Fusion welding involves a heat source and may involve the use of a filler material such as a consumable electrode

or a wire fed into the weld pool. These processes also use a protective layer between the atmosphere and the molten metal, either in the form of gas shielding or a flux which melts to give a viscous slag on the weld metal that eventually solidifies and can be removed. There are several different types of fusion welding processes that can be used.

Arc welding refers to a group of welding processes that use a welding power supply to create an electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding point. They can use either direct (DC) or alternating (AC) current, and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas, known as a shielding gas, and/or an evaporating filler material. The process of arc welding is widely used because of its low capital and running costs.
Soldering Jointing by means of capillary action of a filler metal with a melting (liquidus) temperature lower than 450C. Most coppers and copper alloys can be readily soft soldered using conventional aqueous or organic fluxes. Fresh water service and central heating installations are commonly assembled using fittings where the solder is either present in an insert or end-fed at the soldering temperature. For use with potable waters, lead-free solders are now used. Special fluxes may be needed if an alloy contains aluminium. Advantages:Low process temperature No fusion of the parent metals Good manual application Suitable for dissimilar metals Capable of a high degree of mechanisation Wide range of process heating techniques Applicable to all copper-based alloys Minimum finishing requirements Disadvantages:Mechanical properties of joint lower than parent metals Flux necessary Filler metals high in cost Manual Metal-Arc Welding

Manual arc welding is the process in which an operator strikes an arc between a hand-held electrode and the work piece. Either direct or alternating current can be used. Advantages:Good manual application Low process cost Low cost and simple equipment Low cost filler metals Good metallurgical joint properties Disadvantages:Not applicable to all copper based alloys Flux necessary Risk of inclusions and porosity in joint Not capable of a high degree of mechanisation High degree of manual skill required

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is a common arc welding process. It requires a continuously fed consumable solid or tubular (metal cored) electrode. The molten weld and the arc zone are protected from atmospheric contamination by being submerged under a blanket of granular fusible flux. When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and provides a current path between the electrode and the work. SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized mode, however, semiautomatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process is normally limited to the 1F, 1G, or the 2F positions (although 2G position welds have been done with a special arrangement to support the flux). Deposition rates approaching 100 lb/h (45 kg/h) have been reported this compares to ~10 lb/h (5 kg/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding. Currents ranging from 200 to 1500 A are commonly used; currents of up to 5000 A have been used (multiple arcs). Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire variations of the process exist. SAW stripcladding utilizes a flat strip electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm thick). DC or AC power can be utilized, and combinations of DC and AC are common on multiple electrode systems. Constant Voltage welding power supplies are most commonly used, however Constant Current systems in combination with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are available.

[edit] Advantages of SAW

High deposition rates (over 100 lb/h (45 kg/h) have been reported); High operating factors in mechanized applications; Deep weld penetration; Sound welds are readily made (with good process design and control); High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over 100 in/min (2.5 m/min) is possible; Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.

[edit] Limitations of SAW

Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and some nickel based alloys; Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions; Normally limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes or vessels; Requires relatively troublesome flux handling systems; Flux and slag residue can present a health & safety issue; Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.

Brazing and Hard (or Silver-) Soldering Jointing by means of capillary action of a filler metal with a melting (liquidus) temperature higher than 450C. Brazing is a recommended method of obtaining good capillary joints in copper tubing applications such as the assembly of heavy duty water service installations. It is also well suited to many other purposes and can be easily mechanised with the use of filler paste or presets, heated by torch in the open or in controlled atmosphere furnaces. It must be used with care with brasses that may have melting temperatures similar to the common brazing alloys. Advantages:Low process temperature No fusion of the parent metals Good manual application Capable of a high degree of mechanisation Wide range of process heating methods Applicable to all copper-based alloys, with the exception of those with a high lead content Good mechanical joint properties Minimum finishing requirements Disadvantages:-

Flux may be necessary Closer joint tolerance and fit-up may be required Filler metals can be high cost Filler metals may have different corrosion resistance to that of the surrounding metal

Resistance welding is a group of welding processes in which coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work piece to electric current in a circuit of which the work piece is a part and by the application of pressure. Spot welding is a type of resistance welding used to weld various sheet metals. Typically the sheets are in the 0.5-3.0 mm thickness range. The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current and force between the materials to be welded. The result is a small "spot" that is quickly heated to the melting point, forming a nugget of welded metal after the current is removed. The amount of heat released in the spot is determined by the amplitude and duration of the current. The current and duration are chosen to match the material, the sheet thickness and type of electrodes. Applying the current for too long can result in molten metal being expelled as weld splash, or can even burn a hole right through the materials being welded. Spot welding is typically used when welding steel sheet metal. Thicker stock is difficult to heat up from a single spot, as the heat can flow into the surrounding metal too easily. Spot welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal pails. Aluminum alloys can also be spot welded. However, their much higher thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity mean that up to three times higher welding currents are needed. This requires larger, more powerful, and more expensive welding transformers. Due to changes in the resistance of the metal as it starts to liquefy, the welding process can be monitored in real-time to ensure a perfect weld every time, using the most recent advances in monitoring/feedback control equipment. The resistance is measured indirectly, by measuring the voltage at and current through the electrodes. The voltage needed for the welding depends on the resistance of the material to be welded, the sheet thickness and desired size of the nugget. When welding a common combination like 1.0 + 1.0 mm sheet steel, the voltage between the electrodes is only about 1.5 V at the start of the weld but can fall as low as 1 V at the end of the weld. This drop in voltage stems from the resistance reduction caused by the steel melting. The open circuit voltage from the transformer is much higher than this, typically in the 5-10 V range, but there is a very large voltage drop in the electrodes and secondary side of the transformer when the circuit is closed. Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in the automobile industry, where it is used almost universally to weld the sheet metal forming a car. Spot welders

can also be completely automated, and many of the industrial robots found on assembly lines are spot welders (the other major use for robots being painting). Another place where spot welding is used is in the orthodontist's clinic, where small scale spot welding equipment is used when resizing metal "molar bands" used in orthodontics.

Resistance seam welding

by Steve Westgate

Description
The seam welding process is an adaptation of resistance spot welding and involves making a series of overlapping spot welds by means of rotating copper alloy wheel electrodes to form a continuous leak tight joint. The electrodes are not opened between spots. The electrode wheels apply a constant force to the workpieces and rotate at a controlled speed. The welding current is normally pulsed to give a series of discrete spots, but may be continuous for certain high speed applications where gaps could otherwise occur between individual spots. Seam welding equipment is normally fixed and the components being welded are manipulated between the wheels. The process may be automated; it is illustrated in Fig.1.

Fig.1. Conventional wide wheel seam welding

Current status
There are a number of process variants for specific applications: Wide wheel seam

Wheel contact width normally 5 t mm flat (where t is single sheet thickness in mm). General purpose welding (domestic radiators up to about 6 m/min).

Fig.2a) Wide wheel seam

Narrow wheel seam

Wheel contact shape typically 6mm radius. Knurl drive on wheel edge with contact surface continuously planished. Controls electrode contamination when welding coated steels, such as for vehicle fuel tanks.

Fig.2b) Narrow weld seam

Consumable wire seam welding

Shaped, consumable copper wire fed between the wheels and sheets to be joined to give consistent clean contact. Used for welding coated steels such as tin cans and vehicle fuel tanks.

Fig.2c) Consumable wire seam

Mash seam welding

Narrow overlap of sheet edges, which are partly crushed together during welding. High speed welding of tin cans and drums (0.2mm tinplate up to 100m/min). Wide wheel or consumable wire processes used.

Fig.2d) Mash seam welding

Foil butt seam welding

Foil welded on to each side of the butted edges of the sheets to be joined. Typically 4mm wide stainless steel foil used to preserve corrosion resistance on coated steel. Virtually flush finish with no crevice and used to produce wide panels.

Fig.2e) Foil butt seam welding

Important Issues
The main issues concerning seam welding are in weld quality control and welding speeds.

High speed welding of coated steels is of particular importance in manufacture of tin cans. Specialist consumable wire seam welding machines are used. Quality monitors have been developed for these applications and welding speeds up to about 100m/min are possible. Steels with alternative coatings to tin, for canning applications, present difficulties due to their high surface resistance. Weld quality is controlled mainly by tight process control together with periodic testing of samples. Factors such as material and pressing quality, and alignment of the electrodes to the material, are critical to achieve high speed, quality welding, for example in coated steels for fuel tanks.

Benefits
Seam welding enables high welding speeds to be obtained compared with many other techniques, but can be limited by component shape and wheel access.

Risks
There are some limitations on material weldability but attention to correct setting up and good process control can solve most production problems. The main hazards are: (i) the risk of crushing fingers or hands; and (ii) burns or eye damage from splash metal. Little fume is produced but may need attention when welding coated steels or when oils or organic materials are present.

Resistance projection welding

by Steve Westgate

Description
Projection welding is a development of resistance spot welding. In spot welding, the size and position of the welds are determined by the size of the electrode tip and the contact point on the workpieces, whereas in projection welding the size and position of the weld or welds are determined by the design of the component to be welded. The force and current are concentrated in a small contact area which occurs naturally, as in cross wire welding or is deliberately introduced by machining or forming. An embossed dimple is used for sheet joining and a 'V' projection or angle can be machined in a solid component to achieve an initial line contact with the component to which it is to be welded, see Fig.1. Fig.1. Example of projection welding configurations: a) embossed projection; b) stud to plate; c) annular projection

In sheet joining using embossed projection welds, a melted weld zone is produced, as in spot welding. However, when a solid formed or machined projection is used, a solid phase forge weld is produced without melting. The plastic deformation of the heated parts in contact produces a strong bond across the weld interface.

Present status
The process is well established and is applicable mainly to low carbon or microalloyed steels. The process is widely used on sheet metal assemblies in automotive and white goods industries for both sheet joining and attaching nuts and studs. Wire mesh welding is also a large industry.

Important issues

Projection welding tends to be more application dependent than spot welding and is less easy to standardise. However, similar issues can arise:

Weldability of coated steels and attachment of fasteners - control of weld quality and electrode life Weld quality is controlled mainly by good process control together with periodic testing of samples. While a number of monitors have been developed, there is still a desire to produce a low cost, reliable and robust in-process weld quality monitor, in order to reduce or eliminate periodic destructive tests. The added difficulty with projection welding is that multiple welds are made Recent equipment developments have included use of capacitor discharge power supplies to make large diameter welds for applications such as gear assemblies

Benefits
The advantages of projection welding include its versatility, the speed and ability to automate, the ability to make a number of welds simultaneously and minimisation of marking on one side of joints in sheet materials. Capacitor discharge supplies used with machined annular projections can compete with power beam welding, as the weld is completed in a single shot within milliseconds.

Risks
There are some limitations on material weldability but attention to correct setting up and good process control can solve most production problems. The main safety factors are trapping hazards and splash metal. Little fume is produced but may need attention when welding coated steels or when oils or organic materials are present.

Thermit Welding
Thermit Welding usually uses the exothermic reaction of a mixture of iron oxide and aluminum powder or other similar mixtures to weld or repair large forgings and castings, and join pipes and railroad rails. The parts are aligned and a ceramic or sand mold is built around the joint to be formed. The thermitic mixture reaction is initiated with a special compound (an oxidizing agent) heating quickly to the desired temperature which melts the ends of the parts to be joined. After the weld cools, excess material is removed by machining, grinding, or other cutting methods.

Robotic Welding

There are two popular types of industrial welding robots. The two are articulating robots and rectilinear robots. Robotics control the movement of a rotating wrist in space. A description of some of these welding robots are described below: Rectilinear robots move in line in any of three axes (X, Y, Z). In addition to linear movement of the robot along axes there is a wrist attached to the robot to allow rotational movement. This creates a robotic working zone that is box shaped. Articulating robots employ arms and rotating joints. These robots move like a human arm with a rotating wrist at the end. This creates an irregularly shaped robotic working zone. There are many factors that need to be considered when setting up a robotic welding facility. Robotic welding needs to be engineered differently than manual welding. Some of the consideration for a robotic welding facility are listed below:

Accuracy and repeatability Number of axes Reliability Fixtures Programming Seam tracking systems

Maintenance Controls Weld monitors Arc welding equipment Positioners Part transfer

A robotic welding system may perform more repeat ably than a manual welder because of the monotony of the task. However, robots may necessitate regular recalibration or reprogramming. Robots should have the number of axes necessary to permit the proper range of motion. The robot arm should be able to approach the work from multiple angles. Robotic welding systems are able to operate continuously, provided appropriate maintenance procedures are adhered to. Continuous production line

interruptions can be minimized with proper robotic system design. Planning for the following contingencies needs to be completed:

Rapid substitution of the inoperable robots. Installing backup robots in the production line Redistributing the welding of broken robots to functioning robots close by

Contact AMC engineering for robotic welding consulting or planning a robotic production line. Hire our consultant to act as your welding specialist.