Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
INTRODUCTION
Heat exchanger is a device, which is used for transfer of heat from fluid to another, usually separated by walls. Whenever a temperature gradient exists between two fluids, energy is transferred by heat transfer process.
Classification: Based on the applications, heat exchangers are classified as boilers, condensers, heaters, coolers, recuperators etc. Depending on the configuration of fluid flow paths, heat exchangers are classified as parallel flow(co-flow) heat exchangers, counter current(counter flow) heat exchangers and single pass cross flow heat exchangers and multi pass cross flow heat exchangers. The most important difference between the four types lie on the relative amount of heat transfer surface area required to produce a given temperature rise for a given temperature difference between the two fluid streams where they benter the heat exchanger. Heat exchangers are employed in varied installations such as steam power plant, chemical processing plants, building heating, air-conditioning, refrigeration system etc to carry away the heat carried by the gases and it cools the gasses to a sufficiently low temperature, using a suitable fluid.
Regenerative Heat Exchangers In Regenerative Heat exchangers the hot and cold fluid flow through the one and same passage and heated surface is alternately exposed to the hot and cold fluids. If the periods of heating and cooling are of equal duration, continuous heating requires two apparatus in which the hot fluid is cooled in one apparatus the cold fluid is
Recuperative heat exchangers The two fluids performing the exchange of heat in the exchangers can flow (a) with each other in the same direction (parallel flow) or in opposite direction (counter flow) or (b) at right angles to one another (cross flow) with both types of flow a single or multi pass arrangement is possible. The element from which a recuperative matrix is built up is mainly of two kinds, the fluid flows along the tubes on the inside and along across the tubes on the outside. The fluid flows between consecutive plates arranged at a certain distance apart. To reduce the equivalent diameter, the flow channels between the plates may be sub divided in different ways by a folded or corrugated plate arranged between any two parallel plates and thus forming a multiplicity of parallel flow channels, the shapes of which depend on the kind and shape of corrugations. Heat transfer and flow resistance depend on size, shape and
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
Heat exchangers are practical devices used to transfer energy from one fluid to another to get fluid streams to the right temperature for the next process to condense vapours, to evaporate liquids, to recover heat to use elsewhere and to drive a power cycle.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: Shell and tube heat exchangers come in a wide range of sizes and lengths to many needs. This large unit features tantalum sheet and tubing to provide long life and corrosion resistance in severe environments. They are widely used in process industries, especially petro chemical and petroleum refineries, the use of shell and tube heat exchangers range from chillers heat removers etc to reboilers, process steam coolers etc. Also there are no moving parts. The shell and tube heat exchangers are grouped into three as R heat exchangers, C heat exchangers and B heat exchangers, according to service standards set by TEMA Class R heat exchangers are designed for severe service requirements class B, for moderate service requirements and class C for chemical process service.Although copper tubes and steel shells are the most common materials of construction a wide range of metals are available for handling various fluids and gasses as brass, aluminium, stainless steel, titanium and other alloys. Some application use glass or plastic tubes to resist the attack of extremely corrosive substance or to avoid affecting the
Figure 1. Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Multiple pass, multiple module constriction help to achieve a significant amount of heat transfer in a limited amount of space. Even though sufficient space must be left for the cleaning of tubes and the removal of tube bundles for repair, the units can be
Shell: The shell consists of a cylinder made from seamless pipe rolled and welded with a bolting flange at each end. It is often designed so as to withstand a pressure, one and half times its rated pressure. Shells are often designated by letters E, F, G, H, J, K and X.
Tube bundle: The tube bundle is made of tubes, tube sheet and cross baffles. Different types of tube configurations are available. One common type is the U-tube configurations which is the most economical. It has the fewest components one head assembly, one tube sheet and a shell with flange opening to accept the tube bundle on one end. Even though the arrangement features a removable, replaceable bundle, it is difficult to clean the tubes mechanically. Efforts to overcome this disadvantage resulted in the introduction of straight tube configuration. This configuration consists of a shell assembly with a flange on each end and the tube is fixed at the both ends. The unit is durable, can handle higher pressures and easy to maintain. The major disadvantages include the inability to tolerate large temperature difference between the shell and tube side fluids, the failure or breaking of tubes from the tube sheets due to the differential expansion and the nonreplicable bundle. Hybrid designs are also available to overcome many temperature and pressure drawbacks. The complete
Tube Sheets: Tube sheets are used to keep the tubes in position. The tubes can be either square pitched or triangular pitched. Due care must be taken in the design of tube sheets as it is affected by longitudinal stresses in shell and tube, tube compressive stress, tube to tube sheet joint loads etc.
Baffles: Baffles are used to induce turbulence outside the tubes as turbulence increases the heat transfer coefficients. Baffles cause the liquid to flow through the shell at right angles to axes of tubes. The centre to centre distance between baffles is called baffle pitch or baffle spacing. There are several types of baffles like disks and doughnuts, orifice, strip and segmental of which segmental baffles are most commonly used. Segmental baffles are formed by cutting a segment from a disc. Segmental baffles are drilled plates with heights which are generally 75% of the inside diameter of the shell and these are also called 25% cut baffles. The cut portion of baffle is often called the window section. Baffle is efficient and gives good heat transfer rates for pressure drop and power consumed
Flanges: Flanges are used on the shell of a vessel to permit disassembly and removal or cleaning of internal parts. They are also used for making connection for piping and nozzle attachments. The standard types of flanges for different pressure ratings are welding neck type, slip on type, screwed type, lap joint blind type etc.
Gaskets: The functions of a gasket are to interpose a semi plastic material between the flange facings, by which the material seals (through deformation under load) the minute surface irregularities to prevent the leakage of the fluid. The amount of force required for this purpose is known as yield or seating force. They are of different types; the most commonly used are fabricated with a metal jacket and a soft filler (usually of asbestos). Such gaskets can be used up to temperatures of about 8500 F and require comparatively less bolt load to seat and keep tight.
Channel: Channel is a tube side component. It has also got a cylindrical section. The tube side flows through the channel. Partition plates are made use for multipass flow. The effective thickness of the channel cover will be the thickness measured at the bottom of the pass portion groove minus tubeside corrosion allowance.
Nozzles:
The ASME BPVC Section VIII, division is the most widely used code for the design and construction of pressure vessels.
The ASME Code SECTION VIII, DIVISION 1: The ASME BPVC Section VIII, division 1 adopts the design by formula (DBF) approach. Division 1 uses approximate formulas, charts, and graphs in simple calculations, applies a higher factor- of- safety (resulting in lower allowable stresses), is more tolerant to fabrication techniques and fabrication defects as compared to other divisions of this section. The design basis of division 1 is the maximum
fabricated by brazing Subsection C Requirements pertaining to classes of materials Part UCS Requirements of pressure vessels
constructed of non ferrous materials Part UHA Requirements for pressure vessels
constructed of high alloy steel Part UCI Requirements for pressure vessels
constructed of materials with corrosion resistant integral cladding Part UCD Requirements for pressure vessels
constructed of cast ductile iron Part UHT Requirements for pressure vessels constructed of ferrite steels with tensile properties enhanced by heat treatment Part UHX Rules for shellandtube heat
exchangers Mandatory Appendices Mandatory Appendix 1 through 34 (34 nos.) No mandatory Appendix No mandatory Appendix A, C, through H, K, L, M, P, S, T, W, Y DD, EE, FF, GG, HH and JJ (22 nos.)
operation of heating boilers Section VII Recommended guidelines for the care of power boilers Section VIII Rules for construction of Pressure
vessels. Division 1,Division 2:Alternate Rules, Division 3:Alternate Rules for construction of high pressure vessels Section IX Section X Section XI Welding and Brazing Qualification Fibre reinforced plastic pressure vessels Rules for in-service inspection of nuclear power plant components Section Rules for construction and continued service of transport tanks
TEMA Standards The most widely used consensus standard heat exchanger manufacture is the Standards of Tubular Manufacturers Association. In short the TEMA standards first published in 1941, this standard had evolved into something of an international document. Many countries have accorded it he status of their international codes.
TEMA Nomenclature As per TEMA, the STHE is divided into three parts, the front head (stationary head), the shell and rear head (stationary or floating). Exchangers are described by alphabetic codes for the three sections.
: : :
The sequence of designating the shell and tube heat exchanger is: first the front (stationary) end then the shell and finally the rear end. Various combinations like AES, AEP, CFU, BEM, AKT, AJW, etc are possible. Each of these types has their relative merits and demerits. The one most suitable for the specific service is selected by considering the pros and cons of various constructional features
4. DESIGN FEATURES In designing the heat exchanger, the following requirements were established. Eliminate or at least eliminate fouling by not allowing the product to stick to the heated or cooled surfaces, be opened easily and cleaned thoroughly, eliminate leaking gasket and withstand high pressure. The shell and tube heat exchanger meets the non fouling requirements by permitting the product liquid flow to be set at velocity that can avoid or at least substantially minimise any deposit even if it means large pressure drop. To prevent any potential deposits from lodging the pockets, corners, crevices and zones, where the velocity cannot be strictly controlled were eliminated. During the washing periods the washing liquids should penetrate thoroughly. The opening and closing operations were simplified so that even inexperienced workmen could do them easily. The elements of unit were made sturdy material to avoid damage and to satisfy all requirements and calculated pressure ratings, permanently. The flow channels are completely smooth to avoid changes of crosssection. Change in the velocity of flow to utilise the overall pressure drop to generate
Thermal Design: The thermal design is very important in design of shell and tube heat exchanger. The thermal design is accomplished using one of the simple methods as narrated by D Q Kern. The heat transfer and coefficient pressure drop as predicted, particularly on the shell side could vary considerably from the actual values obtained in operation. The search has been instituted to develop more accurate predictive methods for thermal design. This is particularly relevant for optimum use of more expensive materials of construction coupled with the necessity for the increased reliability in operation. The flow distribution, physical property variation, temperature correction, velocity consideration and fouling factors are some of the criteria to be given due weightage to accurately predict thermal performance.
Mechanical Design: The mechanical designs of heat exchanger are based on reputed codes and standards. The most common standard used in TEMA. The Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA) was founded in the late 1930s in an attempt establish standards
Heat Exchanger Design-An Over View: Heat exchanger is the work home of the chemical industry and nuclear and thermal power plants. As it is the most commonly used equipment, it is imperative that improvements are continuously made in the design, for maximum cost effectiveness. The total design involves the thermal design and mechanical design. In thermal design, attempt is made to obtain a value, as realistic as possible, for the overall heat transfer coefficient and pressure drops on the shell and tube sides. The heat transfer correlations for the tube sides have a valid theoretical foundation, but those on the shell side are primarily empirical in nature because of the difficulties encountered in mathematically analysing the shell side flow.
5. MECHANICAL DESIGN
Design Specifications: The design specifications for TEMA class R 610-2438 BEM type heat exchanger is shown below.
1. Component: Shell Cylinder [As per ASME SECTION VIII, DIVISION II] Material selected: SA 516 GR 60 P= Shell side design pressure = 0.735 Mpa IR=inside radius of shell = 304.8 mm S=Maximum allowable stress =118MPa [From ASME SECTION II, Part D] E=Joint efficiency =0.85 Corrosion allowance =3 Required wall thickness of the cylinder, greater of:
2. Component: Front and Rear Head Cylinder [As per ASME SECTION VIII, DIVISION II] Material selected: SA 516 GR 60 P =1.4715 Mpa S=Maximum allowable stress= 118MPa [From ASME SECTION II, Part D] E= 1 Required wall thickness of the cylinder, greater of: Circumferential stress t = (P*IR / (S*E-0.6*P)) +CAI+CAO+tol = 6.87 mm Longitudinal stress t = (P*IR / (2*S*E+0.4*P)) +CAI+CAO+tol = 4.92 mm [UG-27(c) (2)] Actual wall thickness of cylinder: tnom = 12 mm 3. Component: Front and Rear Head Cover ASME Section VIII-1 2004 A06 UG-32 Formed Heads, and Sections, Pressure on Concave Side Ellipsoidal Cover Internal Pressure with t/L >= 0.002 Material: SA 516 GR 60 [UG-27(c)(1)]
4. Component: Tubes [As per ASME SECTION VIII, DIVISION II] Material selected: SA179 P=1.471 Mpa OR=25 mm S = 92.4 Mpa E= 1 Corrosion allowance=3
5. Tube-to-Tubesheet Welds ASME Section VIII Div.1 2004 A06 UW-20 Tube-To-Tubesheet Welds Fig UW-20.1 Sketch (a) Full Strength G Tubesheet material: SA-105 K03504 Forgings Tubes material: SA-179 K01200 Smls. Tube Allowable stress Tubes St = 14.06 Kg/mm2 Allowable Stress tubes Sa = 9.42 Kg/mm2 Allowable stress weld Sw = 9.42 Kg/mm2 Tube OD do = 25 mm Tube thickness t = 1.25 mm Design temperature Tubesheet = 170 C Design temp. Tubes = 170 C Fillet weld leg af = 2.05 mm Groove weld leg ag = 0 mm Minimum length ac acmin = 2.04 mm Total length ac = af+ag = 2.05 mm Fillet weld strength Ff = 0.55*Pi*af*(do+0.67*af)*Sw Ff = 882 kgf Groove weld strength Fg = 0.85*Pi*ag*(do+0.67*ag)*Sw Fg = 0 kgf Tube strength Ft = Pi * t * (do - t) * Sa Ft = 875 kgf
6. Component: Front Pass Partition Pass Partition Plate Max. Allowed Pressure Differential (TEMA 1999 RCB-9.132) Pass plate material: SA 516 GR 60 Plate Thickness t = 12.7 mm
4. Component: Flange Design ASME Section VIII-1 2004 A06 App. 2 Bolted Flange with Ring Type Gaskets Flange type: Integral tapered hub - code fig.2-4(6) Flange material: SA-105 K03504 Forgings Int. design pressure PI = 0.15 Kg/mm2 Design temperature T = 170 C Ext. design pressure PE = 0 Kg/mm2 B1 = B+g1 or B +go B1 = 624.6 mm Inside corrosion allowance CAI = 3 mm Outside corrosion allowance CAO = 0 mm Stress (operating) SFO = 14.06 Kg/mm2 Stress (atmos.) SFA = 14.06 Kg/mm2
5. Component: Tubesheets: The materials of construction and design conditions for tubesheet design are given below. Table 2: Materials and Design Conditions
COMPONENTS MATERIALS SHELL SA-516 GR 60 CHANNEL SA-516 GR 60 TUBESHEET SA-105 TUBES SA-179
DESIGN PRESSURE (Kg/ mm2) DESIGN TEMP. (deg C) ALLOWABLE STRESS (Kg/mm2)
0.075
0.15
0.15
0.15
65 12.02
170 12.02
170 14.06
170 9.42
MEAN METAL TEMP. (deg C) MOD.OF ELAS/ M.M.T.(Kg/mm2) COEF.TH.EXP/M.M.T. (mm/mm/C) CORROSION ALLOWANCE (mm)
50
50
170
165
20361
20361
19649
19675
0.0000117
0.0000117
0.0000125
0.0000125
RCB-7.134 Tubesheet Formula - Tubesheet Flange Extension RCB-7.1341 Fixed Tubesheet or Floating Tubesheet Exchangers Design temperature TS = 170 C TS allowable stress S = 14.06 Kg/mm2 Tubesheet OD A = 737 mm Reaction diameter G = 616 mm Ratio A/G r = 1.1972 Equivalent diameter DL = 415.9 mm Flange moment M = 3556 kgf*m
Relative expansion between shell and tubes (TEMA T-4.5) Shell metal temp. = 28.9 C Tube metal temp. = 143.9 C Tube length L = 2438 mm DeltaL = (Alphas*Thetas-Alphat*Thetat)*L = -3.56 mm RCB-7.13 Required Effective Tubesheet Thickness Tubesheet details with effective thicknesses (no corrosion added), mm Effective thickness definition as per TEMA 1999 RCB-7.12 Corroded conditions refer to head and shell dimensions only Bending: T = (F*G/3)*Sqrt (P/Eta*S)
RCB-7.162 Equivalent Bolting Pressure, Pb, Kg/mm2 Table 6: Equivalent Bolting Pressure
WITHOUT EXP.JOINT CONDITION EQUIV. BOLTING PRESSURE Pbt EQUIV. BOLTING PRESSURE Pbs 0.097 0.095 0.097 0.095 UNCORRODED 0.047 CORRODED 0.046 WITH EXP.JOINT UNCORRODED 0.047 CORRODED 0.046
Operating moment M1 = 1714 kgf*m Bolting-up moment M2 = 3556 kgf*m Operating - Pbt = Bolting up - Pbs = RCB-7.163 Effective Shell Side Design Pressure, P, Kg/mm2 Table 7: Effective Shell Side Design Pressure
WITHOUT EXP.JOINT WITH EXP.JOINT
RCB-7.164 Effective Tube Side Design Pressure, P, Kg/mm2 Table 8: Effective Tube Side Design Pressure
WITHOUT EXP.JOINT CONDITION P = (Pt'+PBt+Pd)/2, If Ps' is positive P = Pt'+PBt, If Ps' is positive P = (Pt'-Ps'+PBt+Pd)/ 2, If Ps' is negative P = Pt'-Ps'+PBt, If Ps' is negative P = Pt+(Ps/2)*((Dj/ 0 0 0 0 0.089 0.088 0 0 -0.252 -0.198 0 0 0.116 0.113 0 0 UNCORRODED -0.239 CORRODED -0.185 WITH EXP.JOINT UNCORRODED 0 CORRODED 0
RCB-7.22 Shell Longitudinal Stress, Ss, Kg/mm2 Ss = (Cs * (Do - ts) * (Ps*)) / 4 * ts Table 9: Shell Longitudinal Stress
WITHOUT EXP.JOINT CONDITION Tensile stress (shell), Kg/mm2 Allowable stress Tensile stress Ss Compressive stress (shell), Kg/mm2 Allowable stress Compressive stress Ss Ps* = Pt-Pt' Ps* = Ps' Ps* = -Pd Ps* = Pt-Pt'+Ps' 0 0.081 0.026 0.593 0.108 0 0.083 0.025 0.483 0.108 0 0 0 0.64 0 0 0 0 0.647 0 4.54 11.64 5.13 12.02 0 11.64 0 12.02 UNCORRODED 12.02 CORRODED 12.02 WITH EXP.JOINT UNCORRODED 12.02 CORRODED 12.02
RCB-7.23 Tube Longitudinal Stress-Periphery of Bundle, St, Kg/mm2 St = (Ct * Fq * (Pt*) * G^2) / 4 * N * tt * (do-tt) Table 10:Tube Longitudinal Stress-Periphery of Bundle
WITHOUT EXP.JOINT CONDITION G = Gs = Shell I.D Fs = 3.25-0.5*Fq Tensile stress (tubes), Kg/mm2 Allowable stress Tensile stress St Compressive stress (tubes), Kg/mm2 Allowable stress Sc Compressive stress St P2 = Pt'-(ft*Pt/Fq) P3 = Ps'-(fs*Ps/Fq) Pt* = P2 Pt* = -P3 Pt* = Pd Pt* = P2-P3 Pt* = P2+Pd Pt* = -P3+Pd Pt* = P2-P3+Pd -22.1 0.037 0.013 0.037 -0.013 -0.593 0.025 -0.555 -0.605 -0.568 -21.4 0.04 0.013 0.04 -0.013 -0.483 0.027 -0.443 -0.497 -0.456 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.36 9.42 1.73 9.42 0 0 0 0 UNCORRODED 609.6 1.72 9.42 CORRODED 615.6 1.47 9.42 9.42 9.42 WITH EXP.JOINT UNCORRODED 609.6 CORRODED 615.6
RCB-7.24 Allowable Tube Compressive Stress-Periphery of Bundle, Sc, Kg/mm2 Sc = Pi^2 * Et/(Fs*(kl/r)^2 when Cc <= kl/r k = 0.80 Sc = (Sy/Fs)*(1-(kl/r)/ (2*Cc)) when Cc > kl/r l = 425.5 mm Cc = Sqrt(2*Pi^2*Et/Sy) Cc = 156 kl/r = 40.47 r = 0.25*Sqrt(do^2+(do-2*tt)^2) = 8.41 mm RCB-7.25 Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Loads-Periphery of Bundle, Wj, kgf Wj = Pi * Fq * (Pt*) G^2 / (4 * N) Table 11: Tube -to-Tubesheet Joint Loads-Periphery of Bundle
WITHOUT EXP.JOINT CONDITION G = Gs = Shell I.D., mm Tube-to-tubesheet load, Wj Pt* = P2 Pt* = -P3 Pt* = P2-P3 0.037 -0.013 0.025 0.04 -0.013 0.027 0 0 0 0 0 0 126.8 160.9 0 0 UNCORRODED 609.6 CORRODED 615.6 WITH EXP.JOINT UNCORRODED 609.6 CORRODED 615.6
RCB-7.25 Tube-to-Tubesheet Joint Loads-Periphery of Bundle, Wj, kgf Allowable Loads per ASME Section VIII Div. 1 2004 A06 Appendix A Table 12: Joint Types
Type Joint description a Strength fr 0.8 No Test Lmax 700 fr 1 Test Lmax 875
. For joints types a,b,b-1,c,d,e : Lmax = At*Sa*fr For joints types f,g,h, : Lmax = At*Sa*fe*fr*fy For joints types i,j,k : Lmax = At*Sa*fe*fr*fy,ft Cross-sectional area At = 92.91 mm2 Tube allowable stress Sa = 9.42 kgf/mm2
6. Component: Nozzle ASME VIII-1 2004 A06 UG-27 Thickness of Cylinders under Internal Pressure Material: SA-106 K03006 GR B Smls. Pipe Design pressure P = 0.075 kg/mm2 Design temperature T = 65 C
7. Component: Reinforcement Nozzle ASME Section VIII-1 2004 A06 UG-37 Reinforcement Required for Openings in Shells and Formed Heads
CONCLUSION Heat exchangers find wide application in various fields of engineering like space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, and natural gas processing. Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or vice versa. The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, leading to the use of many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is an efficient way to conserve energy. The heat exchanger selected for the design is shell and tube heat exchanger of fixed tube sheet type. The various parameters were considered and mechanical design was completed using ASME and TEMA standards. The mechanical design is analysed using B-JAC software and finds out that the design is safe.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
REFERENCES Mechanical design of heat exchanger & process vessel components K.P. Singh & A.I. Soler Heat & Mass Transfer- S.C. Arora & S. Domkundwar ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code TEMA Standards and Codes Heat & Mass Transfer R.C. Sachdeva Process Heat Transfer- D.Q. Kern
APPENDIX
1. Reinforcing Element UG-37.1
3. Chart for Determining Shell Thickness of Components Under External Pressure CS1
9.Figure RCB-7.132