Topic 1X Introduction to

Drama
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. Enumerate the benefits of studying drama; Explain the various types of drama and stages used in the production of a play; and Outline the historical development of English drama and drama in English in Malaysia.

X INTRODUCTION
What images come into your mind when you encounter the word drama? For many people, drama connotes Shakespeare which means that students will be given a barrage of Shakespearean quotations. It may also bring to mind images of stage acting, lighting, the directors call, voice production and stage fright. Rest assured that drama is not just about Shakespeare. Studying drama is a lot more interesting and a lot less difficult than what most people expect. Drama is just like the other genres of literature (e.g. the novel, the short story and poetry). This means that the reader or student of drama will gain all the literary benefits that come from studying the other genres, benefits such as appreciation of language use in various situations, and awareness of extralinguistic expressions. This topic will explore some of these benefits of studying drama, as well as introduce you to the basics of the genre.

1.1

DEFINING DRAMA

If you find it difficult to define drama, try to describe it instead. You may have described drama as a text to be acted out in contrast to the other genres (e.g. novel, short stories and poetry) which are read either silently or aloud. Because

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the text is primarily meant to be acted out, it contains explicit descriptions such as stage directions (how and where the character should move, in what tone the character should speak or what kind of costume the character should wear). But what if there are no spoken texts? How about mimes or pantomimes, for instance? Can they be considered as drama?. You may also have described drama in terms of the stage and play-acting. Perhaps you have defined drama as a show to be performed on stage. What happens then if the drama is not performed onstage? Would it still be considered as drama? What is drama? According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, Drama is from the Greek word which means play, action, deed. Drama itself originated from another Greek word dran which means to do, act, perform. Drama can be defined as a literary genre which is performed. This performance may be on stage or in a studio (e.g. which is then televised), although it is not limited to these two venues. As long as there is space for performers to perform, it is possible to have some form of drama. This means that drama can also be performed under a tree, in the school courtyard or in the comfort of ones living room (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1: Drama is meant to be performed, not read like a novel

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Some dramatists make a distinction between drama and theatre. Drama means an act that can take place anywhere (e.g. in the park, class or a room, and not necessarily on a stage), theatre connotes an act or a performance that takes place on stage, involving an entire team. It is a production that entails costs and labour such as people in charge of the stage (i.e. the set, curtain, etc), costumes, lighting, ushering and ticketing. In addition, in a theatre, the performers commonly put in long hours of practice before the play is staged. Drama, on the other hand, can be staged anytime without much practice. In other words, theatre is concerned with the end product (i.e. after months of tiring practice), while drama is concerned with the process that happens to the individual when performing a play.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
How would you define drama? What do you understand by the term of drama?

1.2

WHY STUDY DRAMA?

ACTIVITY 1.1

Before you proceed, think and list out some possible reasons for studying drama. What are the benefits? How is drama useful to the English teacher? Discuss. As noted earlier, drama is concerned with the process of enacting a play. During this process, a lot of emotional expressions can be released which otherwise cannot happen. For example, when we play the role of a snatch thief victim, we may be able to empathise and feel the emotions, the fears and the worries that go through the mind of the victim. Thus, when a person studies drama and takes active part in being one of the characters in a play, he/she will be able to take the role of another in a safe environment. This means that actions, reactions and feelings can be examined, discussed and more importantly, experienced without having to go through the dangers or pitfalls which a real-life situation would otherwise bring.

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ACTIVITY 1.2
Imagine that you are taking part in a play about a wife who is bullied by her drunkard husband. What kind of emotions, actions and reactions can you expect to experience if you were to take on the role of the wife, the husband or the children? Conduct a role play. Do you think you would fully experience these emotions if you were to only read about this incident instead of dramatising it? Why or why not? Syare your feelings about this question with your classmates. One of the benefits of drama, according to Maley and Duff (1978), is that it releases the imagination and the participant's energy, which in the classroom context would help to make learning more realistic and meaningful. Consequently, drama helps its practitioners to grow holistically as a person. If there is no avenue for a person to express him/herself creatively (e.g. through drama), then that person may hold on and not release whatever emotions or thoughts that may set the person back. Consequently, that individual may become overly self-centred. Another reason for studying drama is that it provides therapeutic effect, as it may help solve problems related to the emotive and behavioural realms (Stern, 1980). An individual who was violently abused as a child, for instance, may find solace and therapy in re-enacting scenes of violent abuse in drama. Drama is a reflection of real-life situations. This means that in drama (as far as modern drama is concerned), everyday utterances are practiced and used. For the student of drama, this real daily linguistic production may help him/her to improve his/her linguistic capabilities. As Chamkaur Singh Gill writes, drama allows language learners to participate naturally in oral communication with his/her interlocutors, giving free rein to thoughts and feelings in verbal and non-verbal interaction, and learning the language subconsciously (81). As a result of this improved linguistic competence, the individual concerned may develop a better and positive selfimage. In addition, the individual may also improve in his/her public speaking skills and self-confidence in meeting with people.

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Do you remember the benefits of learning literature? One of the benefits is that literature offers students cultural enrichment. Similarly, drama exposes learners to cultural diversity. Exposure to different cultures will help us to be open to each others lifestyle without being judgmental or xenophobic. Through drama, one can learn about different cultures, values, and lifestyles. When one takes part in a play, one also experiences these mentioned elements. Thus, drama allows a person to be involved in a practical way, not just theoretically. Also, when a person studies drama or takes part in it, he/she will usually have to work with other people. This allows the individuals concerned to work in a team. In other words, drama allows people to inculcate teamwork values. Finally, drama helps to reinforce ideas, values and concepts which may have been taught in a theoretical manner. Whatever that may have been learned through the chalk-and-talk method or lecture style of teaching, may be experienced through drama. For example, when one dramatises the fear and insecurity of living in a war zone, one gets to experience and empathise, and not just to know in theory, the sufferings of war victims.

1.3

THE POSSIBLE CHALLENGES OF STUDYING DRAMA

One of the challenges faced by students when studying drama is that they forget that drama is primarily meant to be seen, not so much read in isolation (although it is perfectly fine to read plays in the comfort of your own home). The difference between watching a play and reading it is that, in the former, you hear the dialogue only once, then move from it to the meaning of the drama as a whole (Collins, 1992). You do not have the luxury of time to reread the text over and over again. If you have limited opportunities to watch a drama (but you have the text to read), then you should at least, try to visualise in your mind the scenes that take place in the drama, read aloud the dialogue and step into the shoes of the characters or a better alternative is to stage the play yourself so that you can experience the dramatic effects that emerge from the text.

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As Tom McArthur (1992) writes, drama differs from the novel, short story and poetry because the dramatists purpose is realised not by recitation or passive reading, but by presentation with performers and theatrical devices. Another possible challenge is that most schools in Malaysia do not have drama as part of their yearly activities. The only drama acts that they are exposed to are probably the ones shown on the television. You may mistakenly assume that drama is something that is way beyond your understanding and grasp. Be assured that there is nothing difficult about drama. Be open about things. Just tell yourself that studying drama no more difficult than studying the novel and short story, or any branch of linguistics, for that matter. Allow yourself to enjoy the experience. Have an open mind and a willing heart to learn something new.

1.4

A SHORT HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF DRAMA

Lets now survey the historical development of drama. We shall first look at drama in the European context, before moving on to drama (in English) in Malaysia. It is generally accepted that (western) drama originated from Ancient Greece. The first surviving drama that we know of are the works of Greek dramatists like Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides (tragedy), and Aristophanes (comedy), dating back to 54 BC. Another drama that we know of was from Rome, performed sometime in 2 AD.

Figure 1.2: Masks of comedy and tragedy

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When you look at Figure 1.2, I am sure you will be wonder what is tragedy and mask. Dont worry about the terms tragedy and comedy just yet. These terms will be explained later. Be aware, however, that drama has a long history. While the short story as a genre only existed in the last hundred years or so, drama has existed for the past thousand years. Drama was revived in Europe when it was assimilated into the Christian mass. Brief dramatised episodes of the lives of saints or from the Bible were introduced during major festivals. These gradually developed into complete plays, known as mystery plays (see the next section titled Types of Drama). In the 15th century, these plays were superseded by morality plays, which are allegorical presentations of human virtues and vices in conflict (McArthur, 1992). The morality play centres on a hero, such as Mankind, whose natural weaknesses are assaulted by evil forces (such as the Seven Deadly Sins). The hero, however, may choose redemption and calls for the aid of good forces such as the Four Daughters of God (Mercy, Justice, Temperance and Truth). By the 16th century, plays were secularised and removed of religious elements. The 16th century was a time when secularism began to take a stronghold over religion. Consequently, humanistic teachings gained influence in universities. This was reflected in the plays that were produced. It was during this period that we have one of the greatest English dramatists of all times, William Shakespeare. He wrote 38 plays (154 sonnets and 5 poems) but some plays were co-written with other people (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3: William Shakespeare

After the period of Shakespeare, there was a decline in the development of drama. It was much later when Charles II ascended to the throne that drama was revived. The revival began in the courts and subsequently reached the common people.

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From the 18th to the 19th century, drama went into a decline again as a result of social and political changes, such as the French Revolution, the Napoleonic Wars and the Industrial Revolution. A number of theatres went into bankruptcy and those that survived had to expand to accommodate larger crowds and to have a longer run of the plays so as to gain more profit. Let us now fast forward to the 20th century. As a result of the development of information technology and the Internet, a lot of cultural thoughts, productions, theories and publications can be communicated freely, efficiently and instantly. Certain social changes also influenced the kinds of plays which were produced. For example, when England abolished censorship in 1968, there was an emergence of plays that were once censored due to their offensive content, such as Hair (Figure 1.4) and A Patriot for Me (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.4: Production of Hair Musical

Figure 1.5: Production of A Patriot for Me

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Let us now look briefly at the development of drama in the Malaysian context. Before the 1960s, English plays in Malaysia were controlled and monopolised by the British. There were writers such as Edward Dorall, Patrick Yeoh and Goh Poh Seng who came up with plays in English with moderate success. However, drama in English, like the other genres, went into a decline when (the National Language Act was enacted the focus was put on the National Language). The National Language Act which promulgated the extensive use of Bahasa Malaysia put writers of English at a disadvantage. As there was no more incentive to write in English, there was a steep decline in the production of drama and literature in English. It was only in 1984 that plays in English began to be produced again. During this time, Malaysian writers such as K.S. Maniam (Figure 1.6), Kee Thuan Chye and Stella Kon. (began to emerge).]

Figure 1.6: Malaysian writers

Currently, there are a few theatre groups that promote drama in English. One such group is the Actors Studio. However, in the education system, drama is still not given much attention as exemplified by the absence of drama in the Literature in English component for both lower and upper secondary English syllabi (save for the subject of Literature in English).

ACTIVITY 1.3
Check out the Actors Studio site at: http://www.theactorsstudio.com.my/. Do a list of what is this site about and explain the services offered.

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1.5

TYPES OF DRAMA

There are different types of drama. In Ancient Greece, where western drama is believed to have originated, tragedy was a popular form of drama. Tragedy focuses on a main character (called the tragic hero) who examines the major questions of human existence such as Why are we here? What is the will of the Gods? and Why must we die? Usually the main character goes through a time of testing or suffering. Generally, the character does not resolve his conflict and ends up dead (or someone near him ends up dead). The character may also come to a stage of enlightenment in which he becomes aware that the events that befell him are a result of his personal responsibility. Some examples of tragic drama that still exist today from ancient Greek are the plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. Examples of tragedy from a later period are William Shakespeares Julius Caesar and Christopher Marlowes, Tamburlaine (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7: Introduction to Christopher Marlowe

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In the olden days in Britain, much of the stories of saints or from the Bible were dramatised. This was because most of the people were illiterate and one way for them to remember the religion was through visual representations. These plays are called miracle plays or mystery plays. The plays were originally performed in Latin but much later, the vernacular language was used. Later, another type of drama, comedy, became popular. Comedy, however, does not refer to something that makes the audience laugh. It is like tragedy but the main character resolves his conflict and makes it humorous. In short, there is a happy ending in a comedy but a sad ending for tragedy. In ancient Greece, comedies were usually about the common people while tragedies deal with kings and princes. During the Renaissance, comedy was subdivided into two general categories: high comedy (also called comedy of manners) which focuses on wit and style of the upper classes and low comedy (also called farce) where the humour is derived from crude jokes or physical actions.

ACTIVITY 1.4
Have you seen the following three characters on television before?

The Three Stooges was a popular comedy in the early till mid 1900s.
The comedy centred on physical (perhaps even violent) antics such as depicted above. What kind of comedy do you think it ishigh or low? Syare your answers in class.

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ACTIVITY 1.5
Have you seen the following two shows on television? What kind of comedies are these? Discuss.

Frasier

Friends

Related to comedy is the satyr play, which like comedy and tragedy, also originated from Ancient Greece. In classical times, a satyr-play was performed as a kind of comic relief immediately following the performance of a tragic trilogy (Rees, 1973). Satyr plays generally focus on themes such as drunkenness, pranks, merriment and overt sexuality. Tragicomedy is a mixture of tragedy and comedy. In 17th century Europe, it was seen as a drama form that combines tragedy (the character goes from good to bad fortune) and comedy (where there is a reversal from bad to good fortune). Modern tragicomedy describes plays with mixed moods. The endings are neither tragic nor comedy, happy nor sad. Anton Chekhov, a Russian playwright, was noted for this kind of drama (Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8: Anton Checkhov, Russian playwright

Another type of comedy is the romantic comedy. In this type of drama, the central character is delightful and goes through all forms of barriers. In the end, the character ends up marrying.

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A Midsummer Nights Dream by William Shakespeare is an example of a romantic comedy. The play is about a complex entanglement of love relationships that gets even more complex when fairies intervene. The complex situation is resolved towards the end of the play. Another form of drama, which was popular in the early part of the 19th century was melodrama. Events and emotions in melodrama are manipulated with little regard for logic and character. In addition, the characters in melodrama are usually exaggerated. An example of a melodrama is Ten Nights in a Barroom by W. W. Pratt. It tells the story of Joe Morgan, a good man, who falls victim to the vices found in a saloon called Sickle and Sheaf Inn. The characterisation of Joe Morgan is exaggerated to draw emotional responses from the audience. Symbolist drama as the name suggests, stresses suggestion and evocation, instead of directly or explicitly describing the message. The general mood of the play is usually unhurried and surreal. For example, the setting and stage decoration may suggest a particular feeling, instead of directly representing it. In contrast, realist drama attempts to portray true-to-life situations by using real-life dialogue. The movements are more natural and the sceneries are more realistic. In addition, most of the characters in realist dramas are from the middle and working class. A famous realist drama in England during the 18th century was by Tom Robertson. His dramas depict real life situations and everyday language. For example, in The Vicarage, the characters shock the audience by making tea, a banal act which until then had never been performed or shown on stage (Figure 1.10).

Figure 1.9: A picture taken from the production of The Vicarage

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The modern world saw a revolutionary change in how one should perceive women. This change, which was brought about by the feminist movements, also influenced the dramatic arts. Consequently, feminist drama was born. This kind of drama presents concerns and issues highlighted by the feminist movements, such as the oppression of women in a male-dominated world, the call for the empowerment of women, and the centralisation of womens identity (so as not to remain in the periphery of society). An example of feminist drama is Top Girls, 1982 by Caryl Churchill. The drama is about the sacrifices of women who wish to climb the ladder of success in the career world dominated by men. Finally, let us look at one more type of drama, theatre of the absurd. In this type of drama, the focus is on the mysterious workings of nature in the lives of human beings. Subsequently, the characters in the drama are left bewildered, lost and lacking in purpose. The audience is left baffled as a result of disjointed, meaningless, or repetitious dialogues, incomprehensible behaviour and plots which deny all notion of logical or realistic development (Drabble, 1985). Absurdist drama also tends to eliminate much of the cause-and-effect relationship among incidents and views the world as alienating and incomprehensible. A popular absurdist playwright is Samuel Beckett. His play Waiting for Godot is probably the most famous absurdist play to date. Waiting for Godot revolves around two tramps eating under a sickly looking tree. While waiting, they quarrel but later make up. Two other characters then arrive. Later, a boy turns up to tell the tramps that Godot is not turning up. By this time, the tree sprouts a few leaves to indicate that only the tree has some order in the course of life.

EXERCISE 1.1
1. 2. What is the difference between symbolist drama and realist drama? Give one example of an absurdist drama.

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1.6

TYPES OF STAGES

All the worlds a stage, and all the men and women merely players: they have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays many parts, his acts being seven ages.
Shakespeare Drama can be performed in almost any location: in the street, the living room, bars, prisons, etc. Nonetheless, any course on drama would not be complete without mentioning the kinds of stages involved. This is because the stage provides the more common avenue for drama or plays to be performed. Moreover, different kinds of stages will exert different kinds of effects on the audience. This section provides an overview of some of the different kinds of stages used in the history of drama. The early Greek theatres were open-air structures. One example is the Theatre of Delphi (Figure 1.10) which was built on a hillside with seats surrounding the performance area (called the dancing circle).

Figure 1.10: The theatre of Delphi is another example of an open-air structure

During the Medieval Period, one of the best known stages was the fixed stage. One example of this is the Valenciennes stage in France as shown in Figure 1.12. The huts that you see depict different settings of the drama. When there is a change in setting, the performers go to another hut. In front of these huts is an extended space for the performance.

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Figure 1.11: Valenciennes stage

Apart from the fixed stage, there was also the movable stage which is a platform on wheels. Theatre groups that used these stages moved from town to town to perform. Permanent structures were built in England in the late 16th century. One of the more famous ones was the The Globe Theatre (Figure 1.12). It was an open-air building with a platform stage in the centre. The audience stood on sides surrounding the stage. There were also private boxes or galleries for the wealthier audience to sit in and watch the performance.

Figure 1.12: Globe theatre

Figure 1.13: A reconstructed globe theatre, on the bank of the river thames. The original globe could seat about 3000 people

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Why is the Globe Theatre famous? Who is usually associated with this theatre? The answer is William Shakespeare (1564 1616). He also acted in plays but he is more popularly known as a writer of plays. Another stage worth mentioning is the Proscenium Theatre which dates from the Italian Renaissance. This was the kind of stage that was popular in the Western world. This stage is characterised by a large archway at or near the stage, through which the audience views the play (refer to Figure 1.14). Usually the proscenium stage is brightly lighted up while the audience remains in the dark. The proscenium stage is suitable for productions with large sceneries and stage props. If your school has a hall and a stage, most probably that stage is a proscenium stage (with curtains to close the stage).

Figure 1.14: Proscenium stage

Today, there are many modern stages that do away with the proscenium arch. The space between the audience and the performers is minimised by having a platform thrusting into the audience. The audience sits on three sides (front, left and right). Subsequently, the audience has a keen sense of the actors presence in direct communication with them, sharing the spoken word and the world of the play (Barranger, 1995). This kind of stage is called the thrust or open stage. However, a disadvantage of this kind of stage is the performer may have difficulty in finding a perfect spot on the stage to command the entire house and, inevitably, some of the audience, some of the time, will be faced with the backs of actors (Cook, 1983). The picture show (Figure 1.15). Note the audience does not just sit in front of the stage, but by the sides.

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Figure 1.15: Examples of thrust stage

There are also stages that can be changed in size and shape by mechanical means. However, such stages, called totally variable or adjustable stages are expensive to be constructed.

Plays are primarily meant to be watched, although reading it on ones own has its own rewards. The benefits of studying drama include increased linguistic competence, greater self-realisation, and other therapeutic benefits. Drama has a very long history across space and time. The many types of plays include tragedy, comedy, tragicomedy, romantic comedy, melodrama, realist drama and absurdist drama.

Play production Sonnet

1. 2.

Explain the advantages of studying drama? Briefly explain why drama in English went into a decline in Malaysia sometime in the 70s and early 80s.

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Barranger, M. S. (1995). Theatre: A way of seeing. California: Wadsworth. Clarke, W. (1976). A short history of english literature. London: Evans. Collins, S. (1992). Approaching literature. London: Hodder. Cook, P. (1983). How to enjoy theatre. London: Judy Piatkus Pub. Ltd. Drabble, M. (1985). The oxford companion to english literature (5th ed.). Oxford: OUP. Gill, C. S. (1996). Using drama techniques to encourage oral interaction. The English Teacher, XXV. Holden, S. (1983). Role-play and simulation. Modern english teachers. London: Longman. Maley, A., & Duff, A. (1978). Drama techniques in language learning. Cambridge: CUP. McArthur, T. (1992). The oxford companion to the english language. Oxford: OUP. Rees, R. J. (1973). English literature: An introduction to foreign readers. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Scharengnivel, R. C. (1980). The development of oral expression through guided

and spontaneous dramatic activities in English medium primary schools in Singapore. RELC conference. Singapore.
Stern, S. (1980). Why drama works: A psycholinguistic perspective. In Oller, J. W., & Amato, R. (Eds.). Methods that work. Rowley: Newbury House Publishers Inc.