Chapter 2 : The Structure of The Atom 2.

1 Matter
1) Matter = has mass & occupies space = tiny, discrete particles atoms ions molecules 2) Atom = smallest particles of element (take part in chemical reaction) 3) Molecules = exist as particle = contain 2 or more atoms 4) Ions = exist as particle Charged positively negatively = liquid state/molten state = when atom loses 1 or more electron, it becomes ( + ) ion, when atom gains 1 or more electron, it becomes ( - ) ion

2.1.2 Kinetic Theory of Matter

1) All matter made up of tiny particle continuously & random 2) Attractive forces happen when particles close together 3) Movement = affected by heat 4) If temperature increases, motion of particles increases. The higher the temperature rises, the faster the motion of particles. 5) Freedom of motion = affected by intermolecular forces. The stronger the force, the slower the motion. SOLIDS

strong forces of attraction not able to move freely Only vibrate Cannot break free Fixed shape & volume

LIQUIDS - further apart - not arranged in regular order - force attraction weaker - moves easily & attract 1 another -take the shape of container GASES

further apart & not close together no attraction between particles move faster & freely in zigzag collide with 1 another & walls of the container

Characteristics of the three states of matter Matter Characteristics Density Compressibility Shape Volume Diffusion Solid High None Definite Definite The slowest Liquid Moderate Almost impossible Take shape of container Definite Moderately fast Gas Low Possible None Variable The fastest

2.1.3 Change in State Of Matter

1) Melting

2) Evaporation 3) Boiling

4) Condensation

5) Freezing

6) Sublimation

solid heated , getting hotter & hotter particles = vibrate more until they break away from 1 another happens at boiling point At B.P , solid liquid liquid heated, particles moves faster as temperature rises few particles at the surface have enough energy to escape as a gas more heat supplied to liquid, temp increases until reach B.P. particles throughout the liquid have enough energy to break away from liquid to form steam. occurs at a constant temperature gas is cooled, particles lose energy move slowly when collide, they do not have enough energy to bounce away again stay close together liquid cooled, particles slow down more liquid form a solid at constant temp temperature (freezing point) iodine is heated, does not melt get enough energy to break away completely from solid & form a gas take place when solid CO2 ( dry ice ) is heated

Effects of Heat on the Kinetic Energy of Particles

Solid 1) Strong forces attraction 2) Hold the atoms or molecules together. 3) Vibrate 4) Cannot break free

Liquid
1) The molecules are close together 2) Have enough energy to move about.

Gas
1) Molecules are far apart 2) Moving so quickly 3) Do not really attract one another.

Kinetic energy of particles related to the speed of particles in motion Particle moving faster have more kinetic energy than a slower moving particle Heat is form of energy. When a substances is heated, it will receive heat energy. Temperature increases. Heat energy cause the particles to move faster Kinetic theory = molecules move more quickly when substances is heated On heat, molecules receive heat from source. Will increase kinetic energy of molecule. If kinetic energy increases, temperature increases

2.2.2 Proton Number

1 ) Proton number = no of protons 2 ) Atoms is neutral 3 ) No. of electron in a neutral atom = no. of protons Proton = electron

2.2.3 Nucleon Number

Nucleon number = no. of protons + no. of neutrons 1 ) Determine the mass of atom. No. of neutrons = nucleon no. no. of protons = nucleon no. proton number 2 ) Atom with a bigger nucleon no. will be heavier than atom with a smaller nucleon no. that will be more lighter.

2.2.4 Symbol Of Element

2.3 Isotopes
1) Definition = Same no. of protons but different number of neutrons 2) Have same chemical properties because their electron are arranged in same way 3) Will not have same mass because different no. of neutrons

2.4.1 Valence Electrons 1) Outermost shell = valance shell 2) Electrons in outermost shell = valance electron 3) All element in same group = similar chemical properties. = same number of valence electron

Chapter 3 : Chemical Formulae and Equations

3.1 Relative Atomic Mass and Relative Molecular Mass

1. Relative atomic mass, Ar is the atomic mass of an atom when compared to a standard atom 2. Standard atom: Hydrogen scale: hydrogen is the lightest atom of all and the mass of one hydrogen atom was assigned 1 unit. Weakness of Hydrogen scale not too many elements can react readily with hydrogen, the reactive masses of some elements were not accurate, hydrogen exists as a gas at room temperature and has a number of isotopes with different masses.

Helium scale: the second lightest atom of all and the mass of one helium atom was assigned 1 unit. Weakness of Helium scale Mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times the mass of a hydrogen atom So, mass of 1 helium atom = 4 times 1/12 mass of a carbon atom helium exists as a gas at room temperature & helium is an inert gas.

Oxygen scale: chose as the standard atom to compare the masses of atoms Weakness of Oxygen scale the existence of three isotopes of oxygen were discovered, natural oxygen (containing all the three isotopes) as the standard (Chemist) and used the isotopes oxygen-16 as the standard (Physicists). Carbon scale: standard atom of comparison internationally a carbon-12 atom is 12 times heavier than an atom of hydrogen, used as the reference standard in mass

spectrometers, exists as a solid at room temperature, most abundant carbon isotope, happening about 98.89% andcarbon-12 is close to the agreement based on oxygen.

3. Relative molecular mass, Mr substances is the average mass of a molecule (two or more atoms) of the substances when compared 1/12 with of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

4. Relative formula mass, Fr is for ionic compound which is calculated by adding up therelative atomic masses of all the atoms.

5. Example: Relative atomic mass, Ar of helium = 4 Relative molecular mass, Mr of CO2 = 12 + 2(16) = 44 Relative formula mass, Fr of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 Relative formula mass, Na2CO310H2O = 2(23) + 12 + 3(16) + 10 [2(1) + 16] = 286

1. Avogadro constant / Avogadros number is 6.02 x 1023

2. Atomic substances - all the particles are atoms. Example: zinc (Zn), sodium (Na), aluminium (Al) and all noble gases, argon (Ar), helium (He) and neon (Ne). RAM (Relative Atomic Mass) of Na = 23 3. Molecular substances Covalent compounds the particles are molecules. Example: carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and non-metal elements, iodine (I2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). RMM (Relative Molecular Mass) of I2 = 127 + 127 = 254 4. Ionic substances Ionic compounds the particles are ions. Example: sodium chloride (NaCl), hydrochloric acid (HCl) & potassium iodide (KI). RFM (Relative Formula Mass) of HCl = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5 5. Avogadros Law / Gas Law states that equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of molecules under the same temperature and pressure. Example: equal volumes of molecular hydrogen and nitrogen would contain the same number of molecules under the same temperature and pressure. 6. Volume of gas (dm3) Number of moles of gas x Molar volume 7. Room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.) 24 dm3 mol-1 (25C and 1 atm) Example: What is the volume of 5.0 mol helium gas at s.t.p.? Volume of gas = Number of moles x Molar gas volume = 5.0 mol x 24 dm3 mol-1 = 120 dm3 8. Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) 22.4 dm3 mol-1 (0C and 1 atm)

 Example: What is the volume of 5.0 mol helium gas at s.t.p.? Volume of gas = Number of moles x Molar gas volume = 5.0 mol x 22.4 dm3 mol-1 = 112 dm3 9. Mass (g) Number of moles x Molar mass 10. Number of particles Number of moles x Avogadro constant 11. Volume (dm3) Number of moles x Molar volume

Empirical and Molecular Formulae 1. simplest ratio of atoms of each element that present in the compound & molecular formulae indicate: the types of the elements the symbols of the elements and the ratio of atoms or moles of atoms of each element in a compound. 2. Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n Compound Carbon dioxide Ethane Propene Glucose Quinine Molecular formula CO2 CH3 CH2 CH2O C10H12NO [n is a positive number] Empirical formula (CO2) = CO2 (CH3)2 = C2H6 (CH2)3 = C3H6 (CH2O)6 = C6H12O6 C20H24N2O2

n
1 2 3 6 2

4. Cations are positively-charged ions. Charge Cations Formula

+1 +1 * +1 +1 +1 * +1 +1 +1 +2 +2 +2 * +2 * +2 * +2 +2 * +2 * +2 +3 +3 * +4 * +4 *

Ammonium ion Copper(I) ion Hydrogen ion Lithium ion Nickel(I) ion Potassium ion Silver ion Sodium ion Barium ion Calcium ion Copper(II) ion Iron(II) ion Lead(II) ion Magnesium ion Manganese(II) ion Tin(II) ion Zinc ion Aluminium ion Iron(III) ion Lead(IV) ion Tin(IV) ion

NH4+ Cu+ H+ Li+ Ni+ K+ Ag+ Na+ Ba2+ Ca2+ Cu2+ Fe2+ Pb2+ Mg2+ Mn2+ Sn2+ Zn2+ Al3+ Fe3+ Pb4+ Sn4+

5. Anions are negatively-charged ions. Charge Anions Formula

-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -2 -3 -3 -3

Bromide ion Chloride ion Chlorate(V) ion Ethanoate ion Fluoride ion Hydride ion Hydroxide ion Iodide ion Manganate(VII) ion Nitrate ion Nitrite ion Oxide ion Carbonate ion Chromate(VI) ion Sulphide ion Sulphate ion Sulphite ion Thiosulphate ion Nitride ion Phosphate ion Phosphite ion

BrClClO3CH3COOFHOHIMnO4NO3NO2O2CO32CrO42S2SO42SO32S2O32N3PO43PO33-