T Line

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Mario Orece Dipartimento di Elettronica Politecnico di Torino September 2010
Contents
1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND PREREQUISITES 2 TRANSMISSION LINES 2.1 The transmission lines equations and its solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Transmission lines and harmonic signals . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Transmission lines equations in the FT domain . 2.2.2 The reection coecient . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Voltage and current standing wave along a transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Power in a lossless line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Practical examples of transmission lines . . . . . 2.2.6 Loads and junctions along the line . . . . . . . . 2.2.7 The Transmission Coecient . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.8 Lossy lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.9 Load matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.10 Theory of Small Reections (or of the Multiple reections) . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.11 Frequency behavior of a quarter wave matching section . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.12 Cascade of multiple line sections . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.13 Wideband matching: maximum atness . . . . . 2.2.14 Bandwidth of a binomial transformer . . . . . . . 2.2.15 Non uniform lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.16 Exponential taper matching . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.17 Triangular taper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.18 Sources on a transmission line . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.19 Generalization of the transmission line equations . 2.3 The Scattering Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Relationship between S- and Z-matrix . . . . . . 2.3.2 Power dissipated by a N -port network . . . . . . 2.3.3 Shift of the Reference Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Change of the Reference Impedance . . . . . . . . 1 3 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . 8 . 9 . 13 . . . . . . . 14 17 18 24 25 25 28
. . . . . . . 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 38 40 41 43 44 45 46 47 49 50 51 53 54
2 2.3.5 2.3.6 Connection of structures with given [S] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Transmission matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 60 62 65 68 70 72
3 TRANSMISSION LINES IN TIME DOMAIN 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Spectrum of modulated signal . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Non constant group velocity . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Intersymbolic interference . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Compression of a Frequency Modulated pulse . 3.6 Non dispersive mismatched line . . . . . . . . .
Copyright 2010 by the Author. All rights reserved.
Chapter 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND PREREQUISITES

This course deals with the study of the transmission of the electromagnetic energy when distances and/or dimensions of the circuits are comparable or larger than the wavelength . According the laws of Physics, this transmission occurs through the propagation of waves of electric and magnetic quantities, strictly connected and interdependent each other through the Maxwells equations, so that they are generally referred to as electromagnetic waves. Depending on the environment where the electromagnetic phenomena take place, we can divide such waves, and their propagation, in: guided waves, when the energy ows along a physical guiding structure. This involves also the study of the interaction of the waves with such structures, and discontinuities; free waves, when the energy ows in a medium, that can be the free space or a material; the medium can be non homogeneous or discontinuous, and in this case there is, in general, reection or diraction of the waves carrying energy. Moreover, this course will examine how the waves are generated: this is generally done through variable electric currents, that give rise to electric and magnetic elds and to the radiation of electromagnetic energy. The assumption, previously mentioned, that the dimensions of the circuits are not much smaller than the wavelength , implies that the circuits object of the analysis cannot be considered as lumped elements circuits. The conventional Circuit Theory deals with lumped elements circuits; this means that the components, as well as the wires connecting them, are considered having zero dimension, and this implies that the time of transit of the signal through the components is zero. Conversely, being the dimensions of the circuits not negligible with respect to the wavelength , here we have distributed elements circuits, in which the time has an inuence on the values of the voltage and currents. Moreover, if 3
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010
the dimensions of the circuits become comparable or larger than the wavelength, it may happen that such circuits radiate electromagnetic energy, so that they become sources of electromagnetic eld. As mentioned, we will deal with variable electric and magnetic elds depending each other through the Maxwells equations. This means that static electric and magnetic elds, that are independent each other, will not be considered in this book. The study of the electromagnetic elds is usually considered one of the most dicult tasks for the students in Electronic Engineering, mainly due to the fact that it requires a strong background in Mathematics and Physics. Being the Maxwells equations a set of partial derivative equations, and being the electromagnetic eld a vector eld, dierential equations and vector elds calculus clearly must be well known to those undertaking these studies. Among other fundamental mathematical tools we may mention the Fourier Transform, that allow to solve more simply several types of dierential equations, and various types of Special functions (Bessel, Legendre, Chebyshev, etc.) that are found in the solution of Maxwells equations for dierent eld congurations. Among the fundamental concepts of elementary Physics that must be known to the reader, we may mention the physical quantities of electricity and magnetism and their relationship, the electric circuits laws (Ohm, Kirckho), and the Maxwells equations.
Chapter 2 TRANSMISSION LINES

2.1 The transmission lines equations and its solution
A transmission line is a system of one (or more) conductors (or dielectrics) that guide the energy transfer from a source to a load. In this rst section we will study the simple case of two conductors in an homogeneous medium. Such conductors are parallel, of constant section, not necessarily the same. We will assume that the transverse dimension of the line is much smaller than the wavelength (however, dimensions up to about /3 are usually acceptable), while the longitudinal dimension is indenite and can be much longer than the wavelength. In gure (2.1) are shown two examples of transmission line, the twin wire line and the coaxial line (or coaxial cable).
Figure 2.1: Twin wire line (l.) and coaxial line (r.) The line, because of its length, certainly cannot be considered as a lumped elements circuit, but this can be done if we consider a short longitudinal section of innitesimal length dz. If we consider for example the twin wire line, we can see that there is: a capacity between the wires that is proportional to their length; the 5
inductance of the wire, also proportional to its length; moreover, the wires have a resistance, still proportional to the length; and nally between the wires there may be some conductance (for example due to an imperfect dielectric) proportional to the area between the wires, and therefore again to the length. Consequently we may draw and equivalent circuit consisting of a series inductance and resistance, and a shunt capacitance and conductance, as shown in g.(2.2), all innitesimal because proportional to dz, so that we can express them using the corresponding quantities per unit length. The equivalent circuit will be:
Figure 2.2: Equivalent circuit of a section of transmission line. By applying the Kirkho laws to nodes and loops we obtain the following equations: i(z) t
v(z) v(z + dz) = dv = R dz i(z) + L dz i(z) i(z + dz) = di = G dz v(z + dz) + C dz
(2.1)
v(z + dz) t
where v(z) = v(z, t), i(z) = i(z, t), and R, L, C, G are quantities per the unit length, so that [R]=m1 [L]=Hm1 e and so on. From eq.(2.1), dividing both sides by dz and going to the limit for dz 0 we obtain v(z) i(z) = R i(z) + L z t
(2.2) i(z) v(z) = G v(z) + C z t which are known as the TRANSMISSION LINES EQUATIONS ( also called TELEGRAPHISTS EQUATIONS).
To get a simpler mathematical solution and a better insight of the electrical behavior of the line, we may assume in a rst instance a lossless structure, i.e. R, G = 0. In this case we obtain v(z) i(z) =L z t (2.3) i(z) v(z) =C z t By applying alternatively the derivatives with respect t and z, we obtain: 2 v(z) 2 i(z) =L tz t2 2 i(z) 2 v(z) =C z 2 tz
Then, substituting v for i or vice-versa, we get 2 v(z) 2 v(z) LC =0 z 2 t2
(2.4) 2 i(z) 2 i(z) LC =0 z 2 t2 Eqs. (2.4) are identical, and represent a wave propagation of voltage v and current i (that we can collectively call signals), with velocity 1 vf = LC 2 U (z) 1 2 U (z) 2 =0 z 2 a t2 (2.5)
This can be derived considering the general equation in the unknown function U (2.6)
This equation (called dAlembert equation) can be found in many physical problems (acoustics, electromagnetism, thermology). Its general solution can be obtained with a change of variables: u = z at (2.7) v = z + at Substituting the various derivatives of (2.7)in (2.6), this becomes simply 2 U (z) =0 uv which is clearly satised by U (u, v) = F1 (u) + F2 (v) (2.9) (2.8)
where F1,2 are arbitrary regular functions of the single variable u or v, so that the nal solution for (2.6)becomes U (z, t) = F1 (z at) + F2 (z + at) (2.10)
that represents the propagation of two waves, of arbitrary shape, in the directions z and velocity a, that will be called traveling wave (or forward wave) and backward wave, respectively.
2.2
Transmission lines and harmonic signals
If we assume sinusoidal signals, it is possible to avoid partial derivatives and reduce the problem to an ordinary dierential equation. We apply to eq.(2.4)the Fourier Transform (FT) in time, that here we will dene as F () = f (t) =
1 2 + +
f (t) ejt dt = F [f (t)]
F () ejt d = F 1 [F ()]
(2.11)
One of the most interesting properties of the FT is that F f (t) = jF () t (2.12)
so that we can replace, as unknown, the instantaneous voltage and current v(z, t) and i(z, t) with their transforms V (z, ) and I(z, ), that, in harmonic regime (i.e. = 0 = constant, become phasors, i.e. complex values function only of z. In fact, it is well known that the FT of a sinusoidal signal is a couple of Dirac functions. The phasor of a sinusoidal signal (voltage, current) can be dened as the complex coecient of such Dirac functions. In practice, this corresponds to dene it as the complex value that gives the instantaneous signal, when multiplied by ej0 t and the real part is taken. In formulae, considering the Fourier transform of a voltage expressed as V0 cos(t + ): F[v(t)] = V [( 0 ) + ( + 0 )] where V = V0 ej is the phasor, or more simply v(t) = V0 cos(t + ) = e {V0 ej ejt } = e {V ejt } (2.13)
Moreover, in dening the phasor for voltage (and current), there are two possibilities: the use for V0 of the peak value of the sinusoidal signal, as in eq.(2.13), or the use of the RMS value (peak value/ 2, being a sinusoidal wave). In the former
case, the expression of the power will require a factor 1/2, while in the latter the power will be expressed by p = V I . When using the RMS value, the relationship between phasor and instantaneous value becomes v(t) = 2 e{Ve ej et } The active power associated to such signals is, as in any electric circuit, P = p(t) = e {V I } (2.14)
2.2.1
Transmission lines equations in the FT domain

dV (, z) = jL I (, z) dz
When using the FT of the signals v and i, eqs. (2.3) become
(2.15)
dI (, z) = jC V (, z) dz Using the same procedure as for eqs.(2.3), the system can be solved as d2 + 2 LC 2 dz or, in a more general formulation, d2 u () + k 2 u () = 0 dz 2 where u = V, I k 2 = 2 LC (2.17) V (, z) =0 I (, z) (2.16)
(2.18)
This is an ordinary dierential equation with constant coecients, whose solution is well known. The general solution of such equation, written for voltage and current, is therefore: V (z) = V0+ ejkz + V0 e+jkz (2.19) + I (z) = I0 ejkz + I0 e+jkz
The four arbitrary constants V0 and I0 are not independent. By inserting the expression of the voltage (or of the current) in the rst (or the second) of eqs.(2.15) we nd a couple of simple relationships between voltage and currents:
I (z) =
1 1 dV (z) = jkV0+ ejkz + jkV0 e+jkz = jL dz jL

k k = V0+ L ejkz V0 L e+jkz
(2.20)
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010 from where we get
+ I0 =
10
k + V = L 0
C + V = Y V0+ L 0
(2.21)
I0 =
k C V0 = V0 = Y V0 L L
where C 1 = (2.22) L Z is the characteristic admittance of the transmission line, that is the ratio between current and voltage in the independent solutions of the line equation. Its inverse, Z , is more frequently used. The physical meaning of such solutions can be easily understood by analyzing the instantaneous signal expression in time domain, that can be derived from eqs.(2.13) and (2.19) as: Y = v (z, t) = = i (z, t) = 2 e {V (z) ejt } =
2 |V0+ | cos(t kz + V0+ ) + |V0 | cos(t + kz + V0 ) 2 Y |V0+ | cos(t kz + V0+ ) Y |V0 | cos(t + kz + V0 ) (2.23)
More generally, for arbitrary signals in the time domain, we get v (z, t) = 1 2 1 2
+
V0+ () ejkz + V0 () e+jkz ejt d =

j t vz +j t+ vz
V0+ () e
+ V0 () e
d =
= v+ t and for the currents
z vf
+ v t +
z vf
i (z, t) = i+ t
z vf
+ i t +
z vf
All these solutions have the clear meaning of waves traveling in the positive or negative sense (for the argument with and +, respectively), that are therefore, as
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for eq.(2.10), traveling waves and backward waves. Depending wether the forward of backward wave are considered, the ratio between voltage and current is V0 L = Z = I0 C From the previous equations eqs.(2.23) it can be seen that voltage and current along the line are not constant, and are linearly independent, so that we may expect that their ratio (i.e. the impedance) is not constant. In fact, if we compute the impedance as a function of z, considering a reference section z = 0 in an arbitrary point on the line, as shown in g. (2.3), we have that, calling V0 and I0 the total voltage and current in z = 0, expressed as: V0 = V0+ + V0 (2.24) I0 = Y V0+ V0 we obtain the traveling and backward waves V0+ = 1 (V0 + Z I0 ) 2 V0 = (V0 Z I0 )
1 2
(2.25)
and, more generally, for any section z V + = 1 (V + Z I) 2 V
(2.26)
= (V Z I)
1 2
I0
V0
z=0 Z(0)
Z
z
z Z(z)
Figure 2.3: Geometry for the impedance computation. Consequently it is:
12
1 V (z) = 2 (V0 + Z I0 ) ejkz + 1 (V0 Z I0 ) ejkz = 2
= V0 cos (kz) jZ I0 sin (kz) (2.27) I (z) = (Y V0 + I0 ) e

1 2 jkz
(Y V0 I0 ) e
1 2
jkz
= I0 cos (kz) jY V0 sin (kz) This can also be written in form of chain matrix or transfer matrix: V (z) I (z) = cos [k (z z0 )] jZ sin [k (z z0 )] jY sin [k (z z0 )] cos [k (z z0 )] V (z0 ) I (z0 ) (2.28)
that relates voltage and currents in a section z0 (that we will call reference section) to those in another section z. The ratio of the two equations (2.27) gives the impedance Z as Z(z) = V (z) Z0 jZ tan (kz) = I(z) 1 jY Z0 tan (kz) (2.29)
where Z0 = V (z0 ) /I (z0 ) is the impedance in the reference section. Eq.(2.29) is a function of two quantities, but, in our assumption of constant transverse section of the line, the characteristic impedance Z is constant along the line. So we can introduce the reduced impedance , i.e. the impedance Z normalized to Z Z (z) 0 j tan (kz) = Z 1 j0 tan (kz) and, by duality, the reduced admittance (z) = y (z) = (2.30)
Y (z) y0 j tan (kz) = (2.31) Y 1 jy0 tan (kz) These equations show that the impedance in a transmission line has dierent values depending on the cross section considered. This means that in a circuit containing lumped impedances and transmission lines, these latter can be eliminated using the previous equations, and the circuit can be redrawn with lumped impedances only, as shown in g.(2.4). It must observed that in the previous equations z has a positive or negative sign, depending if the section where the impedance is computed is towards the load or the generator. In the case of g.(2.4), where the impedance is computed in A, it is z= . More generally it can be seen that a section of transmission line has an equivalent circuit with lumped elements, as shown in g.(2.5). The equivalent circuit can be of the T type, as in the gure, or of the type.
13
Figure 2.4: Transformation from a distributed to a lumped element circuit.
Figure 2.5: Equivalent circuit of a transmission line section.
2.2.2
The reection coecient
On a transmission line there are generally two forward and backward travelling waves, both for voltage and current; thus it can be interesting to dene their ratio, that is called reection coecient, usually indicated with . It is therefore:
v
(z) =
V (z) v = (z0 ) ej2k(zz0 ) V + (z) (2.32)
I (z) i (z) = + = v (z) I (z)
By expressing the forward and backward voltage waves as in (2.26) we obtain the relationship between the reection coecient and the reduced impedance
v
Z (z) Z (z) 1 1 y (z) V (z) = = = (z) = + V (z) Z (z) + Z (z) + 1 1 + y (z)
(2.33)
Inverting equation (2.33) we get: (z) = 1 +v (z) 1 v (z) 1 (z) 1 +v (z)

v
(2.34)
y (z) =
14
The voltage reection coecient is the most commonly used, so that it is usually indicated without any superscript. From now on, we will indicate with the voltage reection coecient, except where otherwise indicated. The relationship between and is a mapping where any point of the complex plane corresponds to another point of the complex plane. It can be shown that this mapping is conformal because the angles between corresponding lines in both planes are the same. Actually, in the plane only the right side, for r 0, is of interest for passive circuits, as those considered here. Simple computations show that the right half plane maps, in the plane, to the inner area of the circle of unit radius centered in the origin. The vertical axis in the plane (purely reactive impedances) maps in the outer circumference of unit radius; all other parallel vertical lines with constant real part map to other complete circumferences, all passing through the point = 1 (that corresponds to = ); nally the horizontal lines with constant imaginary part (for positive real part only) map in arcs of circumference, again all passing through = 1. The graph that can be obtained by mapping from to a number of constant resistance or reactance lines, in order to have an easy conversion between and values, is called Smith chart (or Smith diagram), shown in g.2.6. On the Smith chart, in addition to the curves, there are a number of scales that allow to evaluate various quantities, like voltage, current, power, and others that will be described in the following. From eqs.(2.32) it can be seen that the reection coecient in two dierent sections of a lossless line dier only by the phase value, while its amplitude remains constant. This means that the locus of any on a given transmission line is a circle centered in the origin.
2.2.3
Voltage and current standing wave along a transmission line
By using the reection coecient to express the voltage and the current in the various sections of the line, we obtain: V (z) = V + (z) (1 +v (z)) (2.35) I (z) = I + (z) (1 +i (z)) = Y V + (z) (1 v (z)) The voltage on the line is therefore proportional to (1 +v (z)). This graphically corresponds to the sum the vector to a unit horizontal vector as shown in g.(2.7). This means that, considering dierent sections of the line, rotates about the center of the Smith Chart, and the tip of the vector 1 + moves with it, thus varying its amplitude from a maximum of 1 + || to a minimum of 1 ||. Such wave structure with oscillating amplitude is called standing wave; an example is shown in g.2.7. Similar considerations apply to the current: however, since i (z) = v (z), the maximum current amplitude will correspond to the minimum voltage amplitude, and vice-versa. V ed I are periodic in amplitude, with period /2.
15
Figure 2.6: The Smith Chart.
16
Figure 2.7: Diagram for computing the voltage on the Smith Chart. We can also dene for both voltage and current the Standing Wave Ratio (SWR), usually indicated with S, as the ratio between the maximum and the minimum voltage (or current) along the line. From the previous considerations, it is obvious that S is the same for voltage and current. max (V (z)) z min (V (z))
z v
S=
=
i
max (1 +v (z)) z min (1 +v (z))

z
(2.36) max (I (z)) z

z
1 + | | 1 + | | = = v | 1| 1 |i | min (I (z))
The value of S ranges between 1 and . It can also be seen that, when is real and positive, the values of the reduced impedance and of the standing wave S are identical, because = ||; and that S equals the maximum impedance real part along the line, as well as the inverse of the minimum impedance real part. Consequently, rmin rmax = 1.
17
2.2.4
Power in a lossless line
The instantaneous power for any section of the line is expressed as: p(z, t) = v(z, t) i(z, t) and the complex power, for time-harmonic signals, is given by P (z) + jQ(z) = V (z) I (z) where the active power is 1 t p (z, t) dt (2.39) T 0 Computing the active power according eq.(2.38) in all sections of the transmission line, by multiplying V and I as expressed by eqs. (2.19), we have: P (z) = p (z, t) = P (z) = {V I } = Y V+ V
2 2
(2.37)
(2.38)
(2.40)
the other two terms being imaginary. This expression is valid also with losses provided that Z is real. Computing the active power from the expression of eq. (2.42), we obtain that, using the RMS values, it is P (z) = where 1 Z V+ V P =
2 2
= P+ P
(2.41)
2 1 V (2.42) Z From this equation we can see that in the lossless line the power crossing each section of the line is constant, and it can be considered as the dierence of two terms, that have the physical meaning of powers associated to the forward and backward travelling wave, respectively, that we will therefore call P + and P (forward and backward power, or incident and reected power). It is obvious that on a passive load P P + . P is called the total power. Eq.(2.41) shows also that the power terms are independent and associated to the corresponding voltage amplitude only. However, this result is valid only in the case of a real value of the characteristic impedance, as it is the case of a lossless line. If not (as it may be for lossy lines) there is some coupling between incident and reected power.
18
+ P P A
P-
+ P P A Yoo reale
P-
ZL
Figure 2.8: Incident and reected power on a transmission line.
2.2.5
Practical examples of transmission lines
In the following we will briey describe the most common types of two-conductors transmission lines. Depending on their structure they can be subdivided in symmetric (or balanced) lines, i.e. in a given section the two conductors have opposite voltage and current, and in asymmetric (or unbalanced) lines, i.e. in a given section one conductor is always at zero voltage, i.e. it is at ground. Figure 2.9 shows a few examples of common transmission lines.
Parallel-wire line
Coaxial line
Shielded parallel-wire line
Microstrip line
Figure 2.9: Examples of common transmission lines.
Parallel-wire line The Parallel-wire line is the oldest example of transmission line, and its rst use was for telegraph lines. It consists of two parallel conductors, usually (but not necessarily) of the same diameter (see g.2.10), kept at a constant distance by some support structure (as in the telegraph lines or in power lines) or by some surrounding
19
Electric field Magnetic field
= ' =
2Z
Figure 2.10: Geometry and eld lines of the Parallel-wire line (solid lines: E eld; dashed line: H eld) and formulae for the parameters and other characteristic quantities.
c =
d =
Z =
120 2D ln r d
D per >>1e r =1 d
vf = c
Z " = = 2 2 ' '
Z =
120
cosh1
D d
cosh 1
D d
cosh 1
D d
cosh 1
D d
"
2R = S d
D D d
d
2
C=
0 r
D cosh 1 d
20
dielectric (as it is for radio frequency lines). This type of transmission line is used up to frequencies of a few hundreds of MHz, because at higher frequencies, being this line an open structure, it has some radiation, and the losses increase. The parameters of the Parallel-wire line (inductance, capacitance, resistance and conductance per unit length)as well as the characteristic impedance and the propagation constant (in its real and imaginary part) are summarized in g.2.10. Coaxial line The coaxial line (also called coaxial cable) consists of two coaxial conductors, separated by a dielectric (see g.2.11), that usually has relative dielectric constant values from slightly higher than 1 (as plastic foams) to about 2.5 (teon or others). In some case the dielectric can be air, but obviously a spacer is required to keep constant the distance between the conductors: as an example, there are cables with a dielectric helix that avoids the relative movements between the conductors. Low r values have generally low losses, and air allows a better thermal exchange, so such cables are particularly indicated for high power.
Figure 2.11: Geometry and eld lines of the coaxial line. Solid lines: E eld; dashed line: H eld. Usually coaxial lines are relatively exible, but for many applications semi-rigid cables (i.e. that can be bent with appropriate tools to a controlled radius of curvature) are used; less common is the use of rigid cables. The frequency range where the coaxial line can be used is from 0 to an upper frequency that depends essentially on the average between inner and outer diameter. As a rule of thumb, the circumference of the cable must be smaller than the wavelength: it is therefore possible to have coaxial cables for the higher microwave range (10-30 GHz) or the lower millimeter range (above 30 GHz) provided that the diameter is small enough. However, since the coaxial line losses are inversely proportional to the diameters, at such frequencies the coaxial lines will be highly dissipative. This forbids the use of coaxial lines for the transmission of high power at high frequencies (more than a few GHz) and for long distances. The parameters of the coaxial line (inductance, capacitance, resistance and conductance per unit length) as well as the characteristic impedance and the propa-
21
gation constant (in its real and imaginary part) are summarized in the following equations:
2 ' D ln d

C=
L=

D ln d
G=
2 2 " = D D ln ln d d

R =
RS 1 1 + d D d
perr =1
c =
R 2Z
d =
GZ " = = 2 2 ' '

2
= ' =
Microstrip The microstrip line is an unbalanced transmission line consisting of a metallic strip, of width w and thickness t (this latter usually considered as zero), generally printed on a grounded dielectric layer, of height h, called substrate, as shown in g.(2.12). Other more complex structures are possible, e.g. with multiple layers substrate, or with a superstrate above the strip.
Figure 2.12: Single layer microstrip line. The medium where the electromagnetic waves propagate is not homogeneous (air above, dielectric below), and therefore the velocity of propagation vf will be a value between the speed of the light in the dielectric medium and that in the air. Obviously, if the strip is much wider than the height of the dielectric, the main part of the energy will be between the strip and the ground, and therefore vf will be near c/ r . Conversely, if the strip is very narrow, vf is the average between the two
Z =
1 60 D D 138 D ln ln log10 ' 2 d r r d d
(2.43)
22
velocities. The expression for the eective dielectric constant, due to Hammerstad and Jensen 1 , are reported in eqs.(2.44-2.45), together with those for the computation of the characteristic impedance Z (for W/h 1 or W/h 1, respectively). These formulae are also plotted in gs.(2.13) and (2.14): ef f is plotted for various values of r , while Z for r = 1 only: its actual value is then obtained by dividing by the appropriate ef f .
Z =
ln
10 er =90 9 80 70 8 60 50 7 40 6 n 30 5 20 4 10 3 8 6 4 2 1 1 10
0 1 2
10
10 w/h
Figure 2.13: Design curves for the eective dielectric constant of a single layer microstrip line.
Hammarstad,E., and Jensen,O.: Accurate Models for Microstrip Computer-Aided Design, Digest of 1980 IEEE MTT-S Intl Symp., Washington, DC, pp. 407-409.
1
r,eff W +1.393+ 0.667ln W +1.444

60
8h W + W 4h 120
r ,eff =
r +1 r 1
+
h 1 + 12 W
1 2
(2.44)
W <1 h W se > 1 h se
(2.45)
10

300 w/h < 1 w/h > 1
23
250
200
Zo (ohm)
150
100
50
0 1 10
10 w/h
10
Figure 2.14: Design curves for the characteristic impedance of a single layer microstrip line. Stripline The stripline is another type of printed transmission line, where the strip is enclosed between two dielectrics and two ground planes (g.2.15): it is therefore a shielded structure, and could be used at higher frequencies. However there is some disadvantage, in particular the presence of surface waves and the consequent higher coupling among dierent lines, and the higher weight and cost with respect to the microstrip. Striplines, as microstrips, can use also multiple layers structures: as an example, in space technology is common the use of the suspended stripline, where the lines are etched on a very thin (e.g. 0.1 mm or less) layer of dielectric (e.g. mylar), that is tensioned from the sides of a thin box. In this way the dielectric is mainly empty space, and this reduces losses and weight. For an homogeneous stripline, it is obviously ef f = r . The characteristic impedance is given by the formulae of g.2.15. It may be observed that, for the same strip width and the same substrate height, the stripline characteristic impedance is much lower than for microstrip line.
24
W
r
30
t b
Z =
b r Weff + 0.441b Weff W = b b 0 W b

2
if
Figure 2.15: Cross section and characteristic impedance of a stripline.
2.2.6
Loads and junctions along the line
Along a transmission line there can be several types of discontinuities, or junctions, that however may generally be reduced to the congurations shown in g.2.16, i.e. series, shunt and cascade congurations. In all three cases some quantities remain constant across the discontinuity: in particular, in the series junction the current is the same in the sections A+ and A ; in the shunt junction the voltage is the same in the sections A+ and A ; and nally in the cascade line junction, with dierent characteristic impedances, both voltage and current, as well as the impedance, are constant passing from A to A+ : in this latter junction, however, the normalized impedance is not constant.
-A
A+ Z ZA+ Z1
-A+
YA-
Y
-A+
YA+
ZA-
Figure 2.16: Shunt, series and cascade junctions. The relationships for the electric quantities across the discontinuity section are summarized in table 2.1.
where
0.35
W > 0.35 b W < 0.35 if h
Z 2
25
shunt
series
cascaded lines
VA = VA+ IA = IA+ YA = YA+ + Y
VA = VA+ IA = IA+ ZA = ZA+ + Z
VA = VA+ IA = VA+ ZA = ZA+
Table 2.1: Voltage, current and impedance relationship in the junctions.
2.2.7
The Transmission Coecient
At a discontinuity, some part of the incident wave is reected (e.g. for voltage with amplitude V + ), and some other is transmitted. Applying the conditions of Table 2.1the values of the transmitted wave is easily calculated. As an example, for a junction between two lines as in g.2.16, right, the total voltage is the same at right + and left of section A. It is therefore VA = (1 + A )VA = VA+ : but since the + lines are semi-innite, no other reection is present, and therefore it is VA+ = VA+ . + + Consequently the incident traveling wave VA changes through A to VA+ . The ratio of the two forward traveling waves at right and left of section A is called the Transmission Coecient T. From the previous consideration we get T =1+ (2.46)
The transmission coecient can therefore be greater than 1 (up to 2) when the reection coecient is positive (i.e. when passing to a transmission line with higher impedance), so that the voltage increases. However, the corresponding transmission coecient for current is Ti = 1 +i = 1 v (2.47) so that the current decreases; the total power is reduced by the factor 1||2 (power transmission coecient), always less than 1.
2.2.8
Lossy lines
When the resistance and the conductance per unit length are non-zero, the transmission line has losses, and the transmission line equations become dV = (jL + R) I dz
dI = (jC + G) V dz
(2.48)
26
From these equations, using the same procedure as for the lossless case, we get again a couple of ordinary dierential equations with constant coecients, i.e.: d2 + k2 dz 2 where k 2 = (jL + R) (jC + G) (2.50) The complex constant k has 2 possible values, ( j) that lie in the 2nd and in the 4th quadrant (see g. 2.17); their real and imaginary parts have therefore opposite signs.
V
=0
I
(2.49)
mode modo -
Figure 2.17: Complex k plane. The solutions for voltage and current are still expressed with complex exponentials V (z) = V0+ ejz ez + V0 ejz ez (2.51) jz z + jz z e Y V0 e e I(z) = Y V0 e These equations once again represent a couple of forward and backward waves, but in this case the amplitude is not constant. The opposite signs of real and imaginary parts guarantee that for each wave the voltage and current amplitudes, and consequently the power, decrease in the direction of propagation, as it is physically acceptable (see g.2.18). In eqs.(2.51) the characteristic admittance, in general, has a complex value Y = 1 = Z (jC + G) (jL + R) (2.52)
- + +jj
~ k ~ k ~2 k -jj mode + modo +
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010 with {Z } 0.
27
V V0 + V0 V
+ -
Figure 2.18: Amplitude of traveling and backward waves on a lossy line. The reection coecient along a lossy line has no longer constant amplitude, because from eqs.(2.51) we obtain:
v
(z) =v (0)ej2z e2z
(2.53)
that corresponds to a logarithmic spiral on the Smith Chart. Aa mentioned, the characteristic impedance/admittance, in general, is not real. This can be overcome if the transmission line fullls a condition, called Heaviside condition, that substantially implies that in the fraction of eq.(2.52) the numerator and the denominator have the same phase angle. Such conditions can be written as RC = LG or (2.54)
C L = (2.55) G R Consequently, the characteristic impedance is real, and has the same value as for the lossless case L (2.56) Z = C In this case the propagation constant is given by L k = j RG 1 + j R where the phase constant is the same as the lossless case = LC and the attenuation constant is = RG (2.57)
(2.58) (2.59)
28
This means that the attenuation constant is independent on the frequency (provided that R and G are constant)2 , and the phase velocity is also constant. Consequently for a non sinusoidal signal, consisting of several spectral components, each of them travels with the same velocity and has the same attenuation, and therefore the complete signal is not distorted. The power associated to voltage and current on a transmission line, if Z is real, is given, from eq.(2.41), by |V + (z)| P (z) = Z
2
1 |(z)|2
(2.60)
For a transmission line of a given characteristic impedance, loaded by ZL , as shown in g.2.19, the ratio between the powers across sections A and B is
2 PB 2 1 |B | =e PA 1 |A |2
(2.61)
ZL
A B
Figure 2.19: Loaded lossy transmission line. The rst factor (the exponential) is called nominal attenuation and depends only on the type of transmission line (i.e. its resistance and conductance per unit length). The second factor (the fraction) is 1 if ZL = Z , i.e. if the load is matched to the line. If not, there is an additional attenuation due to the mismatch (the value of the fraction is always < 1, because ||A < ||B ). This factor is called mismatch loss.
2.2.9
Load matching
From the previous considerations on the losses, and recalling that in transmission lines the power is often at very low levels (as it is in receiving circuits of a telecommunication system) it is clear that in RF circuits and lines it is very important to minimize the losses, and therefore to have loads matched to the transmission line, to allow the maximum delivery of power to the load. In a simple conguration, the transmission line transfers the power from a source (e.g. the antenna of a receiving TV system, on the roof of a building) to a load (e.g.
Obviously this is not true for a very large frequency range, essentially because of the skin eect in the conductors and the changes of the dielectric parameters with frequency.
2
29
a TV receiver at the ground oor of the building), as shown in g.2.20, and its length can be of several tens of meters. Considering that the nominal losses cannot be avoided (although there can be a reduction with a proper choice of the cable), it is very important to minimize at least the mismatch losses. Therefore, there must be matching at both ends of the line, i.e. at the load and at the source.
Zg
Zoo Energetico Source Uniformita Uniformity
ZL
Figure 2.20: Power transfer from a source to a load. In addition to the requirement of maximizing the power, it is also important to minimize the voltage along the line (e.g. to reduce the risk of breakdown), of course without reducing the transmitted power level: the SWR then must be minimized. If the impedances Zg , Z , ZL are not the same, it is necessary to introduce at both ends of the transmission line suitable matching network. The matching at the load side is called uniformity matching because it brings to zero the reection coecient on the load, thus keeping it to 0 (and the SWR to 1) along all the line; the matching at the source side is called source matching because it allows the maximum power transfer from the source, that generally has an internal impedance dierent from that of the line, and sometimes complex. Moreover, for both cases, the matching must be obtained without additional losses, i.e. the matching network must have lossless components. L matching section One of the simplest techniques for matching is the so called L (or Line-stub) matching section, because it uses a transmission line in cascade and a reactance (or susceptance) in series (in parallel), that is obtained with a short stub of transmission line. The choice between the series or parallel conguration depends on which is the easier way of construction, i.e. on the type of transmission line: generally, the most used conguration is the parallel conguration, because the series conguration would imply an interruption of the main line. This technique allows an easy matching because the cascade transmission line rotates the reection coecient with constant amplitude in the plane, on a constant radius circle centered in = 0. If the line length is such to move the impedance to the circle with unit real part (e.g. point A in g.2.21), it is clear that, adding a suitable reactance (or susceptance) respectively in series or in parallel, we can move the point representing the impedance to the center of the Smith chart, i.e. to = 0 (point B in g.2.21).
30
Y
t.g. y A
L
line A B "linea"
Zoo
stub "stub"
ZL
= L
ZL Zoo
Figure 2.21: Scheme of the line-stub matching. The uniformity matching therefore corresponds to move the impedance point in the plane to the center: however this is true only if the lines for the matching network have the same characteristic impedance of the line to which the matching is required. Otherwise, this point shall be moved to the impedance point corresponding to the ratio of the two impedances. Multiple solutions are possible. There are two intersections between the || = const. circle and the unit real part circle: therefore the stub can be chosen capacitive or inductive depending if we choose the intersection in the lower or upper half plane (assuming working with admittances). And the stubs can be open or short circuited: in total there are 4 solutions. In addition, the length of stubs and lines can be varied by multiple of /2 without changing their characteristics. In general, solutions with smaller dimensions are preferred, because this means a larger bandwidth. However there may be other constraints, like the diculty of realizing a short circuit in a microstrip, the available distances among the components, etc., that can modify the choice. reverse-L matching section The line-stub matching allows generally to move the impedance to the center of the Smith chart, but not the opposite: and this can be the case of the source matching, if the source has a complex internal impedance and must be loaded with its conjugate value to deliver the maximum power. In fact, considering gure 2.22, it can be easily seen that, starting from the normalized impedance L , it is not possible to reach, as an example, the impedance G with a line and a stub: only the impedance values in the dashed area can be obtained. It is therefore necessary to use a reverse scheme, i.e. to insert, starting from the load, rst a stub and then a line. In some cases, both paths are possible. Other schemes of matching networks can be used, as the scheme or the T scheme (g.2.22). In any case, however, there are always 2 lengths of line to be determined, because moving in a 2-D space as the plane clearly requires the change of 2 coordinates.
31
Starting from Lwith con and stub, stub, Partendo da L line linea + we reach only points in the dashed area
si arriva solo nella zona
Ci vuole are + linea. stub and linestubrequired

Figure 2.22: Scheme of the stub-line matching.
-
B+
- +
B+ 2
+ B1
INFINITE SOLUZIONI INFINITE SOLUTIONS
A-1 A-2 A
Figure 2.23: Other types of matching networks: and T schemes Matching of resistive impedance If the load impedance is purely resistive (as it is, an example, for a matched transmission line connected to another) the matching can be obtained easily with a single section of transmission line. If the load is RL and we connect it to a section of transmission line, as in g.2.24, with characteristic impedance Z1 and length /4, from eq.(2.29) we get ZA = lim
k 2
RL + jZ1 tan k 1 + jY1 RL tan k
If this structure must then be connected to a line of characteristic impedance Z2 , from eq.(2.62) we can see that, choosing
2 Z 1 RL
(2.62)
32
A Zoo2 Zoo1
B RL
Figure 2.24: Loaded transmission line section.
Z 1 =
Z 2 R L
(2.63)
the impedance in section A is Z2 , so that there is a perfect matching. This type of matching is called quarter wave matching. The same result can be derived by considering the Smith chart, as in g.2.25: assuming RL < Z1 , the normalized impedance in the plane is on the real negative axis, and in B has a value B = RL /Z1 . Since a line of length /4 rotates on the Smith chart by 180 , it is A+ = B , and A+ = 1/B = Z1 /RL . Denormalizing 2 with respect to Z1 , it is ZA = Z1 /RL . So, if Z1 fulls the previous condition, the new normalization with respect to Z2 brings the impedance in the center of the Smith chart, i.e. to = 0. This technique can be extended to complex loads: in this case it will be necessary to add a section of line to rotate the reection coecient to a real value.
RL Zoo
RL Zoo
ZL Zoo RL Zoo
1
ZA Zoo
ZA Zoo
ZA ZA Zoo Zoo1
2
Figure 2.25: Smith chart for the quarter wave matching. This technique gives an exact matching only at the frequency where the transmission line is /4 (or odd multiples), while for variable frequency there is a reection coecient that can be computed easily in several ways, as it will be shown in the following. Lets consider (g. 2.26) an impedance ZL connected to a line, with characteristic impedance Z1 , through a line section having length , arbitrary characteristic
33
- A+ Zoo1 Zoo2
B ZL
AB = =
Figure 2.26: Load connected to a line through a line section. impedance Z2 and phase constant , related to the frequency f by: = 2f v (2.64)
where v is the velocity of propagation along the line. We will indicate, for short, = . At junction A we can write: A = ZA Z1 ; ZA + Z1 ZA = 1 + A+ Z 2 1 A+
A+ = L ej2 from where we can obtain, after some simple computations A = 1 + L ej2 1 + 1 L ej2 with 1 = Z 2 Z 1 Z2 + Z1 (2.65)
Analyzing the previous equation, it can be seen that the locus of , for variable , is a circle that intersects the real axis of the plane in the two abscissas = 1 |L | ; 1 1 |L | = 1 + |L | 1 + 1 |L |
as shown in g.2.27. In particular, if the matching conditions (2.63) are fullled, 1 = |L |, and = 0,the circle passes through = 0. The other intersection with the real axis is for = , that is also the maximum of ||. With simple algebra it can be seen that, if ZL is real, and equal to RL , it is = ZL Z 1 ZL + Z 1 (2.66)
This is also the value of for f = 0. In this case, in fact, the electrical length of the connecting line is zero, and its eect can be neglected: the reection coecient is therefore that of the load connected directly to Z1 .
34
Figure 2.27: Locus of vs frequency. It must be observed that the value of is periodic with the frequency. At zero frequency, it is = and with increasing frequency moves along the circle; when the frequency is such that = /2 (quarter wave condition, f = f0 ) its position is on the real axis in ; for f = 2f0 it is again in and so on, repeating periodically with a period of 2f0 .
2.2.10
Theory of Small Reections (or of the Multiple reections)
The reection coecient computed in the previous section can also be obtained considering dynamically the various contributions of reection and transmission that arise when a wave impinges on more than one discontinuity. If we consider the simplest conguration, a section of transmission line and a load, as the one of g.2.26 and 2.28, we may observe that a wave incident in A from the left is reected and transmitted in two waves, that we will indicate with Vr1 and Vt1 . Here and in the following, we will always indicate with Vr the waves travelling to the left, and Vt those to the right, regardless of the fact that they are actually reected or transmitted, this depending on the direction of the incident wave.
- A+ Zoo
p1 VV rA 1 p2 VV tA
1
Zoo
ZL
p3 VV rA 3
Figure 2.28: Multiple reections in a line section.
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010
35
The transmitted wave Vt1 , still travelling to the right, is then partially reected by the load in B (the remaining part is absorbed by its resistive part, if any), generating a backward wave that impinges again, from the right, on the discontinuity A, giving rise to another couple of waves, Vr2 and Vt2 : this latter returns to the load and is reected again, adding further contributions. It is clear that the nal result is an innite series, where, however, the successive terms have a relatively fast decrease, so that the series is convergent. Computing the successive contributions to the wave travelling from A to the left, as shown schematically in g.2.29, we obtain:
Vr
Vr
Vr
Figure 2.29: Scheme of multiple reections and transmissions. 1st partial reected voltage:
p1 + VA = 1 VA
2nd partial reected voltage (from the load):

p2 + VA = T12 T21 L ej2 VA
36
3rd partial reected voltage (from the load to A and again to the load and to A): + p3 VA = T12 ej2 L 2 T21 L ej2 VA etc. Summing all these contributions, the total reected voltage in A is:
+ VA = VA 1 + T12 T21 L ej2 + T12 T21 2 2 ej4 + = L + = VA 1 + T12 T21 L ej2 1 + 2 L ej2 + (2 L )2 ej4 + = VA 1 + T12 T21 L ej2 n=0
n n ej2n 2 L
+ = VA 1 +
T12 T21 L ej2 1 2 L ej2 T12 = 1 + 2 = 1 1
where: 2 = 1 ; from where we obtain: A = 1 + 2 L ej2 + L ej2 2 L ej2 1 1 1 + 1 L ej2 T21 = 1 + 1 ;
and simplifying we obtain nally A = 1 + L ej2 1 + 1 L ej2 (2.67)
In the same manner we obtain the transmitted voltage

+ VA+ =
T21 V+ 1 + 1 L ej2 A
(2.68)
In conclusion, VA depends on multiple reections.
In a rst approximation, for |1 | , |L | small, we can neglect the higher order terms of the series, and write: 1 + L ej2 + O (1 |L |) A = TA T21 + O (1 |L |) = (2.69)
The previous equations have a clear physical interpretation of neglecting all the multiple reections.
37
Zi Z = ZZ Z1
- A+
Z2
B
ZL
1 L
= 0 4
Figure 2.30: Loaded transmission line
2.2.11
Frequency behavior of a quarter wave matching section
The input impedance of a transmission line loaded with an impedance ZL (see g. 2.30) is, repeating here for convenience eq.(2.29): Zi = Z2 ZL + jZ2 tan Z2 + jZL tan
The reection coecient can be written as A = with Zi Z1 ZL Z1 = Zi + Z1 ZL + Z1 + 2j Z1 ZL t
t = tan , and, after some manipulation3 : |A | = 1+ 1

2 Z1 ZL ZL Z1
1 2
sec
that can be approximated with: |ZL Z1 | |cos | |A | = 2 Z1 ZL for = 2
The amplitude of this reection coecient is shown in g.2.31, as a function of the electrical length of the line: it can be seen that it has a periodic behavior, and that the matching is obtained when the electrical length of the line is an odd multiple of /2, i.e. when the length is an odd multiple of /4.
3
R.E.Collin: Foundations for microwave engineering, Mc Graw Hill, 1992, chapt.5.9.
38
ZL- Z1 ZL +Z1
ycneuqerf tnanoser
intorno di
3 2
Figure 2.31: Frequency behavior of a quarter-wave matching section. If the maximum acceptable reection coecient, at the maximum frequency fM , is |M AX |, we obtain: M = cos Dening the total bandwidth as
1
2 |M | (ZL Z1 )
Z1 ZL
1 |M |2
f = 2 (f0 fM ) we get:
f 4 2 |M | Z1 Z2 1 = sin f0 (ZL Z1 ) 1 |M |2
2.2.12
Cascade of multiple line sections
The theory of small reections can be applied to simplify the analysis of a cascade of several line sections, of any length, provided that the adjacent characteristic impedances are not much dierent each other, typically with a ratio less than 2. In this case we may neglect the multiple reections, and assume the reected wave (and consequently the reection coecient) as given by the sum of the reections of the single discontinuities, multiplied by an additional phase term that takes into account the delay of the wave going from the input port to the discontinuity and back to the input port. In general the input reection coecient of a cascade of N line sections, each having a characteristic impedance Zn , a length n and a phase constant n , when connected to a transmission line of characteristic impedance Z0 , is given by:
N n
in = 0 +
n=1
n exp 2j
i=1
(2.70)
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 where n are the partial reection coecients: 0 = Z 1 Z 0 ; Z1 + Z0 n = Zn+1 Zn ; Zn+1 + Zn N = ZL ZN ZL + Z N
39
As a simple particular case, we will consider line sections of equal electrical length i i = , as shown in g.2.32: obviously, when frequency varies, may assume any value, from about 0 (for very low frequencies) to several multiples of turns.

Zoo
Zoo
Zoo
Zoo
Zoo
Z L reale ZL real
A
Figure 2.32: Cascade of multiple line sections of equal length. n are real values, with amplitude n ; if ZL > Z0 , and we choose a monotonic behavior of the successive characteristic impedances, then all partial reection coecients n are positive. Under the assumption of small reections, we get: A 0 + 1 ej2 + 2 ej4 + + N ej2N = This expression is a polynomial of degree N in the variable w = e2j A 0 + 1 w + 2 w2 + + N wN = Assuming that the distribution of coecients n has a symmetrical structure, i.e.: 0 = N ; 1 = N 1 . . . it can be easily derived that A = 2ejN [0 cos N + 1 cos (N 2) + + N 1 cos ]
2
for N odd
+ N ]
2
for N even
and it is clearly dependent on n .
40
MAX
f
0
f,
Figure 2.33: Wideband matching with the maximum atness criterion.
2.2.13
Wideband matching: maximum atness
We will now study the design of a wideband matching network using the expressions derived in the previous paragraph. To increase the bandwidth we will impose that the amplitude of reection coecient is zero at the central frequency f0 , and has also a given number of derivatives vanishing in that point, as shown in g.2.33 (criterion of the maximum atness). This condition can be expressed as dn df n =0
f =f0
for any n N 1, that means that the function expressing has N coincident zeros for f = f0 , i.e. for = /2. These conditions are clearly satised by the polynomial function = A (1 + w)N = A 1 + e2j
N
(2.71)
where A is a constant to be determined. This expression can also be written as: || = A 2N cosN so that we can nd the value of A, because at f = 0 it is (0) = A 2N = ZL Z0 ZL + Z 0 (2.73) (2.72)
Developing eq.(2.71) with the binomial formula, we obtain =2

N
ZL Z0 ZL + Z0 N n
N n=0
N n
j2n
=
n=0
n ej2n
N! = (N n)!n!
N N n
41
Having computed the values of the various n , from them we may derive step by step the Zn : 1 n+1 (2.74) 1 + n+1 starting from n = N , where ZN +1 = ZL . A further simplication in the computation of the characteristic impedances can be obtained considering that, because of the relatively small dierence between adjacent characteristic impedances, we may write Zn = Zn+1 n = so that ln Zn+1 = 2N +1 Zn N n ZL Z0 ZL + Z0 f or n = 0, . . . , N 1 Zn+1 Zn 1 Z 1 Zn+1 ln = Zn+1 + Zn 2 Z 2 Z n
This type of matching network is called binomial (quarter-wave) transformer. The various values of Zn can be derived also starting from 0 , determining rst Z1 an then the remaining values. It must be observed, however, that there are N unknowns (the characteristic impedances) and N + 1 conditions (the coecients of the polynomial, i.e. the partial reection coecients). Consequently, condition N + 1 should give Z0 (or ZL , depending from which side we start the computation of the characteristic impedances): however, since this method is approximate (it neglects multiple reections), the value obtained is not exactly what it should be but slightly dierent.
Example: Design a 2-section transformer for a 100 load to a Z0 = 50 . It is N = 2, (0) = 1/3, so that we get Z2 = 84.6 , Z1 = 60.4 . From the last condition we obtain Z0 = 51 instead of = 50 . The amplitude of the reection coecient, for normalized frequencies, is plotted in g.2.34. The dotted line is the theoretical behavior, the solid line is from the exact values.
2.2.14
Bandwidth of a binomial transformer

ZL Z 0 cosN = (0) cosN ZL + Z 0 =
From the expression of the reection coecient of the binomial transformer || = with writing = f f 0 = = 1+ 4 2 f0 2 2f0
42
0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 || 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 f/f0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Figure 2.34: Amplitude of the reection coecient, 2 element matching section, ZL /Z0 = 2. we get || = (0) sinN The SWR is: S 1 + 2 || = 1 + 2(0) sinN = f 4 f0 f 4 f0 (2.75)
Consequently, given the maximum acceptable M in the operating band B, we get M f 4 = sin1 f0 (0)
1/N
(2.76)
Several other types of cascaded matching network are available, as the Chebishev transformer, whose response is shown in g. 2.35 for the case of 5 sections.
5 (5 SEZIONI) SECTIONS
MAX
f0 f
Figure 2.35: Frequency response of a Chebyshev transformer.
43
2.2.15
Non uniform lines
The characteristic parameters of the line R, L, C, G up to now have been assumed as constant along the line. If they are variable with z, as shown in g.2.36, the transmission line may have ltering properties, that can be used for wideband matching. In general Z and are function of the characteristics of the section, although often is constant and depends only on the frequency (e.g. in a transmission line with homogeneous medium).
- + A
Zoo
Zoo (z)
Z L reale ZL real == L RR L
z
dz
Zoo
Zoo+ dZoo
Figure 2.36: Non uniform line.
The line in this case is a series of innite small discontinuities, each one giving an innitesimal reection coecient d (z) = 1 dZ 1 d Z + dZ Z = = ln (Z ) dz Z + dZ + Z 2 Z 2 dz
With the Small Reections Model, each one of such contributions is seen at the input with the phase shift corresponding to the twice of the distance d (0) = e2jz d (z) The sum of all contribution is therefore an integral over the length (0) = of the line
1 d e2jz ln (Z ) dz + ( ) e2j (2.77) 2 0 dz The second term is non-zero if the value of the characteristic impedance al the end of the line section, Z ( ), is dierent from the load impedance ZL . This can
44
be considered a lumped discontinuity, with a nite reection coecient, while those along the line are distributed discontinuities with innitesimal reection coecients. From eq.(2.77) we may observe that the frequency response of a non-uniform line is the Fourier transform of the derivative of the logarithm of the characteristic impedance, i.e. FT d (ln Z ) dz
2.2.16
Exponential taper matching
We will consider the case where the characteristic impedance has an exponential taper along the line, from a value Z0 to a value RL . This can be expressed as Z (z) = Z0 e To apply eq.(2.77) we compute ln Z (z) = ln Z0 + z ln RL Z 0
z ln
RL Z0
d 1 RL ln Z (z) = ln = const. dz Z0 so that A = 1 2

0
1 RL j sin ln e 2 Z0
2 /ln(RL /Zoo ) A
1 0
~ min = 2
0.212 0.127 0.091 4 5
= 2f
Figure 2.37: Frequency response of an exponentially tapered line. This tapered line has an high-pass behavior. In fact, at frequencies such that the length of the tapered line is higher than /2, the reection coecient is reduced by more than the factor 2/(3), i.e. about -13 dB, with respect to the case without transformer.
45
2.2.17
Triangular taper
Another interesting case is when the derivative of the logarithm has a triangular shape (g. 2.38), as
d (ln Z ) = dz
4z
2
RL ln Z 0 RL ( z) ln Z
0z 2 z 2
where the constants have been chosen to have the characteristic impedances at output and input sections equal to RL and Z0 , respectively.
2 (R /Z ) L oo0 z 2
Figure 2.38: Triangular taper. By using the same procedure of the previous subsection, we can derive the input reection coecient: 2 1 j RL sin 2 A = e ln 2 Z0 2 that is plotted in g.2.39.
2 / ln (RL/Zoo0 )
1
0.05 0.8
-26 dB 2 3 4
Figure 2.39: Normalized reection coecient for a triangular taper.
46
It can be seen that the matching is again for higher frequencies: in particular, the rst null is when the tapered line is one wavelength long. However, since the nulls are all double, || has a at behavior about them, as shown in g. 2.39, so that a length of 0.8 is sucient to have the same level of the rst secondary maximum (equal to [2/(3)]2 , i.e. -26 dB). The behavior of the characteristic impedance along the line is given, for the two line segments 0 /2 and /2 respectively, by Z = Z 0 e
2( z ) ln
2 RL Z0
0z
RL Z0
Z = Z 0 e
4( z )2( z ) 1 ln
This type of taper has a better matching of the exponential taper, as it can be simply understood from the fact that the taper is smoother, and the derivative of Z vanishes at the edges.
2.2.18
Sources on a transmission line
We will consider in the following the behavior of a transmission line when voltage and/or current sources are inserted in a generic section C of a transmission line, as shown in g.2.40.
+V ZS
Z lS
Z lD
ZD
Figure 2.40: Sources on a transmission line. In general, the sources have left and right ports, at which there are impedances (or admittances), so that the voltages and currents at such ports are VC + 1 Z = V I Z Y
47
VC with
Z 1 = V I Z Y Y =Y +Y
Z = Z +Z IC +
1 Y = V I Z Y
1 Y IC = V I Z Y There is the possibility of resonances when IC + = 0 even if V = 0 I=0 when Z = 0 VC + = 0 even if I = 0 V =0 when Y = 0 Series and shunt resonances correspond to a total zero impedance (or admittance), seen from the source section. For reection coecients, simple computations show that for resonance conditions it must be =1

2.2.19
Generalization of the transmission line equations
We have seen in the previous subsection that the behavior of a transmission line is governed by the equations dV = ZI dz
(2.78) dI =YV dz with Z, Y complex values, corresponding to the circuit shown in g.2.41. The two previous equations can be reduced to the wave equations for V or I: d2 + k2 dz 2 V =0 I
48
Z Y
dz
Figure 2.41: Equivalent circuit of a segment of transmission line. where k 2 = ZY The characteristic impedance is: Z = Moreover: Z = j kZ Y = j kY dV = j kZ I dz dI = j kY V dz Z Y
49
2.3
The Scattering Matrix
It was seen in the previous section that, when dealing with distributed parameters networks, it is more convenient to describe the characteristics of the circuit in terms of reection coecients (and, consequently, of transmission coecient) rather than with impedance and admittance. The same considerations can be applied to multi-port networks. With lumped elements, they are usually characterized by the impedance (or admittance) matrix, that relate voltages and currents at the various ports. Instead, according what has been done for the transmission lines, we may describe voltages and currents in terms of waves (of voltage and currents) travelling forward and backward with respect to the ports, as shown in g.2.41. In this context, we will call such waves incident and reected, respectively, regardless of the actual direction of propagation.
V2 V2+
V1+ V1
V3 V3+
V4+
V4
Figure 2.41: Multi-port network The relationship between V , I and the incident and reected voltage waves is given by V + Z I V+ = 2 (2.72) V Z I V = 2 However, instead of using voltage or current waves, it is preferable to introduce
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 new normalized quantities, that we will call signals, dened for each port i as
V+ ai = i Z V b = i i
50
(2.73)
that are called respectively the incident and reected signals. Then we have:

b1 b2 b3 b4
S11 S21 S31 S41
S12 S13 S14 S22 .... .... S32 .... .... .... .... ....
a1 a2 a3 a4
(2.74)
or, in a compact form [b] = [S][a] where [S] is called the scattering matrix of the network. The term scattering recalls the fact that the waves entering from the ports are reected and transmitted through the various discontinuities in the network, giving rise to a phenomenon of scattering. The physical meaning of the elements of the S matrix can be derived by putting to zero all elements except one in [a], so that Sii bi V = i+ = ai Vi
is the reection coecient at the i-th port when all other ports are matched, while Sij bi V = i+ aj Vj Z j Z i =T
is the transmission coecient from the j-th to the i-th port when all ports, except the j-th, are matched. If the network is reciprocal, it is Sij = Sji .
2.3.1
Relationship between S- and Z-matrix

[V ] = [Z][I] (2.75)
If the Z-matrix, dened as is known, the corresponding S-matrix can be derived easily. To this purpose, we must dene the diagonal matrix
51
[Z ] = diag{Z1 , Z2 , .....ZN } that we will call characteristic impedance matrix, so that, recalling eqs.(2.72), we obtain [a] = 1 [Z ]1/2 [V ] + [Z ]1/2 [I] 2 (2.76) [b] = 1 [Z ]1/2 [V ] [Z ]1/2 [I] 2 Substituting eq.(2.75) for [V ] we obtain

[a] = 1 [Z ]1/2 {[Z] + [Z ]} [I] 2 [b] = 1 [Z ]1/2 {[Z] [Z ]} [I] = [S][a] 2
so that
[S] = [Z ]1/2 {[Z] [Z ]} {[Z] + [Z ]}1 [Z ]1/2
After some matrix manipulation, essentially extracting the diagonal matrices [Z ]1/2 , we get [S] = [Z ]1/2 [Z][Z ]1/2 1 [Z ]1/2 [Z][Z ]1/2 + 1 We will dene [Z ]1/2 [Z][Z ]1/2 [] as the normalized impedance matrix, so that the S-matrix becomes [S] = {[] 1} {[] + 1}1 = [] 1 [] + 1
1
that for this reason can also be called generalized reection coecient.
2.3.2
Power dissipated by a N -port network
For a N -port network as shown in g.2.42, the power passing through the i-th port, according the denition of the signals, is given by Pi = |ai |2 |bi |2 so that the total power dissipated in the network is Pt = or, in matrix form P = [a]T [a] [b]T [b] |ai |2 |bi |2
52
a2
a1 b1
b2
b3 a3
a4
b4
Figure 2.42: N-port network Substituting [b] = [S][a] and recalling that, from the properties of the matrices, it is [b]T = {[S][a]}T = [a]T [S]T we obtain P = [a]T [a] [a]T [S]T [S][a] = [a]T 1 [S]T [S] [a] In particular, if we are dealing with a lossless network, P = 0. Discarding the trivial solution with [a] = 0, it must be necessarily, for a lossless network, [S]T [S] = 1 (2.77)
where 1 is the identity matrix, i.e. a diagonal matrix with all terms equal to 1. Consequently [S] is a unitary matrix with has a number of interesting properties: [S]1 = [S]T the eigenvalues of the matrix have unit amplitude; the determinant has unit amplitude; rows and columns constitute an orthonormal basis in N dimensions. For the particular case of N =2, eq.(2.77) leads to: |S11 |2 + |S21 |2 = 1

S11 S12 + S21 S22 = 0
53
From these equations it can be derived that, if the lossless structure is reciprocal, it is also symmetrical, i.e.: [S]T = [S]
2.3.3
Shift of the Reference Planes
It can be sometimes useful, in the analysis of a network, to move the reference planes from one section to another of the input transmission lines at the various ports, as shown in g.2.43.
a2 , 0
a1 b1
b2, 0 b3, 0 a3, 0
a1,0
l i b1, 0
a4,0 b4.0
lj
a4
b4
Figure 2.43: Scheme of the reference planes shift. For the line at the i-th port the incident and reected signals are modied by the shift as: ai = a0i ejki i (2.78) bi = b0i ejki i where the sux 0 indicates the starting conguration, and i is positive or negative depending if the shift is into or back from the network port. The new scattering parameters after the shift are therefore Sij = bi b0i ejki i = = S0ij ej(ki jkj j aj a0i e
i +kj j )
To express this change in matrix form, we dene a shift diagonal matrix as: [exp(jk )] = diag ejk1 1 , ejk2 2 , ...... ejkN
N
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 so that [a] = [exp(jk )][a0 ] [b] = [exp(jk )][b0 ]
54
(2.79)
By substituting in the Scattering Matrix denition we get: [b] = [exp(jk )][S0 ][a0 ] = [exp(jk )][S0 ][exp(jk )][a] so that the new Scattering Matrix [S] is: [S] = [exp(jk )][S0 ][exp(jk )]
2.3.4
Change of the Reference Impedance
Z2
Z 1
Z 3
Z4
Figure 2.44: Scheme of the change of the reference impedance. Assuming that the diagonal matrix of the reference characteristic impedances is given by [Z ], for which there is a scattering matrix [S], we will derive in the following the expression of the new scattering matrix [S] when [Z ] is changed to a ]. new [Z It was previously shown that the scattering matrix is related to the impedance matrix by: [S] = where: [] 1 [Z ]1/2 [Z] [Z ] +1 [] [Z] + [Z ]
1
[Z ]1/2
[Z] = [Z ]1/2 (1 + [S]) (1 [S])1 [Z ]1/2 Collecting to left and right, from each of the {}, [Z ]1/2 and letting [R] = diag Zi Zi
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 we get: [S] = [R](1 + [S])(1 [S])1 [R] 1 [R](1 + [S])(1 [S])1 [R] + 1 In eq.(2.80) it can be recognized the term (1 + [S])(1 [S])1 [] so that [S] = [] 1 [] + 1 with
[] = [R][][R] [] = 1 + [S]
1
55
(2.80)
1 [S]
This means that the procedure for obtaining the new S matrix is the same as with the transmission line and the reection coecient: transformation to impedance, renormalization, and return to the (generalized) reection coecient.
2.3.5
Connection of structures with given [S]
In this section we will compute the total Scattering matrix of two networks, having M and N ports respectively, when connected directly through k ports, so that the new network has N + M 2k ports. The general scheme is shown in g.2.45.
ports
ports
Figure 2.45: Connection of multiport networks. Assuming that for network 1 it is [b] = [S ][a], and splitting[b] and [a] in two sub-matrices, respectively referred to the M k non connected ports and to the k connected ports, we have: (n 1) | S12 (n 1) a1 b1 n { S11 = S21 | S22 (k 1) a b k{ (k 1)

56
n k It must be noted that, if numbering of the ports of the two sides is not consecutive, they must be interchanged (together with rows and columns). Similarly, for network 2, for which it is [b] = [S ][a], we can write | S12 k { S11 a (k 1) b = S21 | S22 a2 (m 1) b2 m{ (m 1) (k 1) k Then, connecting the networks, we have: [a ] = [b ] [b ] = [a ] m

Developing the equations for networks 1 and 2, it is

[b1 ] = [S11 ][a1 ] + [S12 ][a ] [b ] = [S ][a ] + [S ][a ] 1 21 22 [b ] = [S ][a ] + [S ][a2 ] 11 12
(2.81)
[b2 ] = [S21 ][a ] + [S22 ][a2 ]
We must eliminate from eqs.(2.81) all the signals at the connected ports, i.e. [a ], [a ], [b ], [b ], also considering that [a ] = [b ], [a ] = [b ], to derive the global S matrix. For simplicity we will assume that M = N = 2 and k = 1 so that all the submatrices of the above equations become scalar. The more general formulation for any M, N, k is reported in Appendix C. Rewriting eqs.(2.81) for this simpler case, we have the four equations
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a b =S a +S a 22 21 1 b = S a + S a2 12 11
(2.82)
b2 = S21 a + S22 a2
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 We eliminate rst a = b and a = b obtaining:
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 b b =S a +S b 21 1 22 b = S b + S a2 12 11 b =S b +S a 2 21 22 2
57
(2.83)
There are many ways of reducing a system of 4 equations to two. Here one of most convenient is to substitute in the 3rd equation b from the 2nd equation, and derive b as: S S a1 + S12 a2 b = 11 21 (2.84) 1 S11 S22 and nally substituting it in the 1st equation, obtaining: b1 = S11 + S11 S21 S12 S12 S12 a2 a1 + 1 S11 S22 1 S11 S22 (2.85)
Similarly we obtain the 2nd equation as: b2 = S21 S21 S S S a1 + S22 + 22 12 21 a2 1 S11 S22 1 S11 S22
S S S S11 = S + 11 21 12 11 1 S11 S22 S12 S12 S12 = 1 S11 S22 S21 S21 S21 = 1 S11 S22 S = S + S22 S12 S21 22 22
(2.86)
The terms of the global matrix are therefore:
(2.87)
1 S11 S22
There is a simple physical interpretation of such equations, useful also for mnemonical purposes. As an example, S21 (the total transmission coecient) is simply the product of the transmission coecients of both networks, but divided by a term, 1 S11 S22 , that is called connection resonance term, because it corresponds to the resonance condition of a transmission line loaded at left and right by the reection coecients S22 and S11 , respectively. Similarly, S11 can be seen as the sum of the independent reections of the left ports of networks 1 and 2, this latter multiplied
58
by the forward and backward transmission coecients of network 1, and again divided by the connection resonance term. A symmetrical interpretation holds for the other two terms. In a certain sense, these results are similar to the theory of small reections, where the reection coecient is the sum of all reections, weighted by the delay (i.e. the transmission coecients) of the lines.
2.3.6
Transmission matrix
This is an approach useful for automatic computation, that can be used when the ports of the network are in even number 2N , and they can subdivided in two equal groups of N ports each, as shown in g.2.46, that can be considered respectively input and output ports.
1
1
2
1
T
N N
Figure 2.46: Network for the transmission matrix analysis. We may consider sets of travelling forward and backward waves, at both groups of ports. To avoid confusions, we will indicate with C (instead of a and b) all the signals, with superscripts + or to indicate the waves travelling to the right or to the left (regardless of the fact that they are incident into or reected from the network), and subscripts 1 or 2 to indicate the group of ports they belong to. Here we will assume that the forward waves are travelling to the right and the backward waves to the left: therefore ports 1 can be considered as input ports, and and ports 2 as output ports.
+ [C1 ] = [a1 ]
+ [C2 ] = [b2 ] [C1 ] = [b1 ]
(2.88)
[C2 ] = [a2 ]
Writing the Scattering Matrix, given [b] = [S][a], and dividing in submatrices for the groups of ports 1 and 2, i.e.:
a1 S11 | S12 b1 = a2 S21 | S22 b2
(2.89)
59
we can nd [C1 ] = [T ][C2 ], i.e. the input signals as a function of the output signals. In fact, replacing the Cs for a and b from (2.88) to (2.89):
+ C1 C1 S11 | S12 = + C2 C2 S21 | S22
or:
+ [C1 ] = [S11 ][C1 ] + [S12 ][C2 ]
+ + [C2 ] = [S21 ][C1 ] + [S22 ][C2 ]
from where we get

+ + [C1 ] = [S21 ]1 [C2 ] + [S21 ]1 [S22 ][C2 ]
T11
T12
+ [C1 ] = [S11 ][S21 ]1 [C2 ] + ([S12 ] [S11 ][S21 ]1 [S22 ])[C2 ]
T21
T22
One of the most interesting and convenient aspects of this formulation is that, when many networks like these are cascaded, the input ports and signals of the downward network are coincident with output ports and signals of the upward network, so that the transmission matrix of two cascaded networks is simply the product of the two transmission matrices, i.e. [T ] = [T ][T ] (2.90)
The inverse relationships, from transmission to scattering matrix elements, are [S11 ] = [T21 ][T11 ]1 [S12 ] = [T22 ] [T21 ][T11 ]1 [T12 ] (2.91) [S21 ] = [T11 ]
1
[S22 ] = [T11 ]1 [T12 ]
Chapter 3 TRANSMISSION LINES IN TIME DOMAIN

3.1 Introduction
The analysis of the transmission lines of the previous chapter assumes to operate with a xed frequency sinusoidal signal. Actually, this is not a practical case, because a monochromatic signal doesnt carry information and therefore it is almost useless. To carry some information, the signal must be modulated, and this is done with dierent modulation techniques (amplitude, frequency, phase, etc.). In many cases, the fractional bandwidth occupied by the signal is very small (less than 1%) and the xed frequency analysis, although not exact, can be acceptable. In other cases, on the contrary, the waveform has a shape that requires a more accurate analysis in the time domain. Pulsed Radar signals, Ultra-Wideband communication systems, dispersive transmission lines, etc. are examples of practical cases where a time domain analysis is necessary. A very simple circuit that includes a transmission line consists of a voltage source and a load connected through a transmission line, as shown in g.3.1. In time domain, the source has a generic instantaneous signal of arbitrary waveform e(t), and the wave, travelling along the line, eventually produces a voltage on the load in section B that is vB (t) . As indicated in the previous chapter, it is convenient to transform the problem using the Fourier Transform dened in eqs.(2.11), and to introduce the FT of e(t) and vB (t) that we will call E() and VB (), respectively. The transfer function, i.e. the ratio between VB and E, can be easily computed, recalling the relationship between voltage and reection coecient, as: Tv () = VB () zA 1 + B jkl = e E () zg + zA 1 + A (3.1)
where the relationship between v and V is:
60
61
Zg ()
vB (t) =?

e(t)

Z ()
ZL ()
A
-B
Figure 3.1: Transmission line connecting a source to a load.
vB (t) =
1 2
+ +
VB () ejt d
(3.2) (3.3)
VB () =
vB (t) ejt dt
This means that the procedure for the analysis consists simply in computing the FT of the input signal e(t), multiplying it by the transmission coecient Tv and then obtaining vB (t) with the inverse FT. A further simplication of the circuit of g.3.1, that allows at the same time an easier computation and a physical insight of the phenomenon, is to assume a matched line (B = 0) and an ideal generator (Zg = 0), reducing the circuit to the scheme of g.3.2, so that the transfer function is simply: Tv () = e j k (3.4)
E Z () , k() e(t)
-
ZL () = Z
Figure 3.2: Matched transmission line and ideal source.
62
3.2
Spectrum of modulated signal
To proceed with the analysis, we obviously need to specify the type of input signal. We will assume an amplitude modulated signal, the simplest type of modulation, used in many applications like Medium Frequency (MF) broadcasting, analog TV, radar, that is expressed as: e (t) = f (t) cos 0 t (3.5) where the amplitude of the carrier, of angular frequency 0 , is modulated by the modulating signal f (t) (generally always positive): this latter represents also the envelope of the signal, as shown in g.3.3. The modulating signal has a limited bandwidth, usually (but not always) much lower than the carrier frequency, and centered around = 0.
envelope
carrier
Figure 3.3: Amplitude modulated signal. Since the signal is the product of two functions, its Fourier Transform is given by the convolution integral of their FT, that is: E () = 1 F {f (t)} F {cos 0 t} 2 1 [F ( 0 ) + F ( + 0 )] 2 (3.6)
that, recalling that the FT of the cosine is a couple of Delta functions, becomes: E () = (3.7)
Each term of eq.(3.7) corresponds to the spectrum of the modulating signal, multiplied by 1/2, centered around 0 , respectively. Since the bandwidth of F () is much lower than 0 , the two spectra are separated on the frequency axis, as shown in g.3.4.
63
F(+ )
F()
F(- )
c + c
Figure 3.4: Spectrum of an amplitude modulated signal. The signal in section B at the end of the line can now be derived by the inverse FT of the product of eqs.(3.7) and (3.4), expressed as:
+ 1 1 [F ( 0 ) + F ( + 0 )] ejk() ejt d 2 2 We recall that vB (t) is a real signal, so that
vB (t) =
(3.8)
VB () = VB ()
We can therefore separate the integrals on the negative and positive axes, and write:

VB () ejt d =
+
0
VB () ejt d = I + I = 2 (I)
(3.9) (3.10)
where
VB () ejt d I
The integral in (3.8) contains the propagation constant k() whose behavior is known, but which can be a non particularly simple function. So we expand k in Taylors series around 0 (this is the region of interest here because it is where the spectrum is non-zero) as dk k () = k (0 ) + d 1 d2 k ( 0 ) + 2 d 2 ( 0 )2 + . . .
= 0
(3.11)
=0
We will assume here that k is real, i.e. it is coincident with the phase constant , and we will call vg the inverse of the coecient of the term of the rst order, i.e. dk/d = 1/vg . Moreover, in a rst instance, we will assume negligible the 2nd order term. Replacing k from eq.(3.11) in the integral, we get: vB (t) = = 2
1 4 + 0
[F ( 0 ) + F ( + 0 )] e
j k(0 ) +
1 vg
( 0 )
ejt d = ejt d (3.12)
1 4
[F ( 0 ) + F ( + 0 )] e
j k(0 ) +
1 vg
( 0 )
64
In fact, the term of the integrand that contains F ( + 0 ) is zero for > 0, so that it can be neglected. Indicating by 0 the value of k(0 ), the output signal is: ( ) 1 j0 j v 0 g vB (t) = 2 e F ( 0 ) e ejt d (3.13) 4 0 that, letting = 0 , becomes vB (t) = 2 1 j(0 t 0 l) e 4
vg c c
F () e
j t
l vg
= (3.14)
= cos (0 t 0 ) f t
= cos 0 t
vf
f t
vg
From this equation we see that the output signal is still a cosinusoidal carrier of angular frequency 0 , and the envelope is still given by the function f : so, the signal is not distorted passing from the input to the output of the transmission line. However, the velocity of propagation of the envelope is dierent from that of the carrier: the point at constant phase (e.g. 0) of the cosine reaches the end of the line after a time /vf , while the envelope takes a time tg = /vg , that is generally dierent from the other. In other words, carrier and envelope travel along the line at dierent velocities: the former has a velocity vf that is called phase velocity, while the latter travels with a velocity vg that is called group velocity. If losses are present, there is still no distortion if the attenuation constant is independent on in the band of interest (i.e. the band of the modulating signal around the carrier); the signal will have attenuation without distortion. The non dispersive behavior of the line is essentially due to the fact that the phase of T is linear around 0 . The phase and group velocities can have a geometrical interpretation by considering the plot of vs. , shown in g. 3.5. The phase
Figure 3.5: Graphical derivation of phase and group velocities. velocity is vf = /, and it is therefore the tangent of the angle in the gure, while the group velocity vg = 1/(d/d) is the tangent of the angle .
tan = v
tan = v
65
3.3
Non constant group velocity
If the behavior of vs. cannot be linearized, i.e. d/ d is not constant, the quadratic term is not negligible and must be taken into account. To simplify the computation and obtain results that can be expressed in an easy closed form, we must set the modulation waveform, i.e. the shape of the envelope. We will choose for this a Gaussian modulation, i.e. the carrier is modulated by a Gaussian function (that we will call Gaussian pulse) given by f (t) = e 2T 2
1 2
t2
(3.15)
where T is called the length of the Gaussian pulse: it is f (T ) = e = 4.34dB, so that we may assume that the pulse is signicant only in the time interval T We recall for the Gaussian function the fundamental integral: 2 (2)2 2 t2 jt e e dt = e (3.16) that shows that the FT of a Gaussian function is still a Gaussian, and that, since the exponent of the integrand and of the result of the integral depend on the factor 2 respectively in a direct and inverse proportionality, a long pulse corresponds to a narrow band, and a short pulse corresponds to a wide band. The FT of the gaussian pulse modulating signal is therefore: F () = 2 T e
2 2 2 B
(3.17)
with B = 1/T , and the FT of the input modulated signal is

T 2 ( 0 )2 T 2 ( + 0 )2 2 2 T e + e (3.18) 2 If T0 is the period of the carrier, and N is the number of cycles in T , it will be
E () =
B =
1 1 f0 = = T N T0 N
(3.19)
so that the bandwidth is 1/N of the frequency of the carrier. By computing the output signal with the same technique previously used in eqs.(3.8-3.12), but including the second order term in the polynomial expression of , we obtain: vB (t) = 2 ej0
T 2 1 4
2 T
T2 ( 2
0 )2
ej0 l = (3.20)
( 0 ) j 2 ( 0 )2 j( 0 )t j0 t
ej(0 t 0 l)
c c
T2 2
+ j 1 0 2
ej(t 0 ) d
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 By letting
66
a2 =
1 2
(T 2 + j
) (3.21)
= t 0 we get:

vB (t) =
1 1+j
0 T2
j[0 t0
(t0 ) (t0 ) 2 + ] (0 ) ] 2+ 4 +( l)2 2(T ) e 2[T T2

2
(3.22)
that includes terms of amplitude and phase. The complex multiplying constant can be expressed as: with = Therefore we have
2 1/4
1 = 1 + j
1 +
j(arctan )
1 2
= 1 + 2
1 j (arctan ) 4 2
(3.23)
0 l T2
(t /vg )2 2 2T 2 1 + ( l/T 2 )
vB (t) = 1 + with
0 l T2 l vf +
] cos ( (t))
(t) = 0 t
(t /vg )2 /T 2 + 2T 2 1 + ( /T 2 )2
1 l arctan 02 2 T From these results we may observe that: the envelope is still gaussian the wave propagates along the line with a speed vg = 1 0
the line dispersion is taken into account by the parameter: = 0 = T2

2 B 1/4
. the amplitude of the signal varies with (1 + 2 ) 1 For low values ( 1) this can be approximated by 1 4 2 , while for high 1/2 values ( 1) it can be approximated by , as shown in g.3.6.

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 VB max 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
67
10
Figure 3.6: Signal amplitude vs., and asymptotic approximations. the width in time of the gaussian signal changes and becomes: T ( ) = T 1 + 2 = T () The pulse widens, and this happens more rapidly if the bandwidth is wide, i.e. if the input signal is short. 2 If T (0 ) = 2T 0 = 1 0 l B = 1 The phase has a quadratic distortion, and the instantaneous frequency varies linearly according to: (t) = d t /vg = 0 + 2 dt T 1 + 2
The dependence on of the frequency deviation is shown in g.3.7. if > 0 at the observation point along the line we receive lower frequencies before the maximum and higher frequencies after the maximum, while if < 0, we have the reverse situation, i.e. higher frequencies before the maximum and lower frequencies after the maximum. This is the most common case. With a change of the time scale, given by T = t l vg
( i.e. measuring the time t from the maximum, using T as unit) the instantaneous frequency is given by
2 ( ) = 0 + B T
B = 0 1 + 2 2 1 + 1 + 0
68
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Figure 3.7: Frequency variation parameter vs.. and the voltage at the end of the line is simply vB ( ) = vB (0) e 2
2
The frequency deviation relative to the center frequency is: ( ) B = 1 + (0) 0 1 + 2 that is signicant only for | | 3: it is in fact In conclusion we may say that, when 0 there is a frequency modulation. vB (3) 0.011 vB (0) = 0 the pulse length increases, and
3.4
Intersymbolic interference
The eect of the widening of the pulse described in the previous section may lead to a degradation od the quality of the transmission of a digital signal, because it may happen that the pulses cannot be distinguished one from another, as shown in Fig.3.8. 1 To avoid this, it must be BT > r T (), where BT is the bit rate, and r is a safety factor greater than 1, from where we get: BT r T 1 + 2 < 1
The maximum allowable bit rate is therefore BTM AX = rT 1 1 +

0 T2 2

1 .2
69
0 .8 E(t) (V)
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2
1 / BT
5 0 t (n s e c )
1 0 0
1 5 0
2 1 .8 1 .6 1 .4 V (t-t ) (V) 1 .2 1 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0
0
T()
5 0 t (n s e c )
1 0 0
1 5 0
Figure 3.8: Example of intersymbolic interference: signals at the beginning (above) and at the end (below) of the line. It can be seen that BTM AX decreases with , and for a xed 0 and line length, is a function of T . There is an optimum condition, for T = 0 , where the pulse width increases by a factor 2. The physical interpretation of this optimum condition is that, if the pulse is too short, it widens very rapidly because of the dispersive characteristics of the line; but if it is too long, the pulses overlap anyway and the bit rate must be reduced.
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 / B 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
B tMAX
0.4
0.5
1.5 T / ( l) 1 / 2
2 .5
Figure 3.9: Maximum bit rate vs. .
70
3.5
Compression of a Frequency Modulated pulse
Lets assume now that the carrier of the amplitude modulated input signal has also a linear frequency modulation, so that it is expressed by e (t) = e 2T 2 cos 0 t +
t2
2 t 2
(3.24)
This type of signal is called chirped pulse. It will be seen in the following that in this case it is possible a reduction of the width of the pulse. From the previous equation it results that the phase is quadratic, and the frequency varies linearly as: d (t) = = 0 + t dt Writing eq.(3.24) in exponential form, we get: e (t) = Letting
2 1 t2 1 j0 t ( 12 j) t2 e e T + ej0 t e( T 2 + j) 2 2
d2 = dt2
1 1 = 2 j 2 Tc T e (t) =
2 t 1 j0 t 2T22 t e e c + ej0 t e 2Tc2 2
we obtain
By computing the Fourier Transform of this equation, we obtain the spectrum of e(t) as: 2 2 Tc Tc 2 2 1 E () = 2 Tc e 2 ( 0 ) + Tc e 2 ( + 0 ) 2 Approximating the phase constant () with a quadratic expression, as done in the previous section, as: () = 0 + 0 ( 0 ) + we obtain vB (t) = 2 ej0 1 1 2 Tc 2 2
( 0 ) 0
1 0 ( 0 )2 2
2 Tc 2
( 0 )2
ej0
ej0
( 0 )2 2
ej( 0 )t ej0 t d
If we indicate, as usual, = 0 so that d = d, and applying the Inverse Fourier Transform, the signal on the load is expressed by: vB (t) = 1 ej(0 t0 ) Tc 2
0
Tc +j 0 2 2
ej(t0 ) d
(3.25)
M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, September 2010 By indicating
71
2 =
1 2
(Tc2 + j 0 )
(3.26)
= t 0 eq.(3.25) becomes vB (t) =

T 2 1 ej(0 t0 ) 2 c e 2 2 1 1+
l j T02 c
ej(0 t0
(t0 ) 2 ) (Tc2 +j0 ) e
In the previous equation, the factor 1+j 0 Tc2
is the amplitude of the signal. The coecient of t2 in the expression of the phase is: Tc2 = 1 + j0 =
2 TR
1 = + j (TI2 + 0 )
2 TR j (TI2 + 0 ) 1 j (l) 2 = 2( ) 4 2 T TR + (TI + 0 )
Developing the previous expression we get 1 1 1 j T2 = 2 j = Tc2 T T2 Tc2 = and substituting

T2 1 + T2 ( ) = 1 + 2 T 4 0 l + T 2 (1 + 0 ) T2
2
T2 T2 T4 = + j 1 j T2 1 + 2 T 4 1 + 2 T 4
(3.27)
From eq.(3.27), we get that, for > 0, the time length of the pulse at the end of the line T ( ) is greater or lower than T depending on the sign of 0 . If it 0 < 0 , there is a pulse compression.
72
3.6
.
Non dispersive mismatched line
In general, the voltage and current along the line are the sum of the forward and backward travelling waves, and are given by: v (t, z) = v + t z vf z vf + v t + z vf z vf
i (t, z) = Y v + t
Y v t +
The reected voltages and currents are determined by boundary conditions on generator and load. If the line is loaded by resistive impedance RL = Z , with a reection coecient L , as shown in g.3.10, the reected voltage at the load section O is: v (t) = L v + (t) assuming that RL does not depend on frequency so that L is independent on .
r
Z , k = j O
r
RL
-
L =
RL Z R L + Z
Figure 3.10: Non dispersive line loaded by an impedance RL . In this case, the general procedure for computing the signals in a given section (compute the FT of the input signal - multiply by the transfer function - compute inverse FT) can be avoided, because the transfer function for the reected signal is the reection coecient , that is constant, and that from one section to another of the line is simply a delay of the signal without distortion, being the line non dispersive. The total voltage is therefore v (t, z) = v + t z vf + L v + t + z vf
At dierent times, depending if in a section both waves or only one are non-zero, the voltage along the line can be as shown in g. (3.11) for the case of a rectangular pulse.
73
A t=t A 1 A A A A t=t 2 A A A A t = t3 A A A A A t = t4 A
L =
1 2
z=0
Figure 3.11: Voltage along the line at dierent times. Rg

r r
e(t)
r
Z
r
RL
Figure 3.12: Line with mismatched source and load. If both source and load are mismatched, the circuit will be as shown in g.3.12, and there will be multiple reections. However, if also the source impedance is real, all reections will be non-distorted signals, so that the total signal will be the sum of dierent signals with the same waveform and dierent amplitudes and time shifts. If the length of e (t) is lower than 2 L/vf the successive reections are separated from the main pulse, and there is not distortion of the signal. If, conversely, it is greater than 2 L/vf = 2 , the voltage on the load is: vB (t) = vA (t ) + L vA (t ) + L S vA (t 3 ) + 2 S vA [t 3 ) + . . . = L
=
m=0
vA [t (2m + 1) ] (L + 1) m m S L
74
In an intermediate point C the voltage is: vC (t) = vA (t 0 ) + L vA [t (2 0 )] + + L S vA [t (2 + 0 )] + 2 S vA [t (4 0 )] + . . . = L
=
m=0
{vA [t (2m + 0 )] + vA [t (2 (m + 1) 0 ) L ]} m m L S

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES AND TRANSMISSION LINES

Mario Orece Dipartimento di Elettronica Politecnico di Torino September 2010

Copyright 2010 by the Author. All rights reserved.

Chapter 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND PREREQUISITES

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Chapter 2 TRANSMISSION LINES

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

v(z) v(z + dz) = dv = R dz i(z) + L dz i(z) i(z + dz) = di = G dz v(z + dz) + C dz

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Then, substituting v for i or vice-versa, we get 2 v(z) 2 v(z) LC =0 z 2 t2

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Transmission lines and harmonic signals

f (t) ejt dt = F [f (t)]

One of the most interesting properties of the FT is that F f (t) = jF () t (2.12)

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Transmission lines equations in the FT domain

When using the FT of the signals v and i, eqs. (2.3) become

1 1 dV (z) = jkV0+ ejkz + jkV0 e+jkz = jL dz jL

V0+ () ejkz + V0 () e+jkz ejt d =

= v+ t and for the currents

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

and, more generally, for any section z V + = 1 (V + Z I) 2 V

Figure 2.3: Geometry for the impedance computation. Consequently it is:

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

1 V (z) = 2 (V0 + Z I0 ) ejkz + 1 (V0 Z I0 ) ejkz = 2

= V0 cos (kz) jZ I0 sin (kz) (2.27) I (z) = (Y V0 + I0 ) e

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Figure 2.4: Transformation from a distributed to a lumped element circuit.

Figure 2.5: Equivalent circuit of a transmission line section.

The reection coecient

V (z) v = (z0 ) ej2k(zz0 ) V + (z) (2.32)

I (z) i (z) = + = v (z) I (z)

Z (z) Z (z) 1 1 y (z) V (z) = = = (z) = + V (z) Z (z) + Z (z) + 1 1 + y (z)

Inverting equation (2.33) we get: (z) = 1 +v (z) 1 v (z) 1 (z) 1 +v (z)

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Voltage and current standing wave along a transmission line

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Figure 2.6: The Smith Chart.

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

max (1 +v (z)) z min (1 +v (z))

(2.36) max (I (z)) z

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Power in a lossless line

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Figure 2.8: Incident and reected power on a transmission line.

Practical examples of transmission lines

Shielded parallel-wire line

Figure 2.9: Examples of common transmission lines.

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

Electric field Magnetic field

Z " = = 2 2 ' '

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

GZ " = = 2 2 ' '

1 60 D D 138 D ln ln log10 ' 2 d r r d d

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

r,eff W +1.393+ 0.667ln W +1.444

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

M. Orece: E.m. waves and transm. lines, v 0.3, Sept. 2010

b r Weff + 0.441b Weff W = b b 0 W b

Figure 2.15: Cross section and characteristic impedance of a stripline.

Loads and junctions along the line

W > 0.35 b W < 0.35 if h