R Tamas Antenna Theory Part I

Rzvan TAMA
ANTENNA THEORY:
TRADITIONAL VERSUS MODERN
APPROACH

Editura
NAUTICA

Rzvan TAMA

ANTENNA THEORY:
TRADITIONAL VERSUS MODERN
APPROACH

2010

Editura
NAUTICA

IV

Referent tiinific: Prof. univ. dr. ing. Teodor PETRESCU
(Universitatea POLITEHNICA din Bucureti)

Tehnoredactarea i grafica aparin autorului

Editura NAUTICA, 2010
Editur recunoscut CNCSIS
Str. Mircea cel Btrn nr.104
900663 Constana, Romnia
tel.: +40-241-66.47.40
fax: +40-241-61.72.60
e-mail: info@imc.ro

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei:

TAMA, RZVAN
Antenna theory: traditional versus modern approach /
Rzvan Tama Constana: Nautica, 2010

Bibliogr.
ISBN 978-606-8105-28-4

621.396.67

V

To the memory of my father.

Foreword

This book is intended to be a comparison of two approaches of the
antenna theory, distinguished in terms of relevant antenna parameters:
the traditional one, based on frequency-domain descriptors, and the
new one, based on energy descriptors.
The later approach was developed in order to better analyze
antenna behavior to pulsed excitations, as new ultra-wide band (UWB)
communications technologies require. Some original contributions of the
author were herein included. This study was supported in part by the
Romanian Ministry of education, research, and innovation National
center for program management (CNMP) under the project SIRADMAR.
The book is mainly addressed to Ph. D students and M. Sc.
students, particularly to those involved in the program Circuits and
Integrated Systems for Communications.

Constana, 2010
The author

VI

VII

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION3
1.1. RADIO FREQUENCIES AND RADIO COMMUNICATIONS. ANTENNAS.... 3
1.2. SOURCE, MEDIUM, AND EFFECT: CHARACTERISTIC QUANTITIES ....... 7
1.3. MAXWELLS EQUATIONS ................................................................ 12
1.4. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ................................................................ 13
1.5. PROPAGATION OF A UNIFORM, PLANE WAVE IN THE FREE SPACE.... 15
2. ANTENNA RADIATION..18
2.1. A SIMPLE INTERPRETATION OF ANTENNA RADIATION..................... 18
2.2. VECTOR AND SCALAR POTENTIALS................................................. 20
2.3 RADIATION OF A SMALL CURRENT FILAMENT................................. 22
3. ANTENNA PARAMETERS.30
3.1. RADIATION CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION AND RADIATION
PATTERN........................................................................................................30
3.2. INTRINSIC AND REALIZED GAIN ...................................................... 32
3.3. ELECTRICAL INPUT PARAMETERS ................................................... 36
4. NOVEL DESCRIPTORS FOR ANTENNAS WITH
PULSED EXCITATION43
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO PULSE OPERATION ............................................ 43
4.2. ENERGY-BASED DESCRIPTORS........................................................ 46
4.2.1. Antenna input mismatch............................................................ 46
4.2.2. Energy gain............................................................................... 48
4.2.3. Normalized correlation coefficient ........................................... 50
4.3. APPLICATION: CYLINDRICAL DIPOLE ANTENNAS ............................ 51
4.4. IMPULSE RESPONSE OF A SHORT DIPOLE ......................................... 57
4.4.1. Time-domain form of the vector potential................................. 57
4.4.2. Impulse response in transmitting mode .................................... 60
4.4.3. Impulse response in receiving mode ......................................... 61
4.4.4. The input capacity of a short dipole.......................................... 63
5. EXTRACTION OF THE IMPULSE RESPONSE FROM
MEASURED OR SIMULATED DATA...66
5.1. FREQUENCY-DOMAIN VERSUS TIME-DOMAIN APPROACH................ 66
VIII
5.2. TIME-DOMAIN EXTRACTION OF THE IMPULSE RESPONSE................ 67
5.2.1. Time-domain equation subject to deconvolution...................... 67
5.2.2. Time-domain deconvolution by the method of moments........... 68
5.3. RESULTS AND VALIDATION............................................................ 72
5.3.1. Electrically large antennas....................................................... 72
5.3.2. Small antennas ......................................................................... 78
5.3.3. Conclusions .............................................................................. 82
6. TIME-DOMAIN MEASURING TECHNIQUES84
6.1. INTRODUCTION TO TIME-DOMAIN MEASURING............................... 84
6.2. DIFFERENTIAL TIME-DOMAIN SINGLE-ANTENNA METHOD.............. 85
6.3. AVERAGING TECHNIQUE FOR ELECTRICALLY LARGE ANTENNAS.... 89
6.4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND VALIDATION................................... 92
7. TIME-DOMAIN PULSE-MATCHED ANTENNA
SYNTHESIS..100
7.1. INTRODUCTION TO TIME-DOMAIN SYNTHESIS .............................. 100
7.2. PULSE-MATCHED SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUE..................................... 101
7.3. EXAMPLE OF SYNTHESIS. RESULTS .............................................. 103
REFERENCES.107

PART I

Traditional approach

1. Introduction

1.1. Radio frequencies and radio communications. Antennas

A classical communication chain includes at least three elements:
transmitter, communication channel, and receiver (Fig. 1.1).
The transmitter transforms the information from the source user in a
proper form that could be handled by the communication channel. The
reverse transformation is performed by the receiver in order to deliver
the information to the recipient user.

Fig. 1.1. Minimal communication chain

The channel can physically be any propagation medium, e.g. cable,
optical fiber, or the free space in the case of radio communications.
The free space is defined as an infinite, isotropic, homogeneous,
and lossless medium, usually vacuum or air.
In the case of radio communications, since propagation is due to
electromagnetic waves, specific interfaces should be inserted between
the transmitter and the channel, and between the channel and the
receiver, respectively.

Transmitter

Receiver
Channel
Source
user
Recipient
user
Communication chain
ANTENNA THEORY: TRADITIONAL VERSUS MODERN APPROACH

4
These two interfaces are called antennas, transmitting antenna and
receiving antenna, respectively (Fig. 1.2.). The transmitting antenna
converts the electric signal from the transmitter into electromagnetic
field that emerges in the propagation medium. The receiving antenna
transforms the energy of the incident electromagnetic field into an
electric signal. There are no antennas specifically designed to only
receive or to only transmit. Antennas are reciprocal, passive devices, so
they can be used both for transmitting and receiving. There are some
products on the market improperly called active antennas or receiving
antennas. Actually, such devices include amplifiers so they are more
than antennas.

Fig. 1.2. Radio communication chain

It should be noted that radio transmission in the free space is
possible only if the spectrum of the informational signal is translated in a
frequency range that allows the propagation of electromagnetic waves.
We call that frequency range radio frequency (RF) range.
Physically, wave means energy transport i.e., propagation from a
source point to a field point. In order to state that an electromagnetic
wave is established, and not an inductive or capacitive coupling, the
distance between those two points should be in the order of the
wavelength,

f
c
= , (1.1)
Receiver

Transmitter

Transmitting
antenna
Receiving
antenna
Electric signal Electric signal Electromagnetic field
Introduction

5

where f is the frequency and c is the wave speed (particularly, the
speed of light, c
0
, in the free space).
It is remembered that the wavelength is the minimal distance
between two points that oscillate in-phase and therefore, the minimal
distance that grants wave behavior.
Nevertheless, antenna dimensions should also be in the order of the
wavelength in order to radiate efficiently.
Hence, the minimum frequency of that range i.e., the maximum
wavelength is determined by feasibility of in terms of physical
dimensions.
A frequency of 3kHz, i.e., =100km, is generally accepted as the
lowest limit of the RF range. Propagation is still possible at such a
frequency although antennas in that order of wavelength are not
feasible and the radiation efficiency is low for practical antenna size.
In practice, the lowest limit is slightly higher, i.e., around 10kHz
(=30km). The 3kHz limit was only set in order to divide the RF range
into wavelength decades.
The upper limit of the RF range is given by the absorption of
electromagnetic waves in the free space. As frequency increases,
wavelength becomes shorter and microscopic interaction with the
medium, e.g. molecular losses is more and more evident. Figure 1.3
gives the normalized transmission coefficient of the free space as a
function of frequency.
It can be noted that absorption dips are increasingly deep and
numerous as the frequency exceeds 250 GHz. For that reason, the
upper limit of the RF range is generally accepted as 300GHz.


6

Fig. 1.3. Normalized transmission coefficient of the free space

As Table 1.1 shows the RF range is divided into decades or
frequency bands from VLF (Very Low Frequency) to EHF (Extremely
High Frequency).

Table 1.1. Frequency bands
Frequency Wavelength Band
3 30 kHz 100 10 km VLF
30 300 kHz 10 1 km LF
0.3 3 MHz 1 0.1 km MF
3 30 MHz 100 10 m HF
30 300 MHz 10 1 m VHF
0.3 3 GHz 1 0.1 m UHF
3 30 GHz 100 10 mm SHF
30 300 GHz 10 1 mm EHF

Introduction

7

1.2. Source, medium, and effect: characteristic quantities

There are three elements in a propagation problem: the source, the
medium, and the field effect.
Sources are usually included in a finite volume (continuous or not).
A point belonging to the source volume is called source point.
The effect of the sources is observed in the propagation medium at
a certain distance away. A point where the source effect is observed is
called field point.
Source point coordinates are usually referred by prime symbol (Fig.
1.4).

Fig. 1.4. Source point and field point. Notations

Source characteristic quantities are:
a. the volume current density, J, a vector quantity that is
measured in A/m
2

b. the charge density, , a scalar that is measured in C/m
3
.

r'

P(x,y,z)

P(x,y,z)

Y

X

Z

Source volume

Source point:

Field point :

r


8
The two above quantities are not independent since a current is a
charge transport. Let V be a volume containing the charge density
and the surface of the volume boundary crossed by the current
density J (Fig. 1.5). Then

=
V
s Q d (1.2)
and
= s J d I (1.3)

where I is the total current crossing , Q is the total charge in V, and
s d d = n s .

Fig. 1.5. Current density and charge density

Then

t
Q
I
= (1.4)

and

n
ds
V

J

90

J
n
=Jn

Introduction

9

+ 0 d d
V
s
t
s J . (1.5)

Relation (1.5) expresses the charge continuity.

The effect of the sources in a field point is quantified by the following
quantities:
a. the electric field intensity or simply the electric field, E, a vector
with the magnitude measured in V/m
b. the magnetic field intensity or simply the magnetic field, H, a
vector with the magnitude measured in A/m
c. the electric displacement field, D, a vector with the magnitude
measured in FV/m
2
or C/m
2

d. the magnetic flux field, B, a vector with the magnitude
measured in HA/m
2
or T (Tesla).

The medium is characterized by three quantities, as follows:
a. the conductance, , which is measured in
-1
m
-1
or S/m
b. the electric permittivity, , which is measured in F/m
c. the magnetic permeability, , which is measured in H/m.

The conductance establishes the relationship between the current
density and the electric field as Ohms law shows

E J = . (1.6)

If the medium is isotropic, then and do not depend on the
direction. Moreover, if the medium is homogeneous, then and do
not depend on the field point.

10

As stated before, the free space is an example of isotropic and
homogeneous medium. The values of the above quantities for the free
space are:
0
=
9
10
36
1

F/m (1.7)

0
=410
-7
H/m (1.8)

Relative electric permittivity and relative magnetic permeability can
be defined for any generic medium by normalizing and to
0
and
0
,
respectively:
0
=
r
, (1.9)

0
=
r
. (1.10)

The electric displacement field and the magnetic flux field are linked
to the electric and magnetic field, respectively through the medium
properties,

D(r)= E(r) (1.11)

B(r)= H(r). (1.12)

A quick inspection of the source, medium, and field quantities and of
the corresponding units of measurement reveals the equivalence
between a general propagation problem and a simple circuit problem, as
Introduction

11

given in Fig. 1.6. That is, a simple circuit problem is a particular case of
the general, propagation problem.

a

b
Fig. 1.6. Comparison: propagation problem (a) versus circuit
problem (b)

The relationship between the source, medium and field quantities is
established by Maxwells equations. Additionally, the continuity law,
Ohms law, and boundary conditions help in solving these equations.

Source
J [A/m
2
]

Field
E [V/m]
H [A/m]

Medium
[F/m]
[H/m]
[
-1
m
-1
]

Generator
I
g
[A],
V
g
[V]

Load
V [V]
I [A]

Circuit
C [F]
L [H]
R[]

12
1.3. Maxwells equations

The study of radio waves propagation is placed into the context of
the electrodynamics since source and field quantities are time-domain
variable.
We may assume time harmonic variation for source and field
quantities [1], [2]. It is the case of most classical, narrowband
applications.
Maxwells equations actually describe a set of known physical
phenomena that are more obvious when integral expressions are used.
However, in the study of radio wave propagation differential expressions
are preferred instead since it is easier to use them. The differential form
is derived from the integral form by applying Stokess theorem and
Gauss Ostrogradsky (or divergence) theorem, respectively in order to
achieve the same order of integration in both left-hand and right-hand
members.
The four Maxwells equations in differential form are

H E j rot = , (1.13)

also called Faradays law,

E J H j rot + = (1.14)

also called Ampres generalized law,

div = E (1.15)

also called Gausss law for the electric field, and

0 div = H (1.16)
Introduction

13

also called Gausss law for the magnetic field.
By applying Gauss Ostrogradsky theorem in (1.5) a differential
form of the continuity law can be derived,

div J + j= 0 (1.17)

1.4. Boundary conditions

The above differential form of Maxwells equations only stands for
homogeneous an isotropic media. In a standard propagation problem as
stated in 1.2, although the propagation medium was supposed to be
homogeneous, the presence of source boundaries or other obstructing
objects induce step-like variations of the medium characteristic
quantities. Hence, the differential operators in Maxwells equations
should be considered as distributional operators since they are
supposed to act on distributions [3]. As a result, each equation can be
splitted into a functional part, similar to the form given 1.2, and a
purely distributional part called boundary condition.
We consider two media divided by a boundary, (Fig. 1.7). Let
1
,
1
,
2
,
2

be the media characteristic quantities and E
1
, H
1
, D
1
, B
1
,
E
2
, H
2
, D
2
, B
2
the fields on the two sides of the boundary.


14

Fig. 1.7. Boundary between two media

The four corresponding boundary conditions are

nE
1
nE
2
= 0,

(1.18)

i.e., the tangential electric field is the same on both sides of the
boundary,

nH
1
nH
2
= J
s
,

(1.19)

with J
s
the surface current density on the boundary, measured in [A/m],

nD
1
nD
2
=
s
,

(1.20)

with
s
the surface charge density on the boundary, measured in [C/m
2
],

nB
1
nB
2
= 0,

(1.21)

i.e., the normal magnetic field is the same on both sides of the
boundary.

n

Medium 1

1
,
1

Medium 2

2
,
2

E
1
,
H
1
,
D
1
,
B
1

E
2
,
H
2
,
D
2
,
B
2

Introduction

15

1.5. Propagation of a uniform, plane wave in the free space

The simplest application of Maxwells equations is the case of a
uniform, plane wave propagating in the free space. In that case, those
equations yield analytical solutions.
Plane wave means that the wavefront, i.e., the locus of the equiphase
points, is a plane. Uniform means that there is no variation of the electric
or magnetic field in that plane.
Let OZ be the direction of propagation (Fig. 1.8).

Fig. 1.8. Plane wave

Since the wave is plane then 0 =
y x
. By using (1.13) and
(1.14) it can easily be demonstrated that a plane wave is a transversal
electromagnetic (TEM) wave i.e., the electric and magnetic fields are
perpendicular each to other and are both included in the (XOY) plane.
Without loss of generality we can accommodate the choice of OX and
Y
X
Z O
Wavefront
E
y
H
x

16
OY axes so that the electric field is along OY and the magnetic field
along OX.
Equations (1.13) and (1.14) become

x
y
H j
z
E
0
=
(1.22)

and

y
x
E j
z
H
0
=
. (1.23)

By substituting E
y
in (1.22) and H
x
in (1.23) one can obtain two
formally identical differential equations,

0
0 0
2
2
2
= +
x
x
H
z
H
, (1.24)
and
0
0 0
2
2
2
= +
y
y
E
z
E
. (1.25)

The solutions of the two above equations are:

) exp(
0 0
z jk E E
y
= (1.26)
and
) exp(
0 0
z jk H H
x
= (1.27)

with k
0
the phase constant in the free space,

Introduction

17

0 0
0
0
2

= = =
c
k . (1.28)

By substituting (1.26) in (1.22) one can obtain that

y x
E
k
H
0
0
= . (1.29)

That is, the ratio between E
y
and H
x
is a medium constant,
0
, called
free space wave impedance

= = = 377 120
0
0
0

x
y
H
E
. (1.30)

2. Antenna radiation

2.1. A simple interpretation of antenna radiation

Let us consider an open ended transmission line (Fig. 2.1).
Depending on the length of the line it can be assimilated either to a
distributed capacitor or to a distributed inductance. Consequently, if a
time-harmonic voltage source is connected to the other end of the line,
opposite and equal currents are established on the two wires. Since the
electric field is mostly confined between the wires and the two opposite
currents almost annihilate the resulting magnetic fields an open line
would not put electromagnetic energy into the surrounding space.
As Fig. 2.1 shows, by pulling out the two wires till they become
collinear, an open electric field structure, called dipole, is achieved. Yet,
currents flow on the two wires of that degenerated line and the magnetic
fields created by the two currents have now the same sense.

Fig. 2.1 Transition from transmission line to dipole

Antenna radiation

19

The magnetic field lines are circular, around each dipole arm (Fig.
2.2). Since the source is time-variant, the magnetic field is too. As Eq.
(1.13) shows, an electric field in a perpendicular plane (since
E E rot ) is generated. As there is no charge in the free space, (1.15)
becomes div E = 0, that is, the electric field lines are closed.
Next, as Eq. (1.14) shows, the time-variant electric field generates a
magnetic field in a perpendicular plane (since H H rot ). It should be
noted that J=0 in (1.14) since the free space is a dielectric. As (1.16)
states since 0 div = H the magnetic field lines are closed.
So on the electromagnetic energy propagates in the free space.

Fig. 2.2. Wave propagation

Source
H
H
E E
I
I

20

2.2. Vector and scalar potentials

Vector and scalar potentials were mainly defined as calculus
quantities for antenna analysis, although some publications give them a
physical sense.
Gausss law for the electric field in the free space can be written as

div B = 0 (2.1)

or, by using the alternative nabla symbol notation,

(2.2)

As nabla acts as a vector, the above dot product type relation stands for
any vector orthogonal to , of type

A A B rot = = . (2.3)

We shall call A vector potential.
By applying (2.3) in (1.13) one can find that

0 ) ( = + A E j (2.4)

That is, A E j + should be a vector collinear to , of type

= = + grad A E j , (2.5)
0 = B
Antenna radiation

21

where is called scalar potential. It should be noted that for static fields
the time derivative of the vector potential i.e., A j , vanishes, so the
classical definition of the potential is found. That explains the negative
sign before the right-hand member.

By using (2.3) and (2.5) in (1.14) then

) ( ) (
0 0 0
A J A j j + = (2.6)

The double cross product in the left-hand member can be expanded
as follows:

A A A
2
) ( ) ( = , (2.7)
so

A A J A
0 0
2 2
0 0 0
) ( + + = + j . (2.8)

Since A and were independently defined, a relation can be
enforced between the two quantities, in order to achieve a simpler form
of the above differential equation:

0
0 0
= + j A . (2.9)

The above relation is called Lorentz gauge and it leads to the
following differential, inhomogeneous equation, also called the
Helmholtz equation for the vector potential:


22
J A A
0
2
0
2
= + k . (2.10)

2.3 Radiation of a small current filament

The current filament is a wire radiator (i.e., zero thickness),
infinitesimal long crossed by a constant, axial current. The study of the
radiation emerging from a current filament is essential since any current
distribution can be divided into current filaments and the overall
radiation can then be evaluated by adding up the contributions of all
individual filaments.
Since the source is punctiform it is convenient to use spherical
coordinates (Fig. 2.3). Table 2.1 gives the Lam coefficients that are
used for calculating differential operators such as div, grad, rot,
2
(i.e., Laplacean) in spherical coordinates.

Fig. 2.3. Spherical coordinates

Z
X

Y
P(r, , )
r
O

r
a

Antenna radiation

23

Table 2.1. Lam coefficients for spherical coordinates
Coordinate Lam coefficient
r h
1
= 1
h
2
= r
h
3
= r sin

As Fig. 2.4 shows the surface element is spherical coordinates ca
be written as

ds = r
2
sin d d (2.11)

and the volume element

dv = r
2
sin dr d d. (2.12)

Z
X
Y
d
d
O
r sin d

r sin
r
dr
r d
ds
dv

24

Fig. 2.4. Surface element and volume element in spherical coordinates

When calculating
2
in spherical coordinates in Eq. (2.10) the
derivatives with respect to and are zero due to the particular
symmetry. As the current flows along the OZ axis the Helmholtz
equation becomes

z z
z
J A k
r
A
r
r r
0
2
0
2
2
1
= +
(2.13)

The first step in solving the above equation is to find the solutions of
its homogeneous form. By denoting

z
A r = (2.14)

the homogeneous form of equation (2.13) can be written as

0
2
0
2
2
= +

k
r
. (2.15)

The solutions of (2.15) are

) exp(
0
r jk C = , (2.16)

that is,

r
r jk
C A
z
) exp(
0
= (2.17)
where C is a constant.
Antenna radiation

25

By enforcing the boundary conditions the final solution can be found
as:

r
r jk
z I A
z
) exp(
' d
0
0
= (2.18)

or

z
r
r jk
z I a A
) exp(
' d
0
0
= . (2.19)

Since spherical coordinates are used the unit vector
z
a
of the OZ
axis should be projected as Fig. 2.5 shows,

sin
cos

a a a =
r z
. (2.20)

Fig. 2.5. Projections of
z
a
on spherical coordinates

r
a

cos
r
a
sin
O
Z
z
a


26
The magnetic field can be found by using (2.3) so we have to
calculate

A h A h A h
r
h h h
h h h
r
r
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1

1
rot
=
a a a
A (2.21)

By using (2.19), (2.20) and the Lam coefficients as given in Table
2.1 one can show that

a a A H

) exp(
1
4
sin ' d
rot
1
0 0
0
H r jk
r
jk
r
z I
=
|
\
|
+ = = . (2.22)

By applying Ampres generalized law for the free space (i.e., with
J=0) the electric field can be then found as

(
= =
) sin (
) sin (
sin
1
sin 0 0
sin

sin
1
rot
1
2
0
2
0 0

H r
r
r H r
r j
H r
r
r r
r j j
r
r
a a
a a a
H E
(2.23)

By substituting H
from (2.22) and by computing the derivatives the

electric field can be written as

Antenna radiation

27

a a
a
a E

) exp(
1
sin
4
' d

) exp(
1
cos
2
' d
0
3 2
0
2
0
0
0
0
3 2
0
0
0
E E
r jk
r r
jk
r
k
k
z I j
r jk
r r
jk
k
z I j
r r
r
+ =
|
|
\
|
+ +
\
|
+ =
(2.24)

The field components emerging from a current filament are shown
in Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6. Components of the field emerging from a current filament

If
2
1
0
= >>
k
r i.e., 6 . 1 > r then the terms proportional to
2
1
r

and
3
1
r
in (2.22) and (2.24) can be neglected. We shall call far-field
zone the locus of the field points with 6 . 1 > r .
The far-field components are

Z
X

Y
P(r, , )
r
O

a
H
r r
E a
E
I(z)

28

a a E

) exp(
4
sin ' d

0
0 0
E r jk
r
z I k j
= = (2.25)
and

a a H

) exp(
4
sin ' d
0
0
H r jk
r
z I jk
= = . (2.26)

There are only two far-field field components, E
and H
(Fig. 2.7).

Fig. 2.7. Far-field components produced by a current filament

It should be noted that a current filament produces a spherical, TEM
wave since H E and
0
=
H
E
. As in the electric circuits theory when
U=R I, the proportionality between E
and H
through a real constant

i.e.,
0
shows that only those two field components carry real power that
is, radiated power. The rest of the terms in (2.22) and (2.24) are
associated with the reactive power confined in the near-field zone of the
antenna.
Z
X

Y
P(r, , )
r
O

a
H

a
E
I(z)
*
2
1
H E S =

Antenna radiation

29

The sense of propagation is given by the sense of the complex
Poynting vector (Fig.2.7)
*
2
1
H E S =
P
. (2.27)

The real part of the magnitude of the complex Poynting vector gives
the radiated power density, measured in [W/m
2
]. In our case, the
magnitude of S
P
is real (i.e., E
and H

are both radiated field
components), that is

2 2 2
0
2
0
2 2
sin ) ' d (
32
1
z I k
r
S
P
= . (2.28)

30

3. Antenna parameters

3.1. Radiation characteristic function and radiation pattern

The radiation characteristic function of an antenna, F(, ), shows
how the magnitude of the far-field is distributed in the space at a given
distance, compared to the maximum field value. Since E is proportional
to H in the far-field zone there is a unique radiation characteristic
function for both field components.
As an example, the radiation characteristic function for a current
filament is

sin ) , ( = F . (3.1)

The geometrical representation of F(, ) is called radiation
pattern. There are mainly two types of radiation patterns:

a. Three-dimensional radiation patterns, when both and are
variable; a 3D surface is thus obtained.
b. Two-dimensional radiation patterns, when either or is
fixed; plane curves are therefore obtained as vertical or
horizontal cuts of the 3D radiation pattern. For a linear
antenna along the OZ axis as in Fig. 2.7, the radiation
pattern in a vertical plane, F(, =fixed), is called E-plane
radiation pattern (Fig. 3.1) since the electric field is contained
in that plane. Correspondingly, the radiation pattern in a
Antenna parameters

31
horizontal plane, F(=fixed, ), is called H-plane radiation
pattern.

Fig. 3.1. E-plane and H-plane

The radiation patterns for the current filament are given in Fig. 3.2.

a.

Fig. 3.2. Radiation patterns for a current filament: a 3D,
b 2D, E-plane, c 2D, H-plane

y
x
c.
z
Lobe
Extinction
b.

H-plane
E-plane
Z
Y
X

32

As relation (3.1) shows, for an antenna with cylindrical symmetry as
the current filament is, there is no field variation with respect to i.e., in
the H-plane. In that case the 3D radiation pattern is a torus (Fig. 3.2a).
On a radiation pattern one can note maxima and minima (Fig.
3.2.b). A maximum between two minima is called lobe. The main lobe
refers to the absolute maximum on the pattern diagram.
The -3dB beamwidth is the angular width of a lobe at 3dB below its
maximum. If not specified otherwise, the -3dB beamwidth refers to the
main lobe. As an example, the -3dB beamwidth for the current filament
is 90(Fig. 3.3).

Fig. 3.3. -3dB beamwidth

3.2. Intrinsic and realized gain

An isotropic radiator is a fictious radiator that radiates the same
amount of power density in all directions.
The directivity is a function of angle coordinates that shows how
an antenna concentrates the radiated power compared to the
isotropic radiator:
z
dB 3
E
max
2 /
max
E

2 /
max
E

Antenna parameters

33

) 4 /(
) , )( d / (d

angle solid unit per radiated power Average
) , ( angle solid unit per radiated Power
) , (

r
r
P
P
D
=
=
(3.2)
Let (
0
,
0
) be the direction of the mail lobe. The figure of merit
defined as

G
i
=D(
0
,
0
) (3.3)

is called intrinsic gain or simply gain. It solely takes into account the
radiation properties of the antenna.
The antenna input mismatch can be included in order to achieve a
complete figure of merit, that is, the realized gain

) 4 /(
) , )( d / (d

input antenna at Power
) , ( angle solid unit per radiated Power
0 0
i i
t
r
t
r
r
G G
P
P
P
P
G

= =
=
=
(3.4)
with the antenna efficiency.

All the above figures are usually expressed in dBi i.e., decibels with
respect to the isotropic radiator; for instance,

G
i, dBi
= 20 log
10
G
i
. (3.5)


34

As an example, for a current filament

2 2 2
0
2
0
2 2
sin ) ' d (
32
1
d
d
z I k
r s
P
S
r
P
= = . (3.6)

Since the solid angle is defined on a sphere as (Fig. 3.4)

= s / r
2
(3.7)

Fig. 3.4. Definition of the solid angle

then

2 2 2
0
2
0
2
sin ) ' d (
32
1
d
d
z I k
P
r
=
. (3.8)

The average power radiated per unit of solid angle

r
s
O
Antenna parameters

35
=
d sin ) ' d (
32
1
2 2 2
0
2
0
2

z I k P
r
. (3.9)
By using (2.11) and (3.7) in (3.9)

d d sin sin ) ' d (
32
1
2
0
2
0
2 2
0
2
0
2
= z I k P
r
. (3.10)

The integral can be calculated by substituting u=sin :

3
8
d ) 1 ( 2 d d sin sin
2
1
1
2
0
2
0

= =

u u . (3.11)

so
2 2
0
2
0
) ' d (
12
1
z I k P
r

= . (3.12)

Finally, from (3.2), (3.8), and (3.12) it comes out that

2
sin 5 . 1 ) , ( = D . (3.13)

The maxima of the directivity is achieved for
0
= /2, which gives
G
i
=1.5 or G
i,dBi
=1.76 dBi.


36

3.3. Electrical input parameters

We shall consider an antenna in transmitting mode. The antenna
radiates power so real electrical power should be absorbed at the
antenna input form the source (transmitter). In order to accept real
power, the input impedance should have non-zero real part, R
a
(Fig.
3.5), even if the antenna is considered as lossless. That resistance is
therefore called radiation resistance.

Fig. 3.5. Antenna input impedance

Hence, the radiation resistance can be found from the equality
between the radiated power and the power absorbed form the source.
For a current filament, relation (3.12) gives

2 2
0
2
0
2
) ' d (
12
1
2
1
z I k I R
a

= , (3.14)

so
R
a
j X
a
Z
a
Antenna parameters

37
] [
' d
80
2
2
\
|
=
z
R
a
. (3.15)
The above formula also applies to short antennas i.e., antennas of a
total length shorter than /20. In that case, the current distribution is of
quasi-linear shape and can therefore be assimilated to a constant
distribution of magnitude equal to half input current.
As an example, a short dipole of length /20 would have R
a
=
1.973. In practice, transmission lines used to feed antennas have
higher characteristic impedance, typically 50 . Consequently, an
impedance matching network should be inserted between the antenna
and the transmission line. The radiation resistance is typically in the
order of the series loss resistance of the impedance matching network
so using short antennas might be impractical. Longer antennas exhibit
more appropriate values for R
a
.
The input reactance, X
a
, mainly describes the behavior of the
antenna as a transmission line (Fig. 2.1). Let Z
Ca
be the characteristic
impedance of the antenna. Consequently,

l k Z X
Ca a 0
cot . (3.16)

The characteristic impedance of a thin, cylindrical dipole antenna
can be calculated by assimilating it to a degenerated conical antenna
[1]:

|
\
|
= 1 ln
0
a
L
Z
Ca
, (3.17)

with L=2l the total length of the dipole and a the radius of the wire.

38
Let Z
C
be the characteristic impedance of the transmission line used
to feed the antenna (Fig. 3.6). Then the input reflection coefficient is

C a
C a
Z Z
Z Z
+
= . (3.18)

Note that 1 and 0 = when the input is matched i.e.,
C a
Z Z = .

Fig. 3.6. Antenna feed circuit

In practice, it is convenient to express the input mismatch by a real
figure called voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR):

Antenna parameters

39

+
=
1
1
VSWR . (3.19)

Obviously, 1 VSWR with 1 = VSWR when the input is matched.
The input impedance of an antenna can vary dramatically with the
frequency so the VSWR does. That is, the matching is strictly achieved
only at a certain number of frequencies in a given band. For the rest of
the frequencies, a VSWR less than 3 might be accepted in practice
assuming a loss of input power of maximum 30%.

R Tamas Antenna Theory Part I

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

R Tamas Antenna Theory Part I

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Rzvan TAMA

from (2.22) and by computing the derivatives the

through a real constant

Potrebbero piacerti anche