the choir (Figure 14). Other characteristics of
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

14

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 14. The choir of Canterbury Cathedral (Webb, 1965).

Canterbury include the influential decorative treatment of the main load-bearing elements where linearity is emphasized by leaner ribs and the use of dark Purbeck shafts. The sexpartite vault of the choir spans over a 13.1- X 10-m double bay and the major diagonal rib is semi-circular, resulting in a rise F 7.2 m. The transverse shell has a pointed directrix, of the same radius as the rib, which facilitates standardization of the voussoirs, while the intersecting vaults are semi-circular and stilted. The FE model of the vault was generated based on the geometry published by Dehio (1901) and shows that deflections under self-weight spread mainly along the longitudinal axis (Figure 15), which is stiffened by the transverse vaults that further result in mainly compressive stresses in the transverse direction. The benefits and limitations of the scheme of sexpartite vaults will be discussed in comparison with the quadripartite vaulting solution of Durham in terms of structural performance. To assess the effect of the boundary conditions in this scheme, the lateral displacement associated with a constraint at the base of the vault were plotted along the entire height of the wall (Figure 16). Outward movement in Canterbury is at its highest at the top of the stilted supports, approximately two-thirds of the vaults rise. The minor one spreads less as it is stiffened by the convergence of the skewed transverse barrels allowing more uniform and lower displacements along the top of the wall. The walls in Durham deform the opposite way, involving larger portions of the springings.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

15

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 15. Deflections at the sexpartite choir of Canterbury Cathedral under self-weight (m).

0.5 Lateral displacement (mm) 0 0.0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Normalised length of wall

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Durham Canterbury

Figure 16. Outward displacement along the edge of the choir vaults in Canterbury and Durham Cathedrals.

The flying buttresses are semi-hidden in the aisle roof (Kusaba, 1989) and the elevation is similar to Durham, indicating a tentative design influenced by Durham but resolved with wider openings. Failure of the FE model due to spread of the abutments occurred in Canterbury at a high increase of the span, 670 mm or 1/20 of the transverse span, indicating a more successful form, less demanding for bracing than in Durham. The stress pattern in Figure 17 shows yield lines at that stage as high concentration of contour lines. If a uniform spread occurs, then cracks form at 35 mm around the keystone and the outer, major springings. Hinges above the stilted middle springing start forming slowly afterwards and the high stiffness of the relatively closely folded transverse vaults opposes the consecutive failure in the abutments. Transformation of the cross vault into a mechanism occurs with further longitudinal cracks on either side of the vertex at 670 mm. Despite their good performance, sexpartite vaults have not been popular as a prominent feature in England (cf. the smaller bays at the transepts of Lincoln) due to
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

Minor pier

16

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 17. Transverse stresses S22 at the extrados of the sexpartite vault of the choir in Canterbury at 670 mm uniform support movement or 1/20 of span (kN/m2).

complications in the intersection of the transverse vaults and the need to construct substantial and relatively unstable ribs at the main diagonals. The integrity of this element can be compromised by the dimensions of the span and the non-uniform boundary conditions at the edges of the bay, as the analysis has shown that thrusts at the mid-support of the bay are higher than in the extremes. 3.3. Cathedral Church of St. Andrew, Wells Together with Lincoln, this cathedral marks the establishment of confident English characteristics in Gothic architecture. The entire original design was based on a uniform use of the pointed arch, which together with the proportions and height of the building (20.5 m), and the short construction period (11861215) resulted in a homogeneous structural scheme. John Bilson in his meticulous study of this phase (Bilson, 1928) has identified a diagonal break in the works at the nave, which appears to be predetermined, but the scheme was well planned and the execution and behavior appear uniform today. The choir was later remodeled between 12851345 in Decorated style, so it is the nave that represents the original Early English project today (Figure 18). A representative bay of the nave (Figure 18b) was modeled using Bilsons survey. A semicircular diagonal rib was considered and the longitudinal vault was generated using the same radius and rise. The transverse shell has straight vertices and in order to avoid a very narrow pointed profile that would have blocked light, it had to be stilted. The rise of the intersecting shells was typically dictated by the diagonal and a system of p proportion 1 : 2 has been mostly used in the cathedral (Singleton, 1981). Although the dimensions of the bays are not constant throughout the building (another characteristic of English Gothic), a typical central bay in the nave has the proportion of span L to width W equal to 2 and it appears that the rise of the vault F is equal to the diagonal Ds of each of the two squares that form the bay (Figure 18b). This can be considered as an updating of the square-based system that was earlier used in Durham.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

17

(a)

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

(b)

Ds

W
Figure 18. The nave of Wells Cathedral (England): (a) photograph of an aspect of the nave (Hoey, 1987), and (b) plan of a typical bay of the nave (after Singleton, 1981); width L 2W 2 4.82 m.

The deflections under self-weight verify the one-way pattern of the scheme, while the lateral thrusts need to be balanced almost at one-third of the rise, which is almost the location of the flying buttress abutment. The stilted cylindrical wall edge provide transverse rigidity so a more efficient pattern develops, with transverse tensile stresses around the area of the wall joint and lower bending stresses around the vertices (Figure 19). Although the vault does not adhere intuitively to the corresponding catenary profile for L/F 0.65 (Figure 13), the longitudinal vault is mainly in compression, further stiffened by the transverse webs. The benefits of the chosen design and proportions become more evident in the failure of the FE model due to spread of the abutments. Cracks are indicated as areas of null stress within a dense contour in Figure 20, due to the smeared crack approach, and initiate at the clerestory supports and keystone, spreading to the area around the lower ridge. Failure occurs at 275 mm (or 1/36 of transverse span)
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

18

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 19. Transverse stresses S22 at the extrados of the quadripartite vault of the nave in Wells under selfweight (kN/m2).

Figure 20. Failure of the nave vault in Wells Cathedral due to spread of all the supports; transverse stresses S22 at the extrados at 91-mm movement (kN/m2).

following a pattern and sequence similar to Figure 12. This scheme is in agreement with the established pattern of failure for such structures (Figure 3) and occurs at an acceptable increase of span (Theodossopoulos, 2004; Ochsendorf, 2006). This is a further indication that the Early English experimental period has produced a confident vaulting design in Wells, which is in line with similar contemporary developments at the rest of Europe. Finally, the presence of thin ribs simulated with beam elements in the FE model has not affected significantly the stress pattern or failure progress.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

19

3.4. Cathedral of Blessed Mary the Virgin, Lincoln Lincoln Cathedral (11921280) has the most advanced design of the period, developed from the 1174 scheme for Canterbury, and together with Wells defined the English Gothic expression. The identity of the ribs in design (linear pattern and role in the generation and construction of the vaults) stressed by the use of Purbeck stone shafts unifies visually the structural scheme of the cathedral (Figure 21). Remodeling of the Romanesque cathedral (11921280) was triggered by a partial collapse after an earthquake on April 15, 1185, and started with the new choir placed on the outer slope of the hill on which the fortified precinct of the cathedral and castle were built. The entire building is a project experimenting with new forms and systems that shaped later the Decorated period and the structural performance of these innovations is assessed here. The intensity of the design process often disregarded regularity in the spacing of the bays, as is evident in both directions in the choir; faults (Figure 21a) that continue to appear today (Bailey, 1996) can be attributed to a structural scheme not

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

(a)

(b)

Figure 21. Vaults of Lincoln Cathedral: (a) tierceron vaults at the nave (12651280), and (b) the skewed crazy vaults at the choir (11921265).

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

20

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

fully developed that additionally had to accommodate the fabric loads on uneven soil conditions. One of the major advancements is the experimental tierceron vaults that result from an attempt to visually unify the various structural elements. The so-called crazy vaults (11921265) of the first part of the choir (todays St. Hughs Choir) explored the potential of boldly detaching form and elements from their function (Figure 21b) by making a prominent use of the ribs. As will be shown from the structural performance of the vaults later, this design liberated them from symmetric arrangements and generated unorthodox new surfaces that do not result from construction practice (Kidson, 1986). Forms became more symmetric later, at the first tierceron vaults at the nave (Figure 21a), which were followed by an eastwards extension of the choir, the Angels Choir (12651280). All these vaults used ribs in a more extravagant manner to highlight and strengthen complex junctions like groins and ridges, establishing the pattern for future similar vaults in England. FE models of these two main types were generated over a 7- X 12.5-m compartment (Theodossopoulos, 2006) to trace the evolution of the system. Deflections confirmed the strong one-way behavior of the high vaults, while the stress patterns (Figure 22) show that the longitudinal vault is mainly in compression and is abutted by the eccentrically placed transverse vaults. The latter behave similarly to a pointed barrel vault supported upon diaphragms at the end arches. Comparison between the two types make clear the benefit of aligning the transverse vaults in the tierceron vaults as the wide area around the keystone is under compression forces (Figure 22b). Collapse of the skewed vaults due to supports outward movement initiates at the springings as well as the keystone between the offset crowns (zones 1 in Figure 23) at 91 mm, spreading later around the vertex (zone 2). Failure as a result of the three crack lines occurs at 503 mm or 1/25 of the transverse span, indicating higher stress reserves than the previous case studies. In this scheme, however, the transverse webs of the crazy vaults cannot abut each other, causing a twist at the central section that was probably perceived by the masons during the construction of the ribs. Finally, removal from the FE model of the linear elements that represent the tierceron ribs had a minor effect on the deformation of the vaults, highlighting their importance as mainly a construction element that guaranteed the continuity assumed by the FE model along the intersection. In terms of expressing the performance of the vault in a system of proportions, a different one was followed here, as the span of the bay L equals two times the height of an equilateral triangle generated by the width of the bay W. This system created a more oblong vault (L/F1.65) that is probably more suitable to the wider transverse span (11.2 m compared with 9.1 in Wells). The form of the intersecting vaults is determined by the diagonal, and this approach results in a longitudinal shell that is quite offset from the corresponding catenary curve (Figure 13). 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This work has attempted to establish patterns of the structural behavior of major High Gothic vaulting systems in England. Significant innovations at the high vaults of the cathedrals of Durham, Canterbury, Wells, and Lincoln have been analyzed and their evolution was discussed. The FE models considered their ideal and final configuration, simplifying the effect of the support conditions or the
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

21

(a)

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

(b)

Figure 22. Transverse stress S22 at the extrados of the major vault types in Lincoln Cathedral at self weight (kN/m2) (a) the crazy vaults (St. Hughs Choir), and (b) tierceron vault at the Angels Choir.

deformations imposed by the rest of the structure. All the cases showed a similar response to self-weight and spread of the abutments, with a strong one-way behavior. Design based on pointed arches often allowed higher and beneficial compressive forces to develop at the longitudinal vaults, while most of the transverse shells behaved like independent vaults supported along the ribs that functioned as edge beams. This pattern became more evident during the spread of the supports, where a three-hinge mechanism formed around the longitudinal vertex and above the clerestory supports, causing collapse. This behavior is in line with experimental and site
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

22

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Cracks at extrados Cracks at intrados 1

1 1

1 2

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

Figure 23. Crack pattern of the finite element model of the crazy vaults (St. Hughs Choir) at a uniform spread of the supports at 503 mm.

observations (Theodossopoulos, 2003), where the transverse vaults gradually detach along the groins or the vertex and transform into a barrel vault supported upon diaphragms and the longitudinal ones behave as a three-pin pointed arch, simply supported on the diagonal ribs. The early hinges at the springings is a common issue among the cross vaults studied in this work and originate on the high bending stresses developing already under self-weight. Redistribution of the loads is expected to occur at the flexible lime mortar joints of the blocks and eventually stability becomes a geometric issue (Huerta, 2006) once mechanisms form as indicated by the FE models. Sharing of the loads between the transverse and the longitudinal webs depends highly on the integrity and geometry of the groin. Most of the development of forms in this period relates to the ribs but it needs to be stressed that they have always been treated as a construction element. Earlier research (Theodossopoulos, 2003) has shown that collapse of vaults whose ribs provide a shear connection to the webs through a stem on their extrados (Fitchen, 1961) occurs after a rupture of the joint between the intersecting shells. A more accurate knowledge of the geometry of this junction is required to understand the bond between the shells and the possibility of a similar rupture. This study addressed the issue of High Gothic design in England from a structural and technological point of view. The structural analysis showed a relatively high degree of safety but this is often the result of critically appraising earlier stages in a cathedral or the removal of failing portions. Based on the results from this project, next steps will concentrate on the influence of the construction process on design. Areas to be studied can be the build-up of the stresses at the ribs during construction and a focus on the construction sequence and development of vaulting techniques within the same building at each of the case studies examined in this work.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF GOTHIC VAULTS IN ENGLAND

23

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Support in the development of this work was provided by the Humanities Research Centre at the University of Nottingham. The author would also like to thank the Chapter in the Cathedrals of Durham and Lincoln, and Professor John Chilton for access and valuable advice and information.

REFERENCES
Azkarate Garai-Olaun, A. 2001. Catedral de Santa Mara, Vitoria-Gasteiz: Plan Director de Restauracion. Vitoria, Spain: Fundacion Catedral Santa Mar a. Bailey, J. 1996. Quinquennial report on condition of fabric, Lincoln Cathedral. Bilson, J. 1922. Durham Cathedral: the Chronology of its Vaults. Archaeological Journal 89: 101160. Bilson, J. 1928. Notes on the earlier architectural history of Wells Cathedral. Archaeological Journal 95:2368. Curry, I. 1981. Durham Cathedral, Inspection Survey and Report on Condition of Fabric. Dehio, G., and Bezold, G. 1901 [1969]. Die Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. Stuttgart, Germany: Faximile Hildesheim. Dieste, E. 1983. Cascaras Autoportantes de Directriz Catenaria sin Tmpanos. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones de la Banda Oriental. Fitchen, J. 1961. The Construction of Gothic cathedrals. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. Gardner, F. 1982. The Nave Galleries of Durham Cathedral. Art Bulletin 64(4):564579. Heyman, J. 1995. The stone skeleton. In Structural Engineering of Masonry Architecture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Hoey, L.R. 1987. Piers versus vault shafts in Early English Gothic architecture. Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 46(3):241264. Huerta, S. 2006. Geometry and equilibrium: the gothic theory of structural design. The Structural Engineer 84(2):2328. James, J. 1993. The rib vaults of Durham Cathedral. In Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought, eds., B. Farmer, and H. Low. London, UK: Routledge. Kidson, P. 1986. St. Hughs Choir in Medieval Art and Architecture at Lincoln Cathedral. ed., British Archaeological Association. Oxford UK: Oxbow Books. Kusaba, Y. 1989. Some observations on the early flying buttress and choir triforium of Canterbury Cathedral. Gesta 28(2):175189. Ochsendorf, J. 2006. The masonry arch on spreading supports. The Structural Engineer 84(2):2935. Pevsner, N., and Metcalf, P. 1985. The Cathedrals of England. Harmondsworth, UK: Viking. Singleton, B. 1981. Proportions in the design of the Early Gothic Cathedral at Wells. Medieval Art and Architecture at Wells and Glastonbury. London, UK: British Archaeological Association. Sinha, B.P., Ng, C.L., and Pedreschi, R.F. 1997. Failure criterion and behaviour of brickwork in biaxial bending. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE 9(2):7075. Stalley, R. 1999. Early medieval architecture. In Oxford History of Art. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Theodossopoulos, D., Sinha, B.P., Usmani, A.S. 2003. Case study of the failure of a cross vault: church of Holyrood Abbey. Journal of Architectural Engineering ASCE 1076-0 9(3):109117. Theodossopoulos, D. 2004. Structural scheme of the Cathedral of Burgos. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference Structure Analysis of Historical Constructions, 1013 November 2004, Padua. Eds., C. Modena, P.B. Laurenco, and P. Roca. London, UK: Taylor & Francis, 643652.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

24

D. THEODOSSOPOULOS

Theodossopoulos, D. 2006. Technology and geometry in the design of gothic vaults in Britain. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Construction History. 29 March2 April 2004, Cambridge, Construction History Society, 30793095. Thurlby, M. 1993. The purpose of the rib in the Romanesque vaults of Durham Cathedral. In Engineering a Cathedral, Durham. London, UK: Thomas Telford. Webb, G. 1965. Architecture in Britain. The Middle Ages. In Pelican History of Art. London, UK: Penguin.

Downloaded by [193.194.88.27] at 06:21 19 February 2012

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE 2(1): 124