Research i Module IV Lesson 1.

Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on tools of research, you will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. define the different tools of research; give the types/forms under each instrument; state the advantages and disadvantages of each instrument,if any; construct the various instruments; gain insight on the parts of a questionnaire, acommontool of research. TOOLS ofRESEARCH

Introduction The collection of meaningful data depends largely on the quality of the instrument employed in the process. The significance of the findings of a research becomes meaningless if the instrumentation is questionable. A researcher, therefore, must exercise utmost care in choosing the research tools particularly if he plans to collect the data himself. He would need to choose an appropriate data-collection instrument that would ensure the relevance, reliability and validity of the data collected. Several devices are employed for collecting primary data, but three of them questionnaire, interview, and observation -- are used most extensively. Direct or Empirical Documentary Data or Secondary Data Before constructing instruments to generate data, the writer determines the kind of data that re needed for the research report. The research report may call for documentary or secondary data and empirical or direct data, depending on the statement of the problem. It must be emphasized that the statement of the problem is very important because it will be the focus of data collection, instrumentation, and interpretation. Documental^ Data. These are data which can be found in government offices, in schools, private organizations, public organizations like the library or business organizations, or other agencies which may have the data. In other words, the writer does not gather the data. Because of this, the data generated are referred to as documentary data or secondaiy data. In bask ^search, the use of purely documentary data is generally discouraged, except for some studies will utilize only documentary data. But for indepth treatment of data, such data are oftentimes r-rerted to some form which is the creation of the writer.

For example, if the writer seeks information on the relationship of academic performance of high school students in the academic subjects and with their corresponding scores in the NCEE, then this is a correlational study which is based on documentary data. Academic grades and NCEE grades are found in the office of the Registrar and are categorized as documentary data. Or if the study is about the prices of real estate and the variations of prices according to cities, then the study likewise is anchored on documentary data. Real estate prices are found in the Assessors office of the cities. Empirical Data. Empirical or direct data are data which are generated from people through the use of research techniques such as the questionnaire or through interviews. There are studies that need empirical data. Below are some topics of research which need the use of questionnaires. 1. Major Sources of Stress and Coping Strategies of Middle Managers of a Manufacturing Firm in Metro Manila 2. Decision-Making Structures and Loci of Decision-Making of Managers of a Bottling Company in Metro Manila 3. TheRelationship between Level of Job Satisfaction of Personnel and Leadership Style in a Certain Organization 4. The Use of Marketing Mix Factors by Salesmen of a Pharmaceutical Company Questionnaire Definition. The questionnaire is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which a respondent fills in himself. If the set of questions asked are filled in by the interviewer himself in a face-to-face situation with the interviewee, it is referred to as schedule. Forms of question. Determined by the objective of the particular question, the forms are classified as follows. 1. Open-ended questions in which the respondent is asked to provide his own answer to the questions. Example: What do you think is the most crucial problem confronting the Philippines today? 2. Closed-ended questions in which the respondent is asked to select his answer from among a list provided by the researcher. Example: in the question above, the researcher structures the responses, such as: * environmental issue peace and order situation * unemployment rice shortage * poverty graft and corruption

Close-ended questions provide a greater informity of responses and are more easily processed; however, in the researcher's structuring of responses some important issues might be overlooked. On the other hand, open-ended questions may lead to answers essentially irrelevant to the researchers intent. In the construction of close-ended questions, two guidelines should always be followed. 1. Response categories should be exhaustive: that is, they should include all the possible responses that might be expected. Often, a researcher adds a category labeled "Others (please specify). H 2. Response categories must be mutually exclusive; that is, the respondent should not feel compelled to select more than one response. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Questionnaire Advantage: Mailed questionnaires reach many people in widely scattered areas quickly and at relatively low cost. Disadvantages: 1. They fail to dig deeply enough to provide a true picture of opinions and feelings. 2. Representative sample of data cannot be obtained by a mailed questionnaire if the population includes nonreaders.

Guides to Questionnaire Construction 1. Make items clear and unambiguous. Be precise so that the respondent knows exactly what you want him to answer to. 2. Avoid double-barreled questions which ask respondents for a single answer to a combination of questions. Example: Do you agree or disagree with the statement "Congress should reduce our foreign debt payments and increase the budget for education. This question should be split into two: Do you agree or disagree with the statement "Congress should reduce our foreign debt payments? Do you agree or disagree the Congress should increase the budget for education? 3. Questions should be relevant to most respondents. 4. Avoid long and complicated items: short items are best. 5. Avoid negative items. Example: "The Philippines should notrecognize Taiwan. 6. Avoid biased items and leading questions. Example: "Do you agreeor disagree with your teachers view on abortion?" 7. Avoid questions that may in some way be psychologically threatening to the person answering.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Sequence or arrange your questions properly. Give clear instructions and introductory comments where appropriate. Pretest your questionnaire before using it in your study. Prepare a letter of transmittal to accompany your questionnaire. Choose appropriate format for presenting a series of response categories such as using boxes, brackets or parentheses. Avoid using slashes and underscores as they require considerably more effort and the result is not very neat, especially if response categories are single spaced.

Interview Definition. A research method that involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee or respondent. Types. There are two types of interview. 1) Structured interview - the interviewer uses a set of standardized questions and questioning procedures: questions are asked in a fixed and sequential manner. The interviewer may not repeat any question and may not modify, alter or follow-up any questions asked unless the interviewee does not hear the interviewer. 2) Unstructured interview - a more flexible and open interview. The interviewer can modify, repeat, elucidate the questions asked and may follow up the responses of the interviewee without deviating from the purposes of the interview. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Interview Advantages: 1. attains higher response rate than the questionnaire; 2. decreases number of "don't knows and "no answers; 3. guards against confusing items; 4. interviewer can observe respondent's behavior, appearance, etc.; 5. questions not readily grasped by the interviewees can be rephrased with proper emphasis and explanations when necessary; 6. the interviewer has greater opportunity to appraise the accuracy and validity of replies; 7. interviewees often feel free to express personal and confidential information which they would not ordinarily do in writing. Disadvantages: 1. the very adaptability gained by the interpersonal situation leads to subjectivity and possible bias; 5

2. 3.

considerable training is required before the individual can successfully cany out an interview study; the interview is time consuming and therefore limits the number of subjects from whom data can be obtained.

Recording the Interview. Note-taking or tape recording are the usual methods for preserving the information collected in the interview. The chief advantage of the note-taking method is that it facilitates data analysis since the information is readily acccessible. Its disadvantage is that it may disrupt the effectiveness of the communication between the interviewer and respondent. On the other hand, the use of the tape recorder has these advantages: I) tape recorded data can be played back more than once and can be studied more thoroughly than the limited notes taken during the interview; 2) tape recorded data can be evaluated by persons other than the interviewer; and 3) the interview process can be speeded up because there is no necessity for extensive note-taking. Disadvantage: the presence of the tape recorder changes the interview situation to some degree: respondent may be reluctant to express his feelings freely if he knows that his responses are being recorded. Observation Definition - process of ascertaining what people think and do by watching them as they express themselves in various situations, selected to typify the conditions of informal living or to represent some special set of factors. It is recognized as the most direct means of studying people when one is interested in their overt behavior. Types: L Simple, Uncontrolled Observation 1.1 Participant - used when investigator is accepted as member of the group either known or unknown to group being observed. 1.2 Non-participant - used when it is impossible to be a genuine participant in all ways, whether known or unknown to a group or controlled. 2. Systematic or Controlled Observation 2.1 Controls on the observer in the form of mechanical devices, team observation, films and recordings, schedules and inventories, development of elaborate categories for locating and coding observed behavior quickly. 2.2 Controls on the observed - situation is contrived or manipulated in which definite stimuli are introduced. Characteristics of Observation for Research L Observation is specific; that is, observer looks for definite things and not just for general impressions. 6

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Observation is systematic - the length of the observation periods, the interval between them and the number are carefully planned. Observation is quantitative - the number of instances of a certain type of behavior are usually recorded. Observation must be recorded immediately. Observation implies expertise - observer must be trained to do such work. Observation claims to be scientific because the results can be checked and substantiated, either by comparing the results of different observers or by repeating the study.

Tools of Observation: 1. 2. 3. 4. checklists or schedules; time sampling - random sampling of time permits control over the observable forms of occurrence during a number of definite time intervals that are systematically spaced; behavioral diaries and anecdotal records; mechanical instruments - motion pictures, videotape recorders and sound recordings preserve details in a reproducible form which can be studied repeatedly and intensively by the investigator and checked by other research workers.

An example of an observation guide is presented in the following page which was used observing a class demonstration in the teaching of mathematics.

O bservation Guide Event Sample Illustrations/Events Tallies

1. Motivation a. recall of previous lesson b. devices used 2. Concept Development a. inductive method used b. use of pictures and devices c. clarity of explanation d. active participation of students 3. Generalization 4. Evaluation

To determine the reliability of the observations, the formula of Mussen (1960) may be used:

= ------------------------------ ---------*-------total number of dimensions observations

No. of agreements among observers

*isere: r = the reliability coefficient Interpretations of the reliability coefficient or r: .90 - 1.00 very high .80 - .89 high Below the .80 would mean that there is a need for proper orientation among the observers. Direction: Please cross (x) the blanks which best describes you. (Please check.) 1. Code Number_______(Do not fill this one.)

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Sex: 2.1 Male______2.2 Female_____ Civil Status: 3.1 Married Personal Information Sheet: A Sample ___________ 3.2 Single ___________ 3.3 Widow/er _______ Educational Attainment 4.1 Elementary_______________ 4.2 Secondary _______________ 4.3 College__________________ 4.4 Post college_______________ Age 5.1 29-below_______________ 5.2 30-39 ___________ 5.3 40-49 ___________ 5.4 50-above_____________ Length of Service with the Company 6.1 5 -below______________ 6.2 6 - 10 __________________________________ 6.3 11-15________________ 6.4 16 - above____________ Level of Management 7.1 Top__________________ 7.2 Middle ______________ 7.3 Rank & File ___________

The Personal Information Sheet is used to elicit information on the personal characteristics of the respondents so that a profile maybe drawn of them. Such profile is placed together with the topic: Respondents of the Study. The reader may be interested to know what type of respondents were used in the study. As you will observe the questionnaire above, the items there concern about the respondent himself. With the questionnaire above, you will gain insight on how to prepare the questionnaire. You can add items that may add more information about the respondent. The questionnaire is so constructed and numbered so that the data can be decoded and computerized. You will further observe that the age and length of experience have open intervals on both ends. Here is a questionnaire constructed by a researcher Dr. Dionisio C. Caro in his masteraVs thesis, entitled Perceptions on the Cubao-Makati - Escolta Routes: An Assessment. A. The cover letter 9

January 15, 1989

Pasay City Metro Manila Dear Respondent: lama graduate student of the University of the East working for a Master in Business Administration (M.B.A.) degree and tor a partial requirement for the degree, I am working on a research that would reflect your assessments of the Love Bus Service on the Cubao- Makati-Escolta route. As a passenger, you are competent to make judgments on the Love Bus Service in terms of some criteria like: 1. the effectiveness of the Love Bus as a transportation service; 2. collection of fares; 3. time scheduling; 4. convenience of the trip; and 5. the facilities inside the bus. The assessments are described in terms of the extent to which the Love Bus has made the ride comfortable and pleasant, and responses therefore are geared towards the measurement of that extent. The options to the questionnaire are: to a large extent, to a certain extent, not sure, to a limited extent, and not at all. The options are assigned points as follows.

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Options

Assigned Points

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It is requested that you give your assessments frankly and objectively so that the service of the Love Bus may be improved. Information given by you will be held highly confidential Thank you for making this a part of your day. Thank you again. Dionisio C. Caro Researcher B. The Assessment Questionnaire Directions: Please encircle the number which best describes your answer. The options are: To a large extent -5 To a certain extent ~ 4 Not sure -3 To a limited extent -2 Not at all -1 Effectiveness of the Love Bus a. Reduction of private cars 1) Travel has been made easy on route by

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II

5) 6)

The Love Bus service has reduced the use of gasoline. The Love Bus has reduced traffic in the route that they ply.

54321 ,5 4 3 2 1 54321 54321 54321 54321 54321 54321 54321 54 3

Service I) The Love Bus travels on schedule. 2) The Love Bus does not deviate from its route. 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) The driver and the conductor are courteous. The driver observes strictly traffic rules. The conductor is honest and returns the correct change. The driver stops at the passengers place. 1 enjoy taking the Love Bus on the Cubao-Makati-Escolta route. The driver announces clearly on intercom places where it would stop.

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c. Equipment 1) The Love Buses are generally in good condition. .. 2) The air condition equipment functions well. 3) 4) 5) The seats are clean. The bus is clean. The passengers are well taken care of by the conductors. Collection of Fares 1) 2) 3) The fares of the Love Bus service is reasonable and fair. Ticketing is immediate and changes are immediately taken. Considering the service the Love Bus gives, the fare collected is just and &ir.

54321 54321 54321 54321 ....5 4 3 2 1

54321 54321 ....5 4 3 2 1

2)

The Love Bus service has reduced the

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b. Collection of Fares 1) The feres of the Love Bus service is reasonable and fair. 2) Ticketing is immediate and changes are immediately taken. 3) Considering the service the Love Bus gives, the fare collected isjust and fair. Problems encountered by the passengers

........5 4 3 2 1 .........5 43 2 .........5 43 2 1 1

C.

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The above questionnaire has not been printed in the full text, but substantial enough for the student to see how a questionnaire should be constructed. The student should note the less number of items in a certain topic, and the similarity of responses for ease of statistical analysis and interpretation.

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Note also that with the assignment of points, scoring is very evident. For verbal interpretations of the results, arbitrary intervals are set, an example of which is shown below: Verba? Interpretations To a large extent - strongly agree To a certain extent - agree Not sure To a limited extent * disagree Not at all - strongly disagree The responses are arranged in a 5 Intervals 4.5 - above 3.5 - 4.4 2.5 - 3.4 1.5-2.4 1.4 - below continuum in a Likert Scale. The first two responses

are positive, while the third (not sure or uncertain) serves as the fulcrum of the responses, while the last two responses are negative, which respond to the characteristics of a probability distribution. Now go over the manuscript and when you feel that you are ready, you may take the Self- Pro gres Check Test.

(SEE NO, 3 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) Research 1 Module IV Lesson 1 SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST A. Enumeration: Write your answer on the spaces provided for, 1. 2. 3. The three common tools for data gathering.
a. b. c.

4.

The two types of interview, a. b. The two types of observation. a. b. Any three tools of observation.

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B. Identify the following. Write your answer on the blank before each number. ____________1. Type of observation where the researcher becomes a part of the respondents of the study _____ 2. Kind of interview where a questionnaire may be used as an interview guide. _____ 3. A kind of questionnaire where all the answers are found in the option. _ 4. A fece-to~face encounter between the researcher and the respondent. ----------------5. The characteristic of a good test wherein it seeks to measure what it intends to measure. . . . ______6. Means the test items are consistent, reliable and stable. ____________. 7 The ability of an instrument to make the discriminations required for the research problem. ____________ 8. The degree to which the measure is independent of personal opinions and subjective judgment, ___________9. Data that are generated from questionnaires replied to by people. ____________10. Data gathered from offices, both public and private. (SEE NO. 4 OF "INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT") Research 1 Module IV Lesson 2. Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on descriptive statistics, you will be able to: 1. present data through tables and figures; 2. analyze data using statistical methods; and 3. inteipret data. Statistical Methods used in Data Interpretation Once the questionnaires are in, data are culled, tallied. Sometimes at this moment, the researcher slops to work as he does not know what to do. One can always ask the help of statistician, to guide him to work on the data. However, here are some of the statistical techniques and methods which can help you. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

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Descriptive Statistics The main function of statistics is to tell stories about the data or describe data. To describe data, three types of descriptive statistics may be used: 1) statistics of location, 2) statistics of distance, and 3) statistics of association. The Statistics of Location. The first thing that a researcher should compute are the statistics that will describe what the common or what the representatives of the group are. These are called the measures of central tendency. The measures of central tendency are the averages and the most commonly used averages are the mean, median, and the mode. Mean. The arithmetic mean is described as: a. a computational average b. it is the sum of the variables divided by the number of variables or in formula form:

_nx=Sx in i-1 i

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where:

x= the arithmetic mean n= the number of variables i = the interval

c. it is used when the values of the variables are not extremes. Example 1. When one is asked to compute the average householdincome inForbes Park, the mean is used as a measur e of central tendency, since their earnings are almost the same. Example 2. If one is asked the average of the following scores: 34, 37, 30, 29, 32, 30, 33, 39, 39, 38 the arithmetic meanis the best measure of central tendency because the values of the variables are not extremes. There is also another mean which is very much used in the interpretation of data, especially from questionnaires which are assigned points. And this is the weighted mean which is solved by the formula:

Wm= S f,X./n i 1 where: Wm -the weighted mean f = frequency x = the variable n = the number ofvariables Example 1. Find theweighted variables: 5, 5, 5, 4, 4,3, 3(5) +
10

mean

of

the following

3, 3,2,2 2(4) + 3(3) + 2(2) 10 15 + 8 + 9 + 4 36

10

This is very useful when options to the items of a questionnaire are assigned points. Median. Another measure of central tendency is the median. It has the following characteristics. 1. It is a positional average. 2. It is the position in the distribution where half of the variates is greater and half is lesser. This implies ranking. 3. It is used when the values of the variables are extremes. Example 1. When one is asked on the average household income of the people living in Quiapo, the best measure of central tendency is the median, because in this place, there are very many poor and very many rich people, so that household income is heterogenous. Hence the use of a positional average. Example 2. Find the average of: 100, 80, 60, 40, 0 Note that the values in this distribution are extremes. We rank the variables and we have 100 80 60 - this is the midpoint, hence this is the median 40 0 Note that if you change 100 to 1,000, the median is not affected, since it is a positional average. Example 3. Find the median of the following: 100, 60, 40, 20, 0, 80 Rearranging the variables, we have: 100 80 60 the midpoint lies between 60 and 40.

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The median is the midpoint between 60 and 40, which is 50. This is the procedure when the number of variables are even.

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Mode. The mode is another commonly used measure of central tendency. It has the following characteristics. 1. It is a nominal average. 2. It is the variable with the greatest frequency. 3. It is used for qualitative data. Example 1. A researcher wants to know the average qualification of teachers in acertain school. This is the information. 30 PhJD.s 58 MAs 100 BSE The mean and median have no meaning in this problem, but rather the most representative group is the BSE, and such is the variable with the greatest frequency or the mode. Example 2. What is the mode of the following variables? 40, 23, 45, 45,45, 46, 45 In this case, the mode is 45. which occurs more times than the others. It is also possible for a distribution to be bimodal or trimodal, or there are two or three variables with the greatest frequencies. The three measures of central tendency are called the statistics of location or points, since as points, they are easily located in the normal distribution as shown below. [m, f (m)] 50%

50%

> Of the three measures of central tendency the arithmetic mean is the most stable.

Statistics of Scale or Distance. However, although we are able to describe what is representative of the group using the measures of central tendency, their descriptions, however, arenot enough. This isbecause the measures of central tendency are not unique, and if given cannot describe a definite distribution.

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Let us take this example. If A B, then XA XB, ii the two distributions A and B are equal distributions, then the corresponding measures of central tendency are the same. A B A- B >XA = XB

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Therefore from this explanation and example, means are not unique in this sense that it can represent infinite number of distribution. Hence we need more refined methods to describe data, or a description of variations or scatter of the variables. This gives the rational for the use of the measures of variation or the statisticsof scale. Let us just take the most common measures of dispersion or variation. a. Range. The range is the distance between the smallest and the largest variable or: R = LV - S V However, the range is not a good measure of variation or description, since it is involved only with two variables, and the rest of the variables lose their identity. It is used only to solve other statistical values. b. Standard deviation. The standard deviation has the following description. 1. It is sometimes called the root-mean-square. 2. It is the square root of the squared deviations from the mean divided by the degrees of freedom or by n- 1. A degree of freedom is a number which determines the number of variables which are free to vary under certain conditions or restraints.

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Example 1. Give 5 numbers whose sum is 100. The student can give any four numbers, like 25

These four numbers

30

are free to vary.

10
^10) ------100
25

But 10 is fixed otherwise the sum would not be 100. So the degrees of freedom is 5-4 =1, general rule which is n- 1.

equal to or the

In formula form, it is solved by:

s-

NJ

S_(x2

where:

n s= the standard x ) deviation 1 n= the number of -elements

x- the mean x - the variable The standard deviation describes the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the variables. The greater the value of the standard deviation, the more scattered the variables. There are other measures of scale such as the quartile deviation and mean deviation, but the most frequently used not only in description of data, but also in testing hypotheses is the mean. Of the different measures of scale, the standard deviation is the most commonly used, and the variance(s) is the square of the standard deviation. When the mean is used as the measure of central tendency, the best measure of scale or deviation is the standard deviation, while if the median is used, the best measure of central tendency is the quartile deviation. But inferential statistics utilize very much the mean and the standard deviation in the tests of hypothesis.

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The figure below shows that there are six standard deviations at the base of the normal curve. The area in the probability curve, 1 standard deviation above and below the mean 48.26 percent, while are of 2 standard deviations above and below the mean is 95.95 percent, while the area 3 standard deviations above and below the mean is 99.99 percent.

Once the necessary values are computed, they are arranged in tables. Below is an example of a frequency and percentage distribution of the age groupings of respondents of the study. Note that in the preparation of the table, the titie is found on the top. The different categories are arranged and expressed in percentage in two decimal points. Note that at the bottom of the table, the mean age and standard deviation are given. Table 1 Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Respondents According to Age Groupings Age Groupings 1. 2. 3. 4. 29 - below 30-39 40-49 50 - above Total I Number of Respondents 5. 20 20 5 50 Percent 10.00 40.00 40.00 10.00 100.00 Ranking 3.5 1.5 1.5 3.5

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E ""

x - 39.50 years s. d. 8.34 years Interpretation of Data The table shows the age groupings of the respondents of the study. Two large groups are noted, namely, those whose ages fall on the 30-39 years and on the 40- 49 age groups. There are 20 respondents in each group showing each a proportion of 40.00 percent. There are only very few of the respondents whose ages fall on the youngest and the oldest group. However, a mean age of 45.345 years, showing that the respondents are in their middle forties, strong and prime in their lives. Note: The interpretation does not use all the numbers in the table, but only those that stand out prominently. Leave the rest to the imagination of the readers. The above data could be graphed to make data more vivid and clear. Below is the vertical bar graph for it.

Figure I. Age Groupings of the Respondents of the Study

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Below is an example of how data are interpreted. The data are hypothetical based on the items of a questionnaire for the Skill Mix Theory. Note that the table summarizes data of the human relations skills of managers in terms of the weighted mean, the standard deviation, verbal interpretation and ranking. Not all the values are also discussed in the interpretation but only those that are important ones. Other values are left to the reader for them to interpret. Table 2 Impressions of Manager Respondents on their Human Relations Skills Items 1. He makes his subordinates work Weighted Standard Verbal Rank

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Note the interpretation of the table. Table 2 shows that the assessments of the managers of their own human relations skills were varied and ranged from "good to "outstanding." They assessed themselves as outstanding in their ability in being firm and letting their subordinates know where they stand (4.523), or when trouble comes, the managers stood by their personnel. They were rated low however, in their ability to share with personnel the problems of the company. This might be due to the feet that in general the problems are confidential Overall results with an overall weighted of 4.207 managers nevertheless described themselves as "very good in human relations skills. Now you have seen how data are presented, in tabular, or in figure form, or in textual form. You should gather insights into how tabular data are being presented, analyzed and interpreted.

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(SEE NO. 3 OF "INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT")

Research 1 Module
IV Lesson 2 SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST

A. 1.

Enumeration: Write your answers on the spaces provided for (1 point each). The different research techniques to generate data:

6.26 - 10 ....................................9 p ............................................29 r2(%).........................................33

a. B. Identify the word referred to by the sentence or the group of words. Write your answer on the blank before each number.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

An inventory or list of information desired by the researcher. The most commonly used technique to generate data. A research technique where the researcher comes face-to-face with the respondent. An interview where an interview guide is used. A type of observation where the researcher is a part of the respondents of the study. Used as a measure of central tendency when the values of the variables are not extremes. Used as a measure of central tendency when the variables are extremes. Measure of central tendency which implies ranking. Is a positional average Is a computational average Nominal average Variable with the greatest frequency Root mean square Another name for measures of central tendency. Is best used when the options are assigned points.

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16. .Are no; unique.

I". Determines the homogeneity or heterogeneity of the variables. 18. A method of data presentation where the title is found on the top. . Helps make data clear and vivid. . Title is found at the bottom of the page. O )0

(SEE NO. 4 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT")

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Rescan* 1
Madtk rv Ltsso* 3.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Lesson Objectives: .After studying this lesson on inferential statistics, you will be able to: !. select statistical techniques in interpreting data; 2. use relationships or correlational analyses techniques; 3. use comparative analyses techniques. Inferential Statistics We have seen that descriptive statistics are necessary in inteipreting data. But it should not end :bere. The researcher should use more sophisticated means of interpreting and analyzing data. Research should not just be merely description of data, but should indulge in finding relationships between the variables in the data or comparing situations. At this point, it is imperative that when one does a piece of research work, one should seek the guidance and advice of a statistical consultant. This module will just contain some of the most common statistical techniques and methods for 1) correlational or relationship, and 2) comparative analyses. I. Relationship Techniques a) Finding relations between variables L Pearson r correlation coefficient One of the most popular techniques of finding relationships between variables is the Pearson r correlation coefficient. Technically defined as: covariance V var x V var y it results into a formula called the product moment formula which is: n Sxy - x ly r V [nx2 - <Ix)2] [nXy2 - (2y)2J where: x = the independent variable y = the dependent variable This correlation coefficient describes how the variations of one variable go with the other, whetherdirect or inverse, whether positive or negative. Whenpositive, therelationshipsignified is positive and direct* and when negative, it is inverse and negative. So that thePearson r

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does not only indicate the direction of the relationship but also the amount of the relationship. However, there are basic assumptions for the use of the Pearson r and among these are: 1. that the distributions are normally distributed; and 2. that the relationship is linear. Some statisticians say that the first assumption is near to impossibility, but that the second one must be a must. Since the Pearson r is descriptive, a t-test is used to determine the significance of a Pearson r with the formula:

t = --------------------2

rOn-2

5 ~r where: r~ the correlation coefficient n= the number of pairs. The t-test uses a null hypothesis in the form: H:p = 0 against an alternative hypothesis in the form: Ha: P 1 0 A linear regression analysis follows with a regression line to be used in the form: y = a + bx + e where e - 0, but is normally distributed, and where: a~ y- bx

or the ordinate of the regression equation and

b =--------------------n 2 x2 (2 x)2 is the regression coefficient or the slope of the line. The regression equation provides the method of predicting the behavior of y given a value of x. The r2 (%) determines the amount of overlap which is explained by the regression equation solved. 2. Spearman rho Rank Correlation Method When one is not sure about the normality of the distributions, the researcher may utilize a ranking method known as the Spearman rho Rank Correlation method. It is one of the easiest correlational techniques. It is solved by the formula: 1 - 6 2 D2 p ----------------------where: D2 ~ tfje^diijlyrence of the ranks n * the number of pairs The Spearman rho Rank Correlation coefficient can either be tested by a t-test or given values in a certain table. When the variables are qualitative, the researcher may use the chi-square test. The chi-square formula is: x2 = 2 (0 - 2 )2/2 where: 0 - the expected frequencies and 2 = the expected or the theoretical frequencies. The chi-square tests uses a null hypothesis in the form: H:0=S
a

n 2 xy - 2x 2 y

1) Parametric tests.

29

There are a few of the parametric tests which are commonly used for comparative analysis. When comparing the means of two independent samples, a t- or a z-test is used depending upon the sizes of the sample and knowledge of the population or SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST the sample variance. On the other hand, determining the significant differences of three or more means of independent samples, a one-way analysis of variance may be used, however, with the basic assumptions present, like: randomness and homogeneity of variances. If the t-test meets the required level of significance, a Scheffe's test is used to determine the significant difference of any pair of means. 2) When normality of the variables are not determined, a Friedmans analysis of variance may be used, especially so when the sizes of the sample are extremely different. Otherwise, a qualitative method, or a chi-square may also be used.

(SEE NO. 3 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT")

Research 1 Module IV Lesson 3

Identify the word that is being referred to in the sentence or group of words* Write your

answer on the

2.

Comparative analyses

blank before each number.

___________I Inferring the characteristics of the population based on the sample. ___________2. Determines how the variationsof one go with the other. ___________3. The kind of relationship when the Pearson r is found positive, ___________4. The kind of relationship when the Pearson r is negative. ___________5. Known as the regression equation, ___________6. The a in the regression equation. ___________7. Known as the slope of the regression equation. ___________8, One of the basic assumptions of the use of the Pearson r which is difficult to attain. ___________9. The more important requirement for the use of a Pearson r. ___________10. Descriptive hence must be tested. ___________11. The test for the significance and reliability of a Pearson r. ___________12. Known as the proportion overlap explained by the regression equation. ___________13. To be used as a correlational analysis when one is not sure of the normality of the variables. ___________14. A test used for comparative analysis when there are two independent samples and the sample size is small. ___________15. A test used in comparing two sets of independent samples, when the samples are large and when standard deviation for the population is given. ___________16. Used when comparing three or more independent samples. ___________17. It is one of the requirements for the use of analysis of variance, which describes the nature of the variables. ____________18. Of variances is also required for the use of the t-test. ___________19. To be used when the t-test meets the required level of significance. ___________20. Can also be used for finding relationship between variables, especially if they are qualitative. (SEE NO. 4 OF "INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT)

Research 1 Module
IV

31

Lesson 1 A. Enumeration: (Answer may be in any order) TEST SELF-PROGRESS CHECK 1. Three common tools for data collection: a. questionnaire b. interview c. observation 2. Two types of interview: a. structured

b.

unstructured

3. Two types of observation: a. simple, uncontrolled b. 4. Any three tools of observation: a. b. c. B. checklists anecdotal notes

systematic, or controlled observation

mechanical instrument - video tape recorders

Identification: I. participant 2. 3. 4. 5. structured closed-ended questions interview validity

6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

reliability sensitivity objectivity empirical Secondary

Lesson 2 A. Enumeration: (Answer may be in any order.) 1. Different research techniques in generating data: a. questionnaire b. interview c. observation 2. Two types of observation: ANSWER KEYS TOuncontrolled b. systematic or controlled a. simple, THE SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST observation 3. Measures of central tendency: a. mean b. median c. mode B. Identification:

6.26 - 10 ..........................9 p ..................................29 r2(%)...............................33

8. mode mode standard deviation averages or statistics or location weighted mean measures of central tendency standard deviation table table Figure

Lesson 3 1. Inferential statistics 2. correlational coefficient 3. direct 4. inverse 5. y-a + bx + c 6. ~a = y - bx n Sxv - Sx Sy 7. b= ................................... nSx2 - (Sx)2 8. distributions are normally distributed 18. 9. that the relationship is linear 10.Pearson r t-test r2(%) Friedmans Analysis of variance t-test z-test

One-way analysis of variance

11.

13. Scheffes test chi-square test 14. 15. 16. 17. homogeneity

12 .

ratio

19. 20.

33