3 Phase Induction Motor

1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi es o n
Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque
Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e
Starting
Param eters
Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples
Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power
T hree-Phase Induction Machines
Like other electrical machines, induction machines can be operated as either generators or motors. However, they are primarily used as induction motors. We will concentrate on motoring and later consider applications where induction generation is attractive. Induction machines are by far the most common type of motor used in industrial, commercial or residential settings. (One notable exception may be in computer equipment, where there are significant numbers of motors used for hard drives, DVD players etc.) Depending on location (which affects other electrical energy uses, such as lighting, space heating) induction motors may consume up to 70% of all electrical energy generated. There are two underlying reasons why induction motors are the general purpose motor of choice: Induction motors are cheap Induction motors are robust
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ i m ai . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o _ n
1/ 1
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e C o n onst r uct i n o
Starting
Param eters
Induction Machine Construction

St at or
The stator construction of a three-phase induction machine is similar to that of a three-phase synchronous machine. A three-phase winding is placed in a number of slots in order to produce a rotating sinusoidal mmf wave. As with other ac machines, the speed of rotation of the stator magnetic field is described as the synchronous speed and is given by
Rot or
The rotor of an induction machine is different from other types of machine that we have considered so far: there is no requirement for a power source on the rotor. The rotor of an induction machine can be one of two types 1. Wound Rotor 2. Cage Rotor
Wound Rotor Machines
Wound-rotor induction machines have a three-phase winding, similar to the stator winding, on the rotor. The rotor is usually wye-connected with the terminals of the three rotor phases connected to sliprings. In normal operation, the windings at the slip-rings are short-circuited to allow currents to flow. An advantage of wound rotor machines is that external circuits can be connected to the rotor, allowing external control of the machine. While all induction machines can be controlled to operate at different torques and speeds, wound rotor control is particularly attractive in some application. Wound-rotor induction machines are usually significantly more expensive than cage rotor machines. Possible applications for wound-rotor machines include 1. speed control of very large machines (multi-MW) 2. reduced cost control of large machines 3. doubly-fed induction generation (used in some wind turbines)
Cage Rotor Machines
Cage rotor machines (also called squirrel cage machines) are the most common type of induction motor. In a cage rotor design, there are solid conductors in slots on the rotor. The ends of the conductors are short-circuited at each end of the rotor using an "end-ring". For small-medium sized machines (up to a few hundred horsepower) the rotor conductors are cast using aluminum. This construction makes the rotor relatively cheap to produce. In larger machines, rotors are usually made by manually hammering solid copper bars into the rotor slots then manually brazing an end-ring in place. Fabricated rotor cages are significantly more expensive that cast rotor cages.
Induct ion machine phot os
The photographs below show different aspects of induction machine construction. Click the photo for a
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ const r uct i n. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c o 1/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
larger version
The above photos show (left to right): an old 15hp induction machine, with open stator housing; a 5kW induction machine used in the lab benches; a modern high efficiency 2hp induction machines. Both of the newer machines are of the "TEFC" type: Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled. There is no opening in the stator housing, and there is no way for environmental material (water, dirt) to get into the motor. The fan is outside the housing and blows air over the stator housing cooling fins. The fan can be seen in the 2hp photos below:
Stator
The stator of the motor is made up of many thin steel laminations stacked together and held in the rotor housing. The conductors making up the coils in the stator windings are looped through slots in the stator lamination. Coils in this machine insulated from the laminations using plastic sheets and held together with string and paper to separate coil groups. The stator coils and laminations are then dipped in varnish and baked to provide mechanical integrity.
Rotor
The rotor of the 2 hp motor is constructed using steel lamination and cast aluminum. If you look closely at the rotor photos it is possible to see where the molten aluminum has leached out between the steel laminations. In addition, the conductors in the rotor have been constructed with a "skew" of one conductor pitch. The conductors are not arranged parallel to the axis of the rotor, but at an angle, this is done to reduce torque vibrations and noise.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ const r uct i n. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c o
2/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
The final two photos below highlight different rotor constructions. On the left are two rotors in the lab, a cast cage rotor and a wound rotor, complete with slip rings. On the right is the cutaway motor from the lab with a fabricated cage of copper bars, also with significant skew.
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ const r uct i n. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c o
3/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e Pr i ci l s o n n pe
Starting
Param eters
Principles of Operation
The basic idea behind the operation of an induction machine is quite simple. Detailed mathematical understanding of the interaction of magnetic fields and resultant torque is more complex. In many cases, understanding the qualitative ideas and then applying a circuit model is sufficient. The qualitative description is provided here, together with a more mathematical description for those who prefer that type of approach. The mathematical description also includes some important definitions that are required in order to develop a circuit mode.
Qualit at ive Descript ion
1. The three-phase stator winding is connected to a three-phase supply 2. Currents flow in the stator winding, producing a rotating mmf and flux density 3. The stator flux density rotates at synchronous speed:
4. The magnetic field passes conductors on the rotor and induces a voltage in those conductors 5. Since the conductors are short circuited, current flows in the rotor conductors 6. The rotor currents produce a second rotor magnetic field, which acts to oppose the stator magnetic field and also rotates at synchronous speed 7. With two magnetic fields rotating at constant speed, a torque is induced: 8. The rotor flux density will lag the stator flux density (flux density lags current by 90 electrically), therefore the torque will be in the same direction as the rotation of the magnetic fields 9. The torque accelerates the rotor until synchronous speed is reached, at which time there is no relative motion between the conductors and the stator flux density. Since the relative velocity is zero, the induced voltage, rotor currents and flux density fall to zero and torque is also zero
Mat hemat ical Principles Definitions
supply frequency: f e in Hz or e in rad s-1 synchronous speed (radians per second): s synchronous speed (revolutions per minute): n s rotor mechanical speed (radians per second): m rotor mechanical speed (revolutions per minute): n m slip: difference between synchronous and mechanical speeds divided by synchronous speed:
slip speed: in rpm: sn s = n s-n m in rad s-1 : ss = s-m
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pr i ci l s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c n pe
1/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
slip frequency: f sl = sf e in Hz or sl = se in rad s-1
Induced Rotor Voltage
As illustrated in the fundamental theory on rotating fields, passing balanced three-phase currents through a balanced three-phase winding can produce a rotating mmf wave. Speed of rotation is set by supply frequency and the number of poles in the machine. In an induction machine the air gap of the machine is designed to be constant, therefore the rotating mmf will produce a rotating flux density. The stator flux density can be defined in terms of either mechanical or electrical quantities:
In the above equation m, e are arbitrary phase angles in mechanical and electrical angles respectively. We will set these to zero. is the location at which the flux density waveform is observed. (At a given location, the flux density varies sinusoidally with time. At a given time, the flux density varies sinusoidally with location.) Now, to understand how an induction machine works, we need to consider the flux density seen by a conductor on the rotor.
In the image shown above, there is a rotor conductor at position m = . If the rotor is stationary then the rotor will observe the the stator flux density as
However, if the rotor is rotating at mechanical speed m the location of the conductor becomes and the flux density seen by the conductor is given by
2/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
Now, the voltage induced in a conductor of length l moving perpendicular to a magnetic field is given by and the relative velocity of the conductor through the magnetic field is given by Therefore the voltage induced in the conductor is given by
Two important results can be seen in the above equation: The induced voltage is proportional to slip The frequency of the induced voltage is proportional to slip
Rotor Currents and Field Current Magnit ude and Phase
Without knowing the full details of the rotor circuit, we can makes some assumptions about the circuit to enable us to understand the behaviour of the induction machine. We will assume that the rotor conductor is part of a circuit with constant resistance RR and inductance LR. (We will see later that resistance can actually vary with slip, but will assume that it is constant for now). Now, if slip is low (s 0) then the reactance associated with the inductance will be negligible: In this case, though induced voltage is small, the induced currents may be significant since the conductors are short circuited, so RR is low. Also the currents will be approximately in phase with the induced voltage. If slip is high (s 1) then the rotor reactance will be significant. Due to the increase in induced voltage rotor currents will be high, but will lag the induced voltage significantly due to the inductance of the rotor circuit.
Rot or Flux Densit y
We know that the flux density produced by a set of ac currents rotates at a speed given by
In the case of the rotor currents, the above equation gives the speed of rotation relative to the conductors. The actual speed of rotation of the flux density will be given by
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pr i ci l s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c n pe 3/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
i.e. the rotor magnetic field rotates at synchronous speed. We can get an understanding of the relative position of the rotor and stator fields by drawing phasor diagrams. The phasor diagram of the stator flux density phasor can be drawn from either a stator reference frame, where it rotates at electrical speed e, or from a rotor reference frame, where it rotates at electrical speed se
First consider the case where slip is low. Induced current lags induced voltage slightly, the rotor flux density is almost 90 electrically behind the stator flux density.
From at low slips, the angle between flux density phasors is close to 90 and the torque will be approximately proportional to induced voltage and therefore proportional to slip. Now consider the case where slip is close to 1.0, mechanical speed is close to zero. In this case, rotor current lags induced voltage and the angle between rotor and stator flux densities is much greater.
From the torque equation, even though the magnitude of the induced currents is higher and the rotor flux density phasor has a larger magnitude, torque will not necessarily be higher than it is a low slips.
Summary
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pr i ci l s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c n pe 4/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
Induction machines produce torque at all speeds except synchronous speed Induction machines can operate with only one electrical source, they do not require a source to be connected to the rotor. Rotor currents and torque are nonlinear functions of slip, a measure of the relative speed between the stator magnetic field and the rotor mechanical speeds
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
5/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
St eady St at e Equi al nt C cui M odel f or I nduct i n M achi es v e r i t o n
Starting
Param eters
Induction Machine Equiv alent Circuit Model
We have seen that induction machines (as you might guess from the name) operate on the principle of induced currents. There are still two magnetic fields, one from each of the rotor and stator, but the rotor field is induced by the stator field. Effectively, we can think of the induction machine as a rotating transformer. The stator is like the primary of a transformer and creates the initial field, inducing voltages and currents in the secondary rotor winding. The fundamental differences from a stationary transformer are: The secondary rotates There is an airgap, therefore more mmf is needed for a given flux density The secondary voltage and frequency depend on speed As an aside, a wound rotor induction machine can actually be used as a variable frequency transformer. For instance, a 60Hz system connected to the primary of an induction machine can transfer power to a 50hz system connected to the rotor if the machine is mechanically driven at a slip of 5/6. The per-phase equivalent circuit model for an induction machine in steady state operation supplied by a balances three-phase supply is based on the transformer model shown below
In the diagram above, V1 = Phase RMS Voltage I1 = Stator Phase Current R1 = Stator Winding Resistance X1 = Stator Winding Leakage Reactance Xm = Magnetizing Reactance Rc = Core Loss Resistance E1 = Air Gap Voltage I2 = Rotor Current Referred to Stator ER = Rotor Induced Voltage (Actual) IR = Rotor Current Voltage (Actual) XR = Rotor Leakage Reactance (Actual) RR = Rotor Resistance (Actual)
Rot or Circuit
We know from the operating principles that induced voltage ER and rotor leakage reactance XR both depend on slip. To simplify the model we can define them both in terms of their values when the speed is zero, slip s = 1.0
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ ci cui . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c r t 1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
St eady St at e Equi al nt C cui M odel f or I nduct i n M achi es v e r i t o n
where ER0 = induced voltage at standstill XR0 = rotor leakage reactance at standstill With the above definitions we can write the equation for actual rotor current as
and the transformer model may be re-drawn as
In the above diagram, the effective turns ratio a eff is constant and equal to the effective turns ratio at standstill. In a would rotor machine, a eff,XR0 and RR can be measured. In a cage machine these parameters cannot be directly determined, there is no method to directly measure voltages or currents on the rotor. To overcome this difficulty, the rotor (secondary) circuit can be referred to the stator (primary) side.
Full Equivalent Circuit Model
In the above circuit R2 = a 2effRR, the rotor resistance referred to the stator X2 = a 2effXR0, the rotor leakage reactance referred to the stator The symbols used in induction machine models vary depending on the text and the context in which the circuit is being used. RI, Ro, Rfe, Rm can all be found as references to the iron loss resistance. In some texts (especially from Europe), R2, X2 refer to actual rotor values with R'2, X'2 used for referred values. In drives texts, it is common to find Rs, Rr for stator resistance and rotor resistance referred to the stator.
Andy Knight Report an Error 06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ ci cui . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c r t
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e Pow and Tor que o n er
Starting
Param eters
Power & T orque

Power Flow
The input power to a three-phase induction machine is given by Output power can be found by subtracting the losses from the input power
Losses
1. Stator Copper Loss. The stator resistive losses 2. Rotor Joule Loss. The rotor resistive losses. This is often called rotor copper loss, but since the rotor conductors are aluminum, rotor joule loss is the more correct terminology. 3. Core Loss, or Iron Loss. The losses due to eddy current and hysteresis losses in the laminations. This can be calculated using the resistor Rc. Often, core losses are grouped with friction and windage and stray loss as rotational losses.
Rotor Power
The power transferred to the rotor is called the "Airgap Power". Consider the equivalent circuit below (the core loss resistance has been removed and core losses grouped into rotational loss).
From the above circuit, it can be seen that the total power transfer to the rotor is given by
To find the power converted to the mechanical system the rotor joule loss must be subtracted from the total rotor power
From the above equations, it can be seen that power converters to the mechanical system is a function of the airgap power and slip:
Final output power may be obtained by subtracting the rotational loss from Pconv .
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pandt . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c
1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e Pow and Tor que o n er
Torque
As with all rotating mechanical systems in steady state, torque can be found from the power and mechanical speed
In the case of an induction machine, the electromagnetic torque generated by the machine can be found using
which gives
Writing the torque in terms of the rotor current:
Finally, to find the available shaft torque after rotational losses, the output power must be used.
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pandt . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e Tor que Speed C ves o n ur
Starting
Param eters
T orque Speed Curv e

General Curve
Using the induction machine power and torque equations it is possible to produce the torque speed curve shown below.
The torque speed curve is approximately symmetric about synchronous speed. (The magnitude of the peak negative torque is larger than the positive torque, the difference being a function of stator resistance)
Operating Regions
The torque-speed curve brakes down into three operating regions: 1. Braking, n m < 0, s > 1 Torque is positive whilst speed is negative. Considering the power conversion equation it can be seen that if the power converted is negative (from P = ) then the airgap power is positive. i.e. the power is flowing from the stator to the rotor and also into the rotor from the mechanical system. This operations is also called plugging. This mode of operation can be used to quickly stop a machine. If a motor is travelling forwards it can be stopped by interchanging the connections to two of the three phases. Switching two phases has the result of changing the direction of motion of the stator magnetic field, effectively putting the machine into braking mode in the opposite direction. 2. Motoring, 0 < n m < n s, 1 > s > 0 Torque and motion are in the same direction. This is the most common mode of operation. 3. Generating, n m > n s, s < 0 In this mode, again torque is positive whilst speed is negative. However, unlike plugging, indicates that if the power converted is negative, so is the air gap power. In this case, power flows from the mechanical system, to the rotor circuit, then across the air gap to the stator circuit and external electrical system.
T he torque equation
Using the equation

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ t r q_speed. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c 1/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
the torque speed curve can be solved by first solving the circuit model to find the rotor current. In the absence of a computer, this is a tedious process at best. Multiple solutions of the above equation for torque at different slips can be made simpler by simplifying the equivalent circuit model. Consider the diagram below:
The stator part of the equivalent circuit (together with the magnetising branch) can be replaced by a Thevenin equivalent circuit. In the Thevenin circuit, the stator phase voltage has been replaced by its Thevenin equivalent,
and the impedances have been replaced by Thevenin equivalent impedances.
Incorporating the Thevenin model into the circuit model results in the Thevenin equivalent circuit model of an induction machine.
In the above circuit, the calculation of rotor current is greatly simplified
The above expression for rotor current can be squared and substituted into the torque equation
Using the above equation, the variation of torque with slip can be plotted directly . Note that if power or efficiency calculations are needed, the full equivalent circuit model should be used
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ t r q_speed. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c 2/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
(not the Thevenin version).

Motoring T orque Characteristic
The motoring region of the induction machine torque-speed curve is the region of greatest interest. The plots below show a number of different torque speed curves, due to differences in the motor designs. Common features of interest are noted and discussed below.
rated . The rated torque of the machine. This is the design operating point. start . The start torque of the machine, when the machine is at standstill. max or po . The maximum torque or pull-out torque. Once a machine has reached rated operating point, this is the maximum torque that can be applied without stopping the machine (pulling out). In reality, since this torque is significantly more than the design rated torque, operation at maximum torque is not possible due to thermal heating issues. (Currents will be above rated values, I2R losses will be excessive.) pu . The pull-up torque of the machine. In some machines, the lowest point on the torque speed curve between starting and pullout is not the start torque. In this case it is important to know the pull-up torque. This is the minimum torque that the motor can accelerate up to the desired operating speed. In steady state operation, an induction motor will operate at the speed where the mechanical load torque equals the torque developed by the motor. At low speeds, the difference between the motor torque and the load torque accelerates the machine. Normal operation is to the right of the maximum torque. In this region, an increase in the load torque will cause the motor to slow, increasing the motor torque until an equilibrium is reached. To the left of the pullout torque, no such equilibrium can be reached. Mechanically,
where J is the rotational inertia of the mechanical system.

Andy Knight
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ t r q_speed. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
3/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or Peak Tor que o
Starting
Param eters
Max im um T orque and Output Power
Using the Thevenin torque equation:
it is possible to plot the torque-speed curve of an induction machine. However, it is useful to know the magnitude of the maximum or "pullout" torque without plotting the full torque-speed curve. From the equation above, the peak torque could be found be differentiating with respect to slip to find the slip which gives maximum torque. However, a mathematically simpler and intuitively clearer answer can be found be considering the power flow in the Thevenin equivalent circuit
Analysing the full equivalent circuit it was observed that
Therefore, since synchonous speed is constant, maximum torque occurs at the same slip as maximum airgap power. Considering the Thevenin circuit, and applying maximum power transfer theory, maximum airgap power and maximum torque will occur when
Re-arranging it is possible to obtain the slip for maxiumum torque, or pullout torque. Note that this should not be called the "maxiumum slip".
Substituting the pullout slip into the Thevenin torque equation:
Discussion
From the two equations above it can be seen that The slip at which maximum torque occurs is proportional to rotor resistance The magnitude of the maxiumum torque is independent of rotor resistance If all other parameters remain constant, increasing the rotor resistance will:
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ peak_t r q. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c 1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or Peak Tor que o
1. Reduce the speed at which maximum toruqe occurs 2. Increase the starting torque (until spo > 1, then it will reduce the start torque) 3. Increase slip for a given torque 4. Reduce the speed for a given torque 5. Increase the rotor losses at a given torque The last point above can be shown by considering that the torque equation
is actually rotor copper loss divided by slip speed in radians per second. If slip increases, losses must increase to maintaint the torque. The diagram below plots torque speed curves for a motor with the following parameters, R2 is varied. R1=0.5 , X1=0.75 , X2=0.5 , Xm=100 , f=60Hz, p=6, VLL=230V, Y -connection
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ peak_t r q. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e Exam pl Pr obl m s o n e e
Starting
Param eters
Equiv alent Circuit Model Analy sis Ex am ple
A 480V, 60 Hz, 6-pole, three-phase, delta-connected induction motor has the following parameters: R1=0.461 , R2=0.258 , X1=0.507 , X2=0.309 , Xm=30.74 Rotational losses are 2450W. The motor drives a mechanical load at a speed of 1170 rpm. Calculate the following information: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. Synchronous speed in rpm slip Line Current Input Power Airgap Power Torque Developed Output Power in Hp Efficiency
Comment s
This machine has no iron loss resistance, so the equivalent circuit is as follows:
i. Synchronous speed is given by:
Therefore n s = 1200 rpm ii. Slip is given by
Using the rpm equation, s = (1200-1170)/1200 = 0.025 iii. Now, phase current is given by
where phase impedance is given by
Using the above equation, Zin = 9.57 + j3.84

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ basi _exam pl s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c c e 1/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
And noting that the machine is delta connected, V1 = VLL = 480V I1 = 43.1 - j17.4 A. |I1| =46.6 A, = -21.9 Therefore IL = 3 46.6 = 80.6 A iv. Input power is given by: Therefore: Pin = 62.2 kW v. To find airgap power, There are two possible approaches: a. Airgap power is the input power minus stator losses. In this case the core losses are grouped with rotational loss. Therefore Pgap = 62.2 kW - 3 46.6 2 0.461 Pgap = 59.2 kW b. Airgap Power is given by
This approach requires rotor current to be found. With no core loss resistance:
Giving I2 = 43.7 A. Substituting into the power equation Pgap = 59.2kW vi. Torque developed can be found from
where synchronous speed in radians per second is given by
giving = 471 Nm vii. Output power in horsepower is the output power in Watts divided by 746. (there are 746 W in one Hp). and Therefore output power in Watts is:Pout = 55.3kW
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ basi _exam pl s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c c e 2/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
Pout = 74.1 Hp viii. Efficiency is given by
Therefore = 55.3/62.2 = 88.9%

T hev enin Circuit Model Analy sis Ex am ple
For the machine in the previous example, find: i. ii. iii. iv. Thevenin circuit parameters and Thevenin voltage Pullout slip Pullout Torque Start Torque
Using Matlab or Excel (or another computer program) plot the torque speed curve for slip in the range 0 to 1 i. Thevenin circuit parameters and Thevenin voltage: Thevenin circuit parameters an voltage can be found using the equations provided on the formula sheet, or from first principles. The Thevenin voltage is the voltage applied to the rotor assuming that the rotor current is zero. Thevenin impedance is the impedance of the stator part of the circuit, seen from the rotor, assuming that the stator supply is short circuited.
Substituting the equivalent circuit parameters in to the above equations gives: VTH = 475.2 V, RTH = 0.452, XTH = 0.313 ii. Pullout slip The slip at which maximum torque occurs can be found from maximum power transfer theory. Maximum torque and maximum airgap power occur at the same slip, therefore maximum torque occurs when
iii. Pullout Torque Pullout torque can be found by substituting the above pullout slip into the Thevenin torque equation
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ basi _exam pl s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c c e
3/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
or from the maximum torque equation directly
Substituting into the above equation:
iv. Start Torque Start torque can be found by setting s=1 in the above equation for torque.
Either Matlab or Excel can be used to produce a torque speed plot with fairly minimal effort. The file thevenin_torque_speed.m is a script which may be run to produce the Matlab plot below
The file excel_trq_speed_example.xls contains an example of how to produce an Excel plot of the curve (shown below). Note that this file uses complex arithmetic, which is part of the Excel "Analysis ToolPak" add-in. (Select Tools > Add-ins, Analysis ToolPak
4/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
5/ 5
1/ 9/ 13
Ef f ect of I nduct i n M ot or R or R st ance o ot esi
Fundam entals Rotor Resistance
Design Aspects Motor Classes
Starting
Param eters
Operation Legislation & Standards
Design Trends & Efficiency
Rotor Resistance
Investigating the torque-speed curve it is apparent that the rotor circuit resistance has significant impact on speed at which maximum torque occurs. The plots below illustrate two cases, with low rotor resistance on the left and high rotor resistance on the right.
It can be seen from the plots that a high rotor resistance will provide a high starting torque, leading to rapid acceleration of the mechanical system. This is desirable since during starting the stator current is significantly above the rated current. Short acceleration times reduce the stress on the power system caused by high currents. While high starting torques are desirable, high rotor resistance results in a relatively high slip during normal running operation. As torque is porportional to rotor joule losses divided by slip, high resistance causes increased losses and reduced efficiency during normal operation. The above points cause a problem. For most applications it is desirable to have: high starting torque high efficiency at rated speed However, designs with high starting torque will have low efficiency at rated speed and designs with high efficiency will have low starting torque. In order to resolve these confilicting requirements, two steps must be considered: 1. Careful consideration of the application requirements 2. Designs of motors with variable rotor resistance.
Applicat ion Requirement s
Many motor applications will not need both high start torque and high rated efficiency. Alternately, the requirement for either high start torque or efficiency may be so significant that it over-rides other requirements. Consider two examples:
Fan Load
Fans and rotary pumps typically have a torque requirement that varies as either the square or cube of mechanical speed. When driving a fan, the motor must provide rated torque at rated speed, but at lower speeds the torque demand is significantly lower. A fan application will therefore not usually require significant starting torque, efficiency during steady operation at rated speed is the over-riding concern.
Variable-torque high-inertia loads
This type of load typically includes mechanical punches and reciprocating rod pumps used in oil production ("nodding donkeys"). In the case of a reciprocating pump, the mechanical laod varies with time, some of the time the motor is working against gravity to lift oil out of the ground, at other times, it
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ r ot or _i f l ence. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g n u 1/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
is working with gravity as the rod falls. The speed range of this system is significant, requiring very high torques at low speeds. When the motor is at high speed (as the rod falls) the torque (and efficiency) requirement is minimal. In this case high torque at low speed is the over-riding requirement.
Varirable Rot or Resist ance
Although it is common to think of low frequency conductors as having a constant resistance, the resistance of all ac conductors is a function frequency. Induced currents in conductors act to oppose the originating magnetic field. As a result, the depth of penetration of the magnetic field into the conductor will vary with frequency. (The magnitude of the induced voltage is a function of rate of change of flux, and therfore a function of frequency)
Skin Depth
The skin depth of a conductor is defined as the depth at which the magnitude of a magnetic field has fallen to 1/e of the magnitude of the surface. We can approximate this as the depth at which currents are actually flowing in the conductor. Skin depth is given by
where = skin depth = permeability of the conducting material, = 0 in non-magnetic materials (copper, aluminum) = conductivity f = frequency of the magnetic field, relative to the conductor Since the frequency of the stator magnetic field seen by the rotor conductors is a function of slip, the actively conducting region of the rotor bars will be a function of slip. Hence, the effective roto resistance will be a function of slip. The table below plots skin depth for aluminum ( 2.910 7) in a machine with a 60Hz supply.
Slip 0.02 5 0.05 0.083 0.1 6 7 0.3 3 3 0.50 0.6 6 7 0.83 3 1 .0 Slip Frequency (hz) 1 .5 3 .0 5.0 1 0.0 2 0.0 3 0.0 4 0.0 50.0 6 0.0 (mm) 7 6 .3 54 .0 4 2 .8 2 9 .6 2 0.6 1 7 .1 1 4 .8 1 3 .2 1 2 .0
The table above indicates a number of important points: 1. No matter how deep a rotor bar, only the top 12mm conducts at standstill 2. Medium-large machines with bars deeper than 12mm will have varying rotor resistance 3. Smaller machines with bars less than 12mm deep will have effectively constant rotor resistance As an example, a machine with a rectangular bar 72 mm deep will have a resistance 6 times smaller at low slips than it will at starting.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ r ot or _i f l ence. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g n u
2/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ r ot or _i f l ence. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g n u
3/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or D gn C sses o esi a l
Starting
Param eters
Motor Design Classes
Since different applications need different characteristics from induction motors, the National Electical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), a US organization, has specified different classes of induction motor, with different characteristics. Typical torque speed-curves for classes A-D are sketched below.
Motor Classes A and D are obtained by designing the rotor resistance to be either low (class A) or high (class D). Classes B and C are obtained by exploiting the effect of skin depth to obtain a variable resistance rotor circuit. Example rotor conductor designs for classes A through D are shown below. Comparing classes A and B, class B has a deeper bar to exploit skin depth effects. The bar width may vary in order to enhance this effect. Class C rotors are typically fabricated with two seperate cages. Only the outer cage will conduct at starting. There is air between the cages and at the top of the slot (to reduce leakage flux). Note that cast rotor designs must have a closed slot design to prevent molten aluminum from escaping. Class D has a small conductor, giving a high resistance at all slips. The class D example shown has an open slot, for a fabricated rotor design.
A summary of the performance of the motor classes is provided in the table below
Class A Ty pe General Purpose Class B General Purpose 1 00% rated for larger m otors, 2 00% rated, sm aller m otors 500%-6 00% rated 2 00% rated < 0.2 Slightly lower than class A High, can be as m uch as 1 .0 Class C High Starting Torque Class D Very High Starting Torque > 2 7 5% rated
Start Torque Start Current Pullout Torque Pullout Slip
1 00% rated for larger m otors, 2 00% rated, sm aller m otors 800% rated 2 00%-3 00% rated < 0.2
Approx 2 50% rated
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ m ot or _cl sses. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g a
1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or D gn C sses o esi a l
Rated Slip
< 0.05, lower than sim ilar sized m ust be < 0.05, < 0.05, higher than class B class B usually < 0.03 Fans, Blowers, Pum ps, Machine Tools As for Class A Com pressors, pum ps, conv ey ors
High, ty pically 0.07 to 0.1 1 , can be up to 0.1 7 High inertia applications, e.g. m echanical punches
Applications
Notes
High starting inrush current Replacem esnt Applications that require Very high inertia causes power sy stem problem s, for Class A due high start torques. Note applications. e.g. in a it can cause the supply v oltage to lower start that the pullup and pull- punch or reciprocal pum p to sag and requires special current. The out torque can both be where the slip m ay v ary starting techniques. More standard off-the lower than the start between 0 and 0.50 Much efficient than sam e sized class shelf com m odity torque. Less efficienct than less efficient than other B m otor. class B designs
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ m ot or _cl sses. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g a
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
Tr ends i I nduct i n M achi e D gn n o n esi
Starting
Param eters
Design T rends & Influences

Hist ory
The induction motor principle was patented by Tesla in 1888. (He also invented synchronous motors and reluctance motors). By 1895 three-phase induction motors similar to today's designs were available. Since then induction motors have become smaller and more efficient. These improvements are not necessarily compatible with each other and have occurred for different reasons. Smaller machines have been developed because it is in the manufacturers interest to do so. A physically smaller induction machine with the same output capability will have lower material costs and therefore can be made more profitably. More efficient machines have been developed because of a combination of end user desire and legislation. More efficient machines will have lower operating costs and require less generation= which results in lower greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuel power plants.
Energy Efficient Design
The techniques to make a more efficient motor are well understood: 1. Use thicker conductors. Increasing the cross-section of the conductors will result in lower I2R losses. 2. Increase the length of the machine. A longer machine requires a lower torque density, which means a lower flux density. Lower flux density will result in lower iron losses. 3. Increase the outer diameter of the stator. Increased outer diameter means an increased surface area, allowing more effective cooling. This in turn means that a smaller, lower power fan can be used 4. Use a low loss lamination steel. Lamination steels can be bought in different grades, with variable hysteresis losses. Laminations can also be bought in various thicknesses, with thinner laminations resulting in lower eddy current losses. A thin low-loss lamination will have significantly lower iron loss than an thicker standard lamination 5. Ensure that the air gap length is constant. If the air gap surfaces are machined to give a constant air gap, there will be smaller variations in flux density and therefore reduced likelihood of concentrations of iron losses. (Eddy current losses are a function of flux density squared.)
Factors limiting the use of higher efficiency motors
The first limit on uptake of premium efficiency motors is cost. Reviewing the above options to improve efficiency, 1-3 require more material to be put into the motor, increasing material costs. Option 4 requires more expensive laminations (thinner laminations and low loss steel are both more expensive). In addition, if thinner laminations are used, more laminations are required for a given length of machine, resulting in higher manufacturing costs (more lamination punches per machine, increased wear on punches, more difficult handling). Option 5 adds an additional step to the manufacturing process, again increasing manufacturing costs. It can be seen that all the obvious options to improve motor efficiency result in more expensive machines. To maintain profitability, manufacturers must therefore increase the purchase price of a machine if it is more efficient. From an end user point of view, the increased initial purchase price of a more efficient motor is more
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ t r ends. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g 1/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
than offset by reduced lifetime operating costs. A premium efficiency motor will typically pay for itself in electricity savings in about 4 years (assuming constant operation). Typical motor lifetimes are around 20 years, so from a lifetime perspective, premium efficiency motors are a sound financial choice. If premium efficiency motors are such a sound choice, the question must be asked why people don't buy premium efficiency motors. (They typically don't). A number of reasons can be found: Most motor purchases are not made by the end user. They are made by "OEM"s: other equipment manufacturers. OEM's don't pay the operating costs of the motor and must keep their costs down to maintain their profitability. New equipment is purchased from capital budgets. This is typically independent of any future operating budget. Capital costs must usually be minimized during the development of a new facility and are typically funded by one-time fixed budgets. Once a facility is built, the operating costs are funded from another budget. Large users generate their own electricity. In a regulated electricity market, large users do not particularly care how much electricity they use, as long as it is lower than their generating capacity. With the advent of de-regulated markets and the possibility of selling excess generating capacity back to the grid, this is less of an issue. A second limit on the development of premium efficiency motors has been standards. All motors in the small-medium (up to several hundred Hp) size range must be made to meet industrial standards. This limits the ability of manufacturers to be innovative with new motors. e.g. the maximum length and outside diameter are specified in the standard, so cannot be increased beyond a certain point to improve efficiency. In addition, standards specify minimum efficiency levels that must be met. Since all motors that meet the standard are viewed as equivalent, manufacturer A has no incentive to exceed the standard, as this would make its motors more expensive than those from manufacturer B who just meets the standard. In order to remain in business, the manufacturer must aim to meet the standards at minimum unit cost, which typically means just meeting the standard.
Increasing Market Penet rat ion
There are number of sectors in society that are attempting to increase the use of premium efficiency motors. The most influential in this area are governments, utilities and environmentally conscious consumers. Governments are concerned about reducing energy usage primarily because of commitments to reduce greenhouse gases and other pollutants produced by fossil fuel power plants. In addition, a more efficiency industry will, in the long term, be more globally competitive. Utilities are concerned about energy usage due to power supply issues. e.g. in Ontario, the peak energy usage is close to the peak generation capability. Reducing the end use of electricity will enhance power system stability and reduce the probability of power outages. An increasing number of consumers are demanding "greener" products. This significant market segment has the purchasing power to influence the development of more efficient products. This type of consumer is typically willing to pay more for "greener" products (e.g. hybrid cars, front load washing machines) Governments have the largest power to influence this area. In order to promote energy efficient products to end consumers, the "Energy Star" approach has been used, highlighting the benefits of energy efficient designs. This is particularly effective with consumer goods as the purchaser is usually the end user. Influencing the industrial use of energy efficient machines has proved more difficult:
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ t r ends. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g 2/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
The EU is currently persevering with an "efficiency sticker" approach. Motors are grouped as low, standard or high efficiency and sold badged into those groups. However, there is no requirement to buy high efficiency designs. (It should be noted that the EU has lagged behind N. America in this area) Hydro-Quebec Energy Rebate Program. This was the initial N. American attempt to improve energy efficiency. Hydro Quebec offered rebates to people who bought high efficiency motors, offsetting the increase in initial costs. As an example, a $4000 rebate was available for a 600Hp motor. This approach was eventually discontinued due to the high costs (Over $12 million) Legislation. Specify the minimum efficiencies. To understand the legislative approach, it is important to understand the roles of standards and legislation
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ t r ends. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g
3/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
I nf l ence of Legi l t i n and St andar ds on I nduct i n M achi es u sa o o n
Starting
Param eters
Legislation and Standards
Techniques to make motors more efficient are well known. However, it can be seen that the steps to make a more efficient machine are not necessarily in the best interest of either the machine manufacturer or purchaser. It can also be seen that in some instances, Standards could in the past have been said to hinder the development of new, more efficient designs.
St andards
The standard that covers the design, construction and operating limits of induction machines is NEMA MG1. NEMA is the National Electrical Manufacturers Association, a US group which represents electrical equipment manufacturers. MG-1 is the standard for motors and generators. Canadian motors also follow MG-1. NEMA MG-1 sets minimum performance values, (e.g. start, pullup, pullout torque, efficiency) and also mechanical constraints. Motors are grouped by frame size and all motors of a certain frame must have the same external dimensions, bolt hole locations etc. The standard also specifies the following classifications TEFC: Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled TENV: Totally Enclosed Natural Ventilation ODP: Open, Drip-Proof Explosion-Proof The benefit of the standard is that the consumer knows what they are buying, independent of the manufacturer. This allows easy comparison between brands based on cost. e.g. all 5 Hp motors will be the same physical size and shape and in the event of failure one motor can be replaced by another from a different manufacturer without the need to redesign the mounting points, bolts etc.
Legislat ion
At times, Standards have limited the incentive to develop higher efficiency designs. As a result, Governments have mandated legislated improvements over MG-1 (MG-1 was re-written to reflect the legislation. Canada was one of the first jurisdictions to legislate for higher efficiency, introducing standard CSA 390, which mandated a step change in motor efficiency. This was followed in the US by NEPACT legislation, which duplicated the Canadian efficiency limits, resulting in a common North American standard on efficiency.
Recent Development s
NEMA has recently (2004) introduced an extension to MG-1 to introduce efficiency standards for "premium" efficiency motors. The premium efficiency motors program allows manufacturers to develop, and consumers to purchase, motors at a higher efficiency than the minimum set by legislation.
Summary
Standards specify motor design and performance parameters, allowing consumers to make informed choices about the motors they are buying. At times, the reluctance of industry to improve standards has required legislators to force changes and impose minimum standards. Due to the relationship between efficiency and motor cost, this is not usually in the best interest of motor manufacturers. Manufacturers have recently pro-actively announced extensions to the standard to enable higher efficiency motors in the marketplace.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ st andar ds. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g 1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nf l ence of Legi l t i n and St andar ds on I nduct i n M achi es u sa o o n
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ desi n/ st andar ds. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o g
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or St ar t i g o n
Fundam entals Starting
Design Aspects Full Voltage
Starting Y -
Param eters
Operation Supply Circuitry
Starting Induction Motors
Induction Motors can usually be started by simply connecting them to the supply line voltage. This can, however, cause power system problems. Start currents (or "in-rush" currents) are high, often about 6 times rated current. Starting a motor directly from the supply line can cause the supply voltage to dip, or "sag", due to the higher than normal voltage drop across supply line and transformer impedances. In severe cases, this voltage sag can cause supply instability or the failure of sensitive power electronics connected to the system.
Wound Rot or Mot ors
Start behaviour of wound rotor machines can be controlled by adding resistance to the rotor circuit, as shown below:
In the circuit model above, the actual resistance RE has been referred to the rotor as RE. It can be seen from the circuit model that the increased impedance will reduce the start current. In addition, the extra rotor resistance will increase the motor torque during starting, reducing the start time and overall impact of the in-rush current.
Cage Machines
Cage motors cannot have additional resistance added to the rotor circuit. A number of options are available for cage motor starts: Full Voltage, or direct-on-line start Wye-Delta Start Adding additional circuitry to the stator, including Autotransformer Additional resistance Electronic soft-start or variable speed start
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ st ar t i g/ st ar t . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o n
1/ 1
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or Ful Vol age St ar t s o l t
Starting Y -
Param eters
Full Voltage Start
A full voltage start involves directly connecting the motor to the supply line. It can also be called a "direct-on-line" start. A wiring schematic for a full voltage start is shown below.
In the above circuit, the motor is protected by 3 fuses, which will have a time-delay so that inrush currents can flow for a short period. The motor is started by pressing the start button. This allows current to flow through the relay M, in turn closing the normally open relay contacts M1 to M4. Contact M1, M2 and M3 allow current to flow to the motor. M4 bypasses the start button and keeps current flowing through the relay. The motor will stop when a. The stop button is pressed, breaking the relay circuit and causing contacts M1 to M4 to open b. The thermal overload resistors heat up enough to cause the normally closed O/L contact to open, again breaking the relay circuit. The primary advantages of the full voltage start are the full torque is applied to the load, causing rapid acceleration and short transient the start circuit is simple and low cost The disadvantages of full voltage starting are rapid acceleration may be undesirable for the mechanical system High start currents during the transient
St art Current s
The graph below plots line current and torque against speed for the motor in the induction machine examples. Rated torque for this machine is 477Nm, rated line current is 81.7A
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ st ar t i g/ dol ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o n .
1/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
It can be seen that the line current is significantly higher than the rated current for all speeds below rated and doesn't begin to fall significantly until the slip is less than the pullout slip. It is typical for currents to remain high until rated speed is reached. A small motor should be able to start a load of rated torque in less than 10 seconds. For a larger machines, a rated load should be accelerated to rated speed in less than 15 seconds
Start Codes
In order to quantify starting currents, which can vary with machine design, all induction motors are assigned a start code letter (different from the letter used to designate the motor class). Start code letters specify the start Voltamperes range in terms of the rated horsepower.
Code Let t er A B C D E F G H J K L M N P R S T U V St art kVA/rat ed Hp 0 - 3 .1 5 3 .1 5 - 3 .55 3 .55 - 4 .0 4 .0 - 4 .5 4 .5 - 5.0 5.0 - 5.6 5.6 - 6 .3 6 .3 - 7 .1 7 .1 - 8.0 8.0 - 9 .0 9 .0 - 1 0.0 1 0.0 - 1 1 .0 1 1 .0 - 1 2 .5 1 2 .5 - 1 4 .0 1 4 .0 - 1 6 .0 1 6 .0 - 1 8.0 1 8.0 - 2 0.0 2 0.0 - 2 2 .4 2 2 .4 +
To understand how to use start codes, consider the example below: A 480V, 50Hp induction motor has start code H. Find the maximum current that may be expected at starting.
2/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
From the start code table, class H has a maximum start kVA of 7.1 the rated horsepower. Therefore S start = 7.1 50 = 355kVA Therefore the start current is IL = 355 10 3/( 3 480) IL = 427A
3/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or Wye- D t a St ar t o el
Starting Y -
Param eters
Wy e - Delta Start
A Y - start is only applicable to motors that normally operate in delta connection and that can be reconnected to operate in wye configuration. If the motor operates in delta:
Now, if the motor is connected in wye-configuration:
Comparing the above equations, it can be seen that the wye phase current is 3 times smaller than the delta phase current and that the wye line current is 3 times smaller than the delta phase current.
In a wye-delta start, the motor is started in wye configuration, with line currents one third of those that would have occurred with a delta start. Once the machine has accelerated to low slip, the wye supply is removed and the motor is re-connected in delta configuration. There are disadvantages to a wye-delta start. If the phase currents are reduced by 1/3, the torque will also be reduced by one third. This may cause the start transient to become unacceptably long. In addition, there can be a significant short term transient when the delta connection is applied. In the graph below, line currents and torque are plotted for the example motor connected in both wye and delta.
Andy Knight
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ st ar t i g/ w w. b g e c _ n n o n ye_del a. ht m l t
1/ 1
1/ 9/ 13
Addi i nal C ui r y f or I nduct i n M ot or St ar t i g to r i t o n
Starting Y -
Param eters
Additional Supply Circuitry
Inrush current can also be controlled by controlling the supply to the motor.
Aut ot ransformer St art
Using an autotransformer with a number of secondary "taps" it is possible to control the supply voltage to the motor. At low speeds, the supply voltage is kept low to maintain a low current. As slip reduces and the motor phase impedance increases, the supply voltage can be increased by changing the transformer taps. Once close to rated speed, the autotransformer can be by-passed altogether. The autotransformer approach has the advantage that it is not necessary to access the terminals of the motor windings, the control can be applied remotely to the motor. (unlike Y -). This is a significant advantage in many operating environments. However, like Y -, reducing the phase supply voltage reduces the currents, torque and therefore increases the length of time of the start transient. In addition, autotransformers are expensive additional equipment that is only used in starting.
Addit ional Resist ance
Adding additional resistance in line with the stator increases the overall impedance of the motor circuit during starting, again limiting current at the expense of torque. Again, one of the significant disadvantages of this method is the cost of the additional equipment.
Elect ronic Soft St art or Variable Speed Drives
An electronic soft start works by sing power electronics to gradually increase the voltage applied to the motor. This effect is somewhat like using an autotransformer, but carried out with electronics rather than magnetic circuitry. The power electronics work similarly to a light dimmer, reducing the rms voltage, but at fixed frequency. Variable speed drives adjust both the voltage and frequency of the supply to the motor. As a result, it is possible to accelerate a load at rated torque without exceeding rated current. Drives are generally beyond the scope of this course, but will be covered briefly.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ st ar t i g/ add_cct . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o n
1/ 1
1/ 9/ 13
D er m i i g t he Equi al nt C cui Par am et er s of I nduct i n M achi es et nn v e r i t o n
Fundam entals
Design Aspects
Starting
Param eters
Operation
Determ ining Induction Machine Param eters
Three tests are needed to determine the parameters in an induction machine model. Detailed testing is quite involved and is specified in IEEE Standard 112.
DC Resist ance Test
If a DC voltage is applied to the stator terminals, there will be no potential difference across any inductance and no induced voltage on the rotor. As a result, the per-phase circuit is reduced to the stator winding resistance. Applying a DC voltage across two motor terminals and measuring the current, the stator resistance can be found. Considering the figures below, it can be seen that the apparent impedance will depend on whether the machine is wye or delta connected.
Locked Rot or Test
In the locked rotor test, the rotor of the machine is prevented from rotating and the supply voltage gradually increased until rated current is reached. When the rotor is stationary , the slip, s = 1 and the equivalent circuit can be drawn as
Analysing the circuit:
Therfore, if the stator power, current and reactive power are measured, the resistance and leakage reactances can be found. Ideally, the locked rotor test should be performed at a reduced frequency to account for skin depth and more accurately predict the rotor resistance under load conditions. Typically, this test is done at 1/4 rated frequency. With the value of stator resistance from the DC test, the rotor resistance referred to the stator can be found. If the locked rotor test is done at reduced frequency, then the reactances (which are proportional to frequency) must be scaled to find the correct value at rated frequency:
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ par am et er s/ par am s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o
1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
D er m i i g t he Equi al nt C cui Par am et er s of I nduct i n M achi es et nn v e r i t o n
At this point, only the total leakage reactance is known. The relative values of stator and rotor leakage must be found from experience and are summarised in the table below
Percent ages of leakage react ance due t o st at or or rot or Mot or Ty pe Wound Rotor Class A Class B Class C Class D No Load Test X1 50% 4 0% 4 0% 3 0% 50% X2 50% 6 0% 6 0% 7 0% 50%
During the no-load test, the machine is allowed to accelerate up to synchronous speed with no load applied. The machine will run close to synchronous speed, with s 0 If slip approaches zero, the rotor current will fall to zero and the equivalent circuit can be drawn as shown below.
Remembering that this is a per-phase circuit we can write
where rotational losses are defined as PF&W are friction and windage losses, Pcore are iron core losses and Pstray are stray load losses. Again, measuring the stator current, power and reactive power, the remaining paramters can be found. Using the power, if stator resistance is known (from the DC test), the total rotational losses can be found Using the value of X1 from the locked rotor test, the magnetising reactance, Xm, may be found from the no load reactive power.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ par am et er s/ par am s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M achi e O per at i g M odes o n n
Fundam entals Modes of Operation
Design Aspects Pole Changing
Starting
Param eters Variable Frequency
Operation Generating
Modes of operation
As mentioned when considering the induction machine torque-speed curve, the three main modes of operation are braking, motoring and generating. We have concentrated on analysis of a machine being used as a motor, but the analysis is general for other modes of operation.
Mot oring: Small Slips
In usual operation of an induction machine, as a motor attached to a fixed frequency supply, there is little control over the operating point: the motor will operate at the speed where the load torque is equal and opposite to the motor torque. Considering again the torque speed equation:
If the slip is small then
and the torque equation can be re-written as
It can be seen that at small slips, torque is proportional to slip, doubling the load will approximately double the slip. It is clear from the above analysis that there is very little speed variation in an induction machine if the synchronous speed is constant. The rotor will rotate at a small slip, slightly below synchronous speed. If operation at more than one fixed speed is required, it is necessary to change the synchronous speed. Considering the equation for synchronous speed
the options available are to change the number of poles or change the supply frequency
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ m odes. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o
1/ 1
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n M ot or Pol C o e hangi g n
Starting
Pole Changing
Changing the number of poles in a machine gives a set of discrete operating speeds. e.g. if a machine can have 2 or 6 poles, it can operate at approximately 1200 rpm or 3600 rpm (with a 60Hz supply)
Consequent Poles
The basic idea of consequent poles is to split a single phase winding into two groups of coils, and to have the capability of reversing the connections of one of the coil groups. It is best explained with the aid of a diagram as shown below:
In the diagram on the left, a single 2-pole winding is shown. This same flux pattern can be obtained using two windings connected to operate in parallel, as shown in the centre diagram. If the number of poles in the machine must be increased from 2 to 4, the supply to one of the windings can be reversed, resulting in a 4 pole field.
Mult iple windings
The idea of consequent poles helps if the speed must change by 2, but if other speeds are needed, one option is two wind more than one set of stator windings onto a machine, but only operate one at a time. As an example, it is possible to wind both a 6 pole winding and a 2 pole winding onto the same stator. If the 6-pole winding is excited, the speed will be 3 times lower than when the 2-pole winding is excited. This idea is used in washing machines to switch between wash and spin cycles. This approach is expensive as only half of the copper in the machine is active at any one time and the stator slots must be made large enough to fit two sets of windings, rather than just one.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ pol _change. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o e
1/ 1
1/ 9/ 13
Var i bl Fr equency O per at i n of I nduct i n M achi es a e o o n
Starting
Variable Frequency Operation
If a variable frequency supply is available, the synchronous speed of an induction machine may be chosen at any desired value. However, caution must be taken when operating an induction machine at frequencies below the rated value. Consider the induction machine equivalent circuit in terms of inductances, rather than reactances:
If the machine is operated at reduced frequency the impedance of the circuit will be reduced. If the voltage is held at the rated value then the currents will be above the rated value and the machine will overheat. In order to maintain constant current through an inductor with variable frequency operation, the voltage and frequency must be adjusted together. This is called constant Volts per Hertz operation. If the machine is operated at low frequencies (e.g. less than 1/4 rated) the voltage drop across the stator resistance will be significant. (As reactances get smaller, R1 gets proportionally bigger.) Unless the stator supply voltage is compensated to allow for additional stator resistance voltage drop, the available torque will fall. If the machine is to be operated above rated frequency, the voltage cannot be increased above rated voltage and the magnetizing current in the machine will be reduced. This mode of operation is called field weakening operation.
Summary
Below rated frequency, keep the ratio V/f constant at rated values. At low frequencies, the V/f ratio must be boosted to maintain rated torque. Above rated frequency, maintain rated voltage.
Const ant Volt s-per Hert z operat ion
As an approximation, assume that a constant supply voltage:frequency ratio results in a constant Thevenin Voltage:frequency ratio. (Due to stator resistance, this assumption doesn't hold at low frequencies). If slip is small, then it has been shown that the torque equation
can be approximated as
which, for constant V:f may be written as
i.e. if V/f is constant, torque is approximately proportional to slip speed.

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ var i bl _f r eq. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o a e 1/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
Var i bl Fr equency O per at i n of I nduct i n M achi es a e o o n
The above statement can be used as a basis for relatively simple speed control.
Example
A 480V, 60Hz, 4-pole motor has rated speed of 1750 rpm and rated torque of 10Nm. If a torque of 10Nm is needed at a mechanical speed of 1500 rpm, find the synchronous speed, supply frequency and line-line supply voltage. At rated torque, the slip speed will be the rated value. For a 4-pole 60hz machine, synchronous speed is 1800 rpm, therefore rated slip speed =1800-1750=50rpm. When operating at 1500rpm, 10Nm, slip speed will still be 50rpm and the synchronous speed is given by
With the synchronous speed, the supply frequency can be found
Finally, if V/f is constant, the supply voltage must be 480 51.67/60 = 413.3V
Torque-Speed Curves
The figure below plots torque speed curves at different supply frequencies for the example motor with constant V/f ratio.
Variable Volt age Variable Frequency Supply
Most modern drives use Pulse Width Modulation, (PWM) supplies to approximate a variable voltage and frequency sinusoidal supply. In a PWM supply, a DC voltage is switched rapidly to approximate the shape of the desired waveform. An example is shown below.
Andy Knight
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ var i bl _f r eq. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o a e
Report an Error
06 -Jan-2 01 3 1 0:59 PM
2/ 2
1/ 9/ 13
I nduct i n G ener at or s o
Starting
Generating
If the rotor of an induction machine rotates above synchronous speed, slip is negative, as are torque, mechanical output power and air gap power. i.e. the machine is operating as a generator. When considering synchronous machines it is normal to re-define the direction of positive current when switching between generators and motors (keeping a positive power flow for both cases). With induction machines we will not do this. If slip is negative, the "input power" to the electrical terminals will be negative, implying that power is flowing out of the electrical terminals. Consider the machine used in the basic examples: A 480V, 60 Hz, 6-pole, three-phase, delta-connected induction motor with the following parameters: R1=0.461 , R2=0.258 , X1=0.507 , X2=0.309 , Xm=30.74 Rotational losses are 2450W. Now, suppose that the machine is being driven by a mechanical system such that it is rotating at 1224 rpm Calculate the following information: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. slip Line Current Power and Reactive Power at the terminals Airgap Power Torque Developed Mechanical Power Efficiency
Much of the theory for this problem is identical to a motor problem: i. Slip is given by
Using the rpm equation, s = (1200-1224)/1200 = -0.02 ii. Now, phase current is given by
where phase impedance is given by
Using the above equation, Zin = -10.3 + j5.29 And noting that the machine is delta connected, V1 = VLL = 480V I1 = -36.7 - j18.8 A. |I1| =41.4 A, Therefore IL = 3 41.4 = 71.7 A
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ gener at i g. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o n 1/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
Note that the real part of phase current is negative, indicating that real power flows out of the terminals. Also, the imaginary part of the phase current, which indicates that reactive power must flow into the terminals. An induction generator cannot operate without a reactive power supply, either from a power grid or capacitor bank iii. Using complex notation, S=3VI* or Pelec =3 &times VRe{I} = -53.0kW Qelec =-3 &times VIm{I} = +27.2kVAR iv. Airgap Power is given by
This approach requires rotor current to be found. With no core loss resistance:
Giving I2 = 37.8 A. Substituting into the power equation Pgap = -55.4kW v. Torque developed can be found from
where synchronous speed in radians per second is given by
giving = -441 Nm vi. Mechanical power can be found using and Therefore mechanical power in kW is:Pout = -55.4 (1.0+0.02) - 2.45 Pmech = -58.9 kW vii. Efficiency is given by
Therefore = 53.0/58.9 = 89.9 %
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ gener at i g. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o n
2/ 3
1/ 9/ 13
Summary
It can be seen from the above analysis that the equations for an induction motor can all be applied to an induction generator. (As long as output and input power are correctly described as either electrical or mechanical).. Induction generation used to be relatively rare. However, it is becoming increasingly common as induction generators are the generator of choice for large wind turbines. The requirement of an induction generator to have an independent reactive power supply has caused significant research into the impact of large wind farms of power system stability.
w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ oper at i n/ gener at i g. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o o n
3/ 3

3 Phase Induction Motor

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

3 Phase Induction Motor

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

1/ 9/ 13

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

T hree-Phase Induction Machines

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ i m ai . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o _ n

I nduct i n M achi e C o n onst r uct i n o

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

Induction Machine Construction

I nduct i n M achi e C o n onst r uct i n o

I nduct i n M achi e C o n onst r uct i n o

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

slip speed: in rpm: sn s = n s-n m in rad s-1 : ss = s-m

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pr i ci l s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c n pe

slip frequency: f sl = sf e in Hz or sl = se in rad s-1

Induced Rotor Voltage

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pr i ci l s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c n pe

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pr i ci l s. ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c n pe

St eady St at e Equi al nt C cui M odel f or I nduct i n M achi es v e r i t o n

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

Induction Machine Equiv alent Circuit Model

St eady St at e Equi al nt C cui M odel f or I nduct i n M achi es v e r i t o n

and the transformer model may be re-drawn as

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ ci cui . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c r t

I nduct i n M achi e Pow and Tor que o n er

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

Power & T orque

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pandt . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c

I nduct i n M achi e Pow and Tor que o n er

Writing the torque in terms of the rotor current:

w w ece. ual er t a. ca/ ~kni ht / el ct r i al m achi es/ i duct i n/ basi s/ pandt . ht m l w. b g e c _ n n o c

I nduct i n M achi e Tor que Speed C ves o n ur

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

T orque Speed Curv e

Using the equation

I nduct i n M achi e Tor que Speed C ves o n ur

and the impedances have been replaced by Thevenin equivalent impedances.

In the above circuit, the calculation of rotor current is greatly simplified

I nduct i n M achi e Tor que Speed C ves o n ur

(not the Thevenin version).

where J is the rotational inertia of the mechanical system.

I nduct i n M ot or Peak Tor que o

Fundam entals Introduction Power & Torque

Design Aspects Construction Torque-Speed Curv e

Operation Equiv alent Circuit Exam ples

Principles of Operation Peak Torque & Power

Max im um T orque and Output Power