The Grafters Handbook

R.J.Garner
Revised & updated Edition

CHAPTER VIII

Grafting Established Trees

When trees have left the nursery and become established in their permanent positions, it is sometimes necessary to make use of grafting to change the variety or to repair and invigorate the growth. The methods of grafting used in the nursery may be used in the rehabilitation of older trees, but certain peculiar techniques have proved particularly suitable and, for ready reference, are brought together for description in this chapter. Whilst it is true that all trees, except possibly the palms and their allies, may be successfully grafted in one way or another, fruit and other plantation trees are more frequently grafted than others. The methods which have proved so successful with deciduous fruits may be adapted to other subjects. Whenever it becomes necessary for a fruit grower to change the variety of a tree he may do so in two main ways. He can remove the tree and plant another or he can graft new scions upon the existing tree. Grafting, properly done, is preferable to replanting except where the trees are extremely decrepit. Grafting is essential for the preservation of any trees that may have been girdled or excessively damaged by livestock, wildlife, machinery or implements. The root system as well as the branch system may be changed by grafting, and weak trees invigorated by inarching them with more vigorous root systems. Thus there are many opportunities for the grafter in the improvement of established trees. This is considered under two main headings: to change varieties, and to repair or improve.

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TO C H A N G E VARI E TI ES Apple, pear, and other trees have a productive life of fty years or more. Hence, when a variety becomes obsolete, the grower is reluctant to discard his trees at twenty years of age to plant afresh and he looks with favour on the sounder methods of re-grafting (re-working). These methods are conveniently placed in two groups: (1) topworking, in which the branches are removed almost entirely and the cut ends set with scions of the desired variety, or (2) frameworking, in which the main framework branches are entirely retained and furnished with new fruiting laterals. In both topworking and frameworking, many different grafts

20. Growth and form inuenced by technique

One-year trees of Conference pear on Quince A grown side by side. Two bundles (left) budded in July; two bundles (right) whip-and-tongue grafted the following March. All material of equal source, worked by one operator. Lateral scion-shoots have been removed from grafted trees.

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have been used but the popular methods in use today are few. Once the operator is well aware of the position of the cambium and realizes the vital necessity of cambial contact (Chapter II), the actual grafting presents no problem. The preparation of the trees to be grafted and the position and aftercare of the grafts is less well understood and is often the cause of mediocre results or even of complete failure.
SEASON FOR GRAFTING

Spring is the normal time for reworking trees with dormant scions, though grafting in various forms is done almost throughout the year. The methods to be described here are intended for use in England from February to June. Early grafting usually gives the best results, though some forms of grafting with dormant scions are successful up to midsummer and after. The rind of stone fruits, such as plums and cherries, does not readily separate from the wood until very late in the season, hence they are usually cleft grafted.
PREPARATORY MEASURES

Ample supplies of scion-wood must be collected and stored, and graft seals and tools made ready before grafting time, as described in Chapters IV and V. Steps and ladders should be provided as required. Selfsupporting steps are favoured over ladders because there is less likelihood of the new scions being dislodged or damaged since the steps are not supported by the boughs in the way that ladders need to be. Mobile platforms and trolleys are ideal for working at height, as they are stable and can be conveniently moved around from tree to tree. Henchman, based in Hampshire, England, offer a range of suitable ladders and platforms. Where a large number of trees are to be grafted, motorized mobile platforms (similar to those used for pruning semi-mature trees growing in a nursery) can be used, manufactured by Damcon. These must all comply with current Health and Safety at Work regulations. Each grafter should be equipped with a satchel, which should be worn well up on the chest. The knife should be placed in a separate part of the satchel where it is clearly visible, so that it

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Fig. 105 Grafters apron

Of strong canvas or leather, reaching barely halfway down the thighs; useful when topworking and frameworking. A wad of cotton wool is placed in the bottom of the knife pouch. Knife (A), hammer (B) and secateurs (C), rmly gripped in their pouches, protrude for ready handgrasp. Gusseted nger-and-thumb pouch for small nails (D). Scion pouch well up on the chest (E).

can be left open with safety. There should be a pouch for scions well up, almost under the chin. These arrangements, which may be combined in an apron (Fig. 105), help to expedite the work of the grafter.

Topworking
GENERAL

Much of the main branch system of the tree is removed and scions are inserted in the cut ends of the main limbs, within 600900mm (23ft) of the crotch of medium-sized trees. A well-prepared tree is shown in Plate 21. Correspondingly more framework should be retained in larger trees. All small branches below the general level of grafting should be left intact for at least a year in order to feed the roots and retain life in the tree. Such branches are commonly known as sap-drawers. Experience has shown that, where there are insufcient sap-drawers, one

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21. A twenty-year-old apple tree suitably prepared and topworked

Note the presence of numerous small sap-drawer branches and the protective dressing on the scions to prevent weevil damage.

22. Sap-drawer branches

Two complete branches retained for one or two years in a topworked tree. Such branches keep the tree healthy, aid the healing of the wounds and the formation of strong unions. They should be removed when scion growth is abundant.

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or two large branches of the old variety (Plate 22) should be left intact for the same purpose. These may be grafted one or two years later, or removed entirely when growth from the new scions is abundant. The presence of large sap-drawers in no way diminishes scion growth but, on the contrary, increases it. It also encourages healing and reduces the risk of loss due to such diseases as silver-leaf (Chondrostereum purpureum) which enter through wounds41, 131. The main limbs of the trees to be grafted may be sawn off at any time during the winter, but fresh-cut surfaces at grafting time are considered an advantage. The preparation of the tree involves considerable labour, and some growers prefer to do this in the winter so that the lop-and-top may be cleared away when labour can best be spared. On the other hand, large wounds should not be made whilst trees are completely dormant, especially in stone fruits and certain apples such as Newton Wonder and Emneth Early that are susceptible to silver-leaf (Chondrostereum purpureum). Very severe pruning in winter also has the effect of delaying the start of growth in the spring. In preparing trees for topworking it should be remembered that large wounds take a long time to heal, and it is better to insert scions into two small limbs above a fork rather than in one large limb lower down. Branches of 125mm (5in) or more in diameter should be sawn off higher up, where their diameter is not more than 75100mm (34in). Two or three scions may be inserted in order to retain life at the edges of the cut surface, and as an insurance against a poor graft take or losses caused by accidental damage. Where several or all of the scions have taken, it is best if only one remains at the end of each limb of the original variety, as this ensures strength at the union. The surplus scions are removed as the wound heals. The methods of grafting used in topworking are very numerous. Only the chief of these are described here: namely, two methods of cleft grafting simple and oblique and three rind methods.
CLEFT GRAFT ( split

graft) The latter part of February is not too early to begin cleft grafting and the work may continue as long as the scion-wood

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Fig. 106 Cleft graft (split graft)

remains in good condition, bearing in mind that in general early grafting is preferable. The cut end of the limb is cleft diametrically. This cleft is opened by the insertion of a wedge or by using the grafting tool as a lever. The scions, usually of three or four buds, are prepared by two slanting cuts at their base in the form of a long, tapering wedge (Fig. 106, A). The presence of a bud (B) between the two cut surfaces and about half-way between the point at which the cuts begin and the base of the scion is an advantage. The scions are inserted so that their cambial regions are in contact, due allowance being made for the thick rind of the stock and the thin rind of the scion. The wedge or tool is removed and the scions are held fast by the pressure of the limb of the stock (C). If only one scion is inserted in the end of each limb, then it is unnecessary to extend the cleft right across the limb. It should extend only halfway across and be sufciently deep to allow for opening and the insertion of the scion. For rapid work it is an advantage to sling the tool and mallet together (Fig. 107) with a thong or cord, so that when the tool is used as a wedge the mallet may be left to dangle and the operator is free to use both hands for the preparation and insertion of the scions. The work proceeds as follows: the tool

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Fig. 107 Tool and mallet slung together

The cord or thong should be long enough to permit free movement. When the wedge is driven into the cleft, the mallet is dropped and the operator uses both hands to prepare and insert the scion.

is placed on the end of the limb, one powerful blow drives it well home, the tool is wrenched out and the wedge-like end is driven down in the middle of the cleft, the mallet is dropped

Fig. 108 Methods of cleaving obliquely

Note treatment of large, medium and small limbs.

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and dangles. The scions are then prepared and inserted, and with one upward blow the tool is removed. When sealing large clefts it appears to be an advantage to place a little clay or bitumen emulsion both in the clefts, to prevent liquid seals from running too far into them, and between any ill-tting scion and stock. Though often successful, this somewhat brutal technique is now being replaced by the oblique cleft method, in which the heart of the limb is not split.
OBLIQUE CLEFT GRAFT

The sawn ends of the limbs are pared smooth, at least near the edges, and cleft as shown in Fig. 108. None of the clefts should extend right across the branch. Three and four-bud scions are used. The upper end is cut immediately above a bud and the lower is prepared by two slanting cuts in the form of a long tapering wedge as for the ordinary cleft graft (Fig. 106, A). Again, the presence of a bud (B) between the two cut surfaces and about halfway between the point at which the cuts begin and the base of the scion is an advantage.

Fig. 109 Oblique cleft graft

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The clefts are opened by means of the grafting tool and the scions are inserted, care being taken to see that the cambia are in contact (Fig. 109). The exposed cambium of the scion is not strictly in line with the scion, so a slight inclination outwards of the top of the scion gives more opportunities for the cambia to meet. Removal of the tool causes the scion to be held rmly in

23. A standard apple changed to a bush by crown grafting

Fourteen veneer crown grafts (nailed) form the crown. A dozen inverted L grafts are used to provide additional early leaf activity. The tree should be sprayed with whitewash from the sun side to reect midday heat. On the right, a four-year-old decapitated specimen with circumference healed and at the branch-thinning stage.

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position and no tying or nailing is necessary. All exposed cut surfaces, including the apical ends of the scions, and the cut surfaces of limbs, are sealed with grafting wax. Careful workers rub a little clay or brush bitumen emulsion into the clefts to prevent the wax from running down inside, where it might prevent healing.
RIND GRAFT ( crown

graft) An example of crown grafting is shown in Plate 23. The sawn ends of the limbs are pared smooth and the scion is inserted between the rind and the wood of the trees. The rind should part readily from the wood, a condition not normally reached in England until after early April. There are many methods of preparing and inserting the scion. In the most common, the scion is prepared as for whipand-tongue grafting but without the tongue (Fig. 57). The prepared limb receives a cut of one or two inches in length extending downwards from the pared surface of the limb, and the scion is pushed down beneath the rind, so that the cut surface of the scion is towards the middle of the limb (Fig.

Fig. 110 Rind graft (crown graft)

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Fig. 111 Modied rind graft

The scion is prepared by one principal cut (A) and one shallow straightening cut (B).The rind of the stock is raised on one side only of the incision and the shallow cut (B) is placed against the edge of the non-raised rind (C).

110). It is sometimes better, particularly when the rind of the stock is very thick, to lift the rind only on one side of the cut and to remove a very narrow shaving from the edge of the scion (Fig. 111), which is against the uplifted rind. The rind may be rst lifted by means of a thin bone spatula, such as can be made from an old toothbrush handle. The limb receives from one to four scions according to its size. Unlike the oblique cleft, the rind graft must be tied rmly with soft string, rafa, rubber strips or plastic tape around the end of the limb over the inserted sections, avoiding the stock or basal bud of the scion. If waxed tape is used for binding, it will only be necessary to seal the remaining exposed cut surface at the end of the branch and the tips of the scions: otherwise all cut surfaces, including the bark opening over the inserted scion, must be sealed as in oblique cleft grafting. Soft string or rubber strips are usually more convenient to use than rafa, especially on large limbs. Rafa and some adhesive tapes usually burst with the growth of the tree, but to avoid constriction the string may have to be cut by the middle of the summer. Rubber strips are usually biodegradable and rarely need any more attention. As a matter of course, the work should be inspected from time to time.

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Fig.112 Veneer crown graft (Tittels graft)

VENEER CROWN GRAFT ( Tittels

graft) In the veneer type of rind graft the scion is prepared as for normal rind grafting with additional small cuts (Fig. 112, A) at the sides, just sufcient to straighten the edges. The thin tip at the base of the scion is also removed. The transversely cut limb of the stock receives two parallel cuts separated by the width of the prepared scion. The scion is pushed down beneath the rind lying between the parallel cuts. The strip of the stock rind (B) is pushed out in this process and is cut off ush with the limb. The graft may be tied or xed by two 16mm (58in.) gimp pins driven through the scion into the stock. Sealing is necessary. When the stock rind is very thick the scion, when inserted, may not rise above the surface and tying will not hold the scion. In such a case, the stock rind should be thinned by paring away the outer corky layers before inserting the scion111. Such treatment is not necessary where nails are used for xing.

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STRAP GRAFT

This is an excellent method for the topworking of trees, largely because it aids the healing of the ends of the limbs and also serves to tie the scion to the stock. The comparative tediousness of the method must be set against the foregoing advantages. The scions are prepared by rst raising a strap of rind (Fig. 113, A) long enough to stretch across the cut surface of the stock and 25mm (1in) or so down one side. This strap must be thick enough to contain a continuous layer of cambium but not so thick as to be stiff. It must be exible enough to fold sharply to form a right angle over the branch stub when required. When the strap is long enough the knife is turned

Fig. 113 Strap graft

Careful tying and sealing is necessary to complete this graft.

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slightly deeper into the scion (B), and a few shavings are taken from the scion just below the upper end of the strap (C). The knife is reversed to slice the scion after the manner of a splice graft scion (D). The ideal scion is cut so that a stock bud (E) is left opposite this slicing cut. The end of the limb to be grafted is pared smooth and the rind is slit (F) as described for rind grafting. The prepared scion is pushed down under the stock rind, taking care that the strap is not torn away as the scion is pushed home. The strap now lies at upon the cut surface at the end of the stock, and the free end is either tucked under the rind or a slice of stock rind is removed to expose the cambium upon which the end of the strap is pressed. The whole graft is tied with soft string or adhesive tape, and sealing is done in the usual manner. Large limbs may receive two scions, the straps lying parallel, and occasionally three, or even four straps may be used so that they cross one another. Small limbs, young trees, and rootstocks in nurseries may be strap grafted after the manner of the Somerset saddle graft (page 180). Successful strap grafts heal rapidly and form immensely strong junctions.
AFTERCARE OF TOPWORKED TREES

Scions newly inserted when topworking are often damaged by weevils which eat the rind and the buds. Such pests may be controlled by treating the scions with an appropriate insecticide immediately after grafting. If the trees are in an exposed position, the leaders, or main shoots from the scions, may be steadied during the rst year by tying them loosely to stakes bound lightly to the branches of the tree. Grafts which are tied with twine or other non-perishable ligatures must be watched and released before constriction occurs by passing a sharp knife through the strands between the scions. Unwrapping should not be necessary and may unsettle the scions. Topworking is followed by profuse and vigorous sucker growths from the stock. These growths may be thinned but not removed, except where they tend to smother the scions completely. If the scions grow very vigorously in their rst

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season, the stock suckers may be removed the following winter or very much reduced in quantity; otherwise some should be left for a further season. Similarly the removal of the sapdrawers (page 248) should be governed by the growth from the scions. At no time should the limbs of the tree (the stock) be left unshaded, as such exposure quite often results in injury known as sunscald. This damage occurs on the surfaces of limbs facing the noonday sun and can be very severe, even in temperate climates. Where the grafted limbs are bare of branches, and shade from sap-drawers is inadequate, the surfaces of the limbs facing south should be whitened. Where a number of trees require this protection it may be most easily given by spraying with thick limewash or whitening from a southerly direction. Such treatment may check temperature increases in sunny weather. Interesting observations13, 17 have been made concerning the prevention of sunscald. Trees with thick, corky bark are not susceptible, and until this cork develops, some trees, notably certain conifers (pines), have light-coloured bark. Scald is common in trees suddenly isolated. Rapid growth from the scions may help to prevent excessive heating by developing an efcient transpiratory stream which may act as a cooling system beneath the rind. Where trees are affected with sunscald, the limbs are red-brown when viewed from the south and normal green or grey from the north. The actual operation of topworking is only the beginning of the conversion of the tree. For some years the sucker growths must receive attention and the scion growths must not be neglected, but pruned to form a sturdy branch system, much as advocated for vigorously growing young trees. Where more than one scion is growing from each limb, the better placed must be encouraged by reducing the others until they are eventually entirely removed. Unhealed wounds should be resealed to reduce the danger of the heart-wood rotting (Plate 24). When scions have failed to grow, the stock should be allowed to put forth shoots close to the end of the limb to prevent dying back from the cut end. These limbs may be regrafted or cut off close to the trunk the following spring. Topworked trees cannot be expected to carry crops until they have developed a substantial framework.

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Frameworking
GENERAL

The initial cost of frameworking is much higher than topworking, but there are some important advantages. Frameworked trees quickly yield large crops of good-quality fruit (Plate 25). Pears, plums and cherries have given useful crops in the third season from grafting. Frameworked trees remain healthy in situations where topworked trees may die from diseases such as silverleaf (Chondrostereum purpureum) and papery bark canker (Trametes versicolor) 52. In preparing trees for frameworking, a few badly placed branches may be removed entirely but this work should be kept to a minimum in order to avoid making large wounds and disturbing the natural growth balance of roots and shoots. The small lateral branches and spurs must be pruned away, except in stub grafting, and are replaced at every 200250mm (810in) along the limbs, right out to the two-year wood, with scions. In this way practically the whole of the existing framework of the tree is retained and only the fruiting laterals and young extension shoots are replaced with the new variety (Plate 26).

24. An unhealed and weak crotch

One of the scions on the end of this limb should have been reduced in favour of the other so that, nally, there would be no weakness at the bifurcation. The large wound should have been resealed until healed.

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25. Frameworked trees crop quickly

A. Newton Wonder apple tree, frameworked at thirteen years old with Laxtons Superb, bearing ve bushels (about 90 kg/198lb) of good-quality fruit two and a half years from grafting.

26. A frameworked tree

A twenty-year-old Gladstone apple tree immediately after frameworking with 120 scions of Worcester Pearmain. Note that the whole framework of the tree is retained and only the lateral branches are replaced with the new variety.

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