BOLGATANGA POLYTECHNIC

DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS END OF SECOND-SEMESTER EXAMINATION STA 224: SAMPLE SURVEY II 2011/2012 ACADEMIC YEAR
INSTRUCTIONS: ANSWER ANY FOUR QUESTIONS
TIME: 3 HOURS

Q1. a. (i)

State four (4) factors that will inform your decision in deciding an appropriate sample size when conducting a sample survey.

(ii)

State three characteristics of a good sample. (7 marks) An opinion poll on Americas health concern was conducted by Gullup Organization between October 3-5, 1997, and the survey reported that 29% adults considered AIDS was the most urgent health problem of the US, with a margin of error of at the . Calculate an appropriate sample size confidence level. (9 marks) that was used for this poll

b.

c.

A health department nutritionist wishes to conduct a survey among a population of teenage girls to determine their average protein intake. Assuming that the nutritionist would like to consider a sample size of confidence level of for his survey and that a

is decided on, and that from past experience, the . Estimate

nutritionist feels that the population standard deviation is probably the margin of error for this survey.

(9 marks) Q2. (i) (ii) . . Distinguish between sampling and non sampling errors. (3 marks)

Non sampling errors can be classified under three categories on the basis of source or type of error namely: Coverage errors Non-response errors

Measurement or response errors Briefly describe them. (12 marks)

b.

Provide a check list for the control of non sampling errors in a survey by indicating the survey activity and the corresponding action that must be taken. (10 marks)

Q3.

Using specific examples for illustration, distinguish between the following terms. i) ii) iii) iv) v) systematic errors and random errors. probability sampling and non-probability sampling reliability and validity total response rate and individual item response rate pilot survey and post-enumeration survey (5 marks) (5 marks) (5 marks) (5 marks) (5 marks)

Q4. a. (i) (ii)

What are sample surveys? Outline the fundamental steps involved in conducting sample surveys. (8 marks)

b.

Distinguish between continuous surveys, periodic surveys and adhoc surveys (7 marks)

c. (i) (ii) (iii)

Taking any one official National Periodic Survey in Ghana, describe: the objectives of the survey, the sample scheme used , and the variables on which information was collected (10 marks)

Q5.

A field study is to be conducted to ascertain the profit levels and tax liabilities of businesses in the informal sector in the Upper East Region. The method of data collection will be face-to-face interviewing to be conducted at home. The Report of the Project is expected within two years. Describe and justify the survey logistical plans you will put in place. (25 marks)

Q6.

a.

What is a questionnaire?

(5 marks)

b.

Discuss the main points you should take into account while designing a structured questionnaire (20 marks)

BOLGATANGA POLYTECHNIC
DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS END OF SECOND-SEMESTER EXAMINATION STA 224: SAMPLE SURVEY II 2011/2012 ACADEMIC YEAR
MARKING SCHEME

Q1. a. i. Sample size plays a critical role in the quality of every survey. It is on the basis of this that determining an appropriate sample size is key to the success of every survey. Four factors that are worth considering when deciding on an appropriate sample size include: a. The size of the target population, that is how small or how large is the population from which the sample is going to be drawn. b. The amount of money available or in other words the cost involved as in money and time. c. The variability within the population. By this what it means is how different are the units in population from each other. d. The desired margin of error e. The desired confidence level (4 marks) ii. Three characteristics of a good sample are as follows: a. The sample should be representative b. The sample should be unbiased and objective c. The sample should be adequate (3 marks) b. The outcome variable is a Bernoulli random variable. A binary variable have only yes/no category of responses. Do you consider AIDS is the most urgent health problem of the US? responded yes, and responded no

Let

( ( ) )

The sample size that was used for the poll at the

was 879 (9 marks)

c.

The margin of error for the above survey should be (9 marks)

Q2. i.

Sampling Errors and Non-sampling Errors

Sampling error is the difference between the information in the sample and the information in the population, caused by chance factors on sample selections. The deviation of the sample statistics from the population parameters is called sampling error. Thus sampling errors have their origin in sampling and arise due to the fact that only a sample has been used to estimate population parameters and inferences drawn about the population. Consequently, sampling errors do not exist in complete enumeration surveys.

Non-sampling Errors Non- sampling errors are on the other hand are errors that have nothing to do with the chance factor inherent in sampling which causes serious problems that even sophisticated statistical techniques cannot easily overcome.

Non-sampling error is the difference between the collected information and the actual information about the population that arise at the stages of observation, ascertainment and processing of the data. Hence non-sampling error can occur at every stage of the planning or execution of either censuses or sampling surveys. (3 marks) ii. . Coverage errors the objective of any survey is to make inference about the desired or a Target Population. For this purpose selection is done by applying appropriate randomized procedure to sampling frame in which all the units of the Target Population are supposed to be represented uniquely. Coverage errors therefore refers to those errors that arise mainly due to the use of faulty frame of the sampling units. For example in a household survey if the old list of households prepared for the population census a few years ago is used for selection of the sample, some newly added households will not form a part of the sampling frame whereas a number of households which might have already migrated will remain in the frame. The use of such frames may thus lead either to inclusion of some units not belonging to the Target Population or to omission of some units which belong to the Target Population. Coverage errors may also arise due to incorrect specifications or ignorance of correct procedure by field workers, failure to identify actual units selected, enumerating wrong units intentionally or unintentionally by enumerators. Again rules of associations also many times lead to non sampling errors. For example in household surveys dejure and defacto (dejure: usual residence, defacto: actual presence of individual at the time of interview) status may be a cause of some non sampling errors.

. Non response errors these errors arise due to various causes arising from the stage of the survey design, planning, execution etc. however most of the non response errors arise mainly because of i. Not-at-home that is respondent may not be at home when enumerators call on them and ii. Refusal: the respondents may refuse to provide information to the enumerators for one reason or the other.

. Measurement or response errors these errors arise in data collection or taking observations and are mainly contributed by respondent or the enumerator or both. Response errors refer to the differences between the individual true value and the corresponding observed sampling value irrespective of the reasons for discrepancies. For example in an Agricultural Survey a Householder may report a total area of his holding which may differ from the cadastral data. Sometimes measurement devices or techniques may be defective and may cause observational errors. Many times errors may be accidental but these may also be introduced purposely or may arise from lack of information. This may be due to fear and prestige or simply to confirm to what they think is appropriate. Women generally declare themselves younger. People raise their level of education or their occupation, Assistant declaring Manager. Similarly people exaggerate their salary, rent, money spent on food, clothing etc.

(12 marks)

c. CHECK LIST FOR CONTROLLING NON SAMPLING ERRORS

SURVEY ACTIVITY 1. General Planning

ACTION Has any such survey been conducted earlier

2. Selection of topics and Number and length of questions, reference period, items concepts, frame sampling design, sampling units and rules of association, methods of data collection, development of questionnaires, pre testing for refining and estimating cost factors, outline of tabulation, interviewer selection and training. 3. Data collection Schedule of field supervision, editing of completed questionnaires, re-interview of sub-sample, suggestions for improvement in subsequent. and Correct and unique identification of each questionnaire, instruction for manual edit and coding , verification of coders work computer processing, method of estimation and tabulation. Description of survey design, concepts and definitions, sampling and non sampling errors and suggestions for future surveys.

4. Data Processing analysis

5. Report writing

(10 marks)

Q3. i.

Systematic errors and random errors

Systematic errors Systematic errors are errors in coverage or content which appear to be in one specific direction. For example, if in a survey most of the people omitted tend to be in a certain group (e.g. farmers) then there will be a systematic error.

Also, if for one reason or another many respondents who work for pay or profit (i.e. earn income) report their occupation as only housewives doing no work there will be systematic content error on the variable occupation. Systematic errors tend to produce serious biases in survey results. Random errors Random errors are errors in coverage or content which are scattered and do not appear to move in one specific direction. Their impact tend to cancel each other out, and therefore do not affect

survey results significantly. For example, if respondent A, gives his age as 18 instead of the actual age of 21, the individual information will be in error. If respondent B who is aged 21 gives his age as 18, the individual information will also be in error. However, the information from A and B put together will give an accurate age of 18 and 21. The errors would have cancelled out. (5 marks)

(ii) Probability Sampling and Non-Probability Sampling. There are basically two kinds of sampling: probability sampling and the non-probability sampling.

Probability Sampling Probability Sampling also called random sampling is the scientific method by which the units of the sample are chosen on some definite pre-assigned probability.

Probability Sampling is therefore the selection procedure in which every element in a given population has a known and non-zero probability of being included in the sample.

A probability sampling generates a random sample. A random sample has the following essential features. (1) All members of the population are included in the selection procedure. (2) Every member of the population has a chance of being selected (3) There is no way of predicting which unit will be selected for inclusion in the sample. The word random describes the process by which the sample was selected. Thus, randomness is a property of the sampling procedure instead of an individual sample.

It does not, therefore, guarantee that the sample will turn out to be representative. Probability sampling includes cases where, in the population, each sampling unit has an equal chance of being selected; or the sampling units have different probabilities of being selected; for example, the probability of selecting a unit is proportional to the size of the unit.

Probability sampling includes a group of procedures such as simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling and multi-stage sampling. Apart from the simple random sampling which is true random sampling, the others are quasi-random or not truly random. The quasi-random sampling techniques are used when random sampling is either not possible or too expensive to consider. Random sampling can be done with replacement or without replacement.

Non-Probability Sampling. Non-probability sampling is also called non-random sampling Non-Probability Sampling is the method of selecting samples not based on any known probabilities. In non-probability sampling, individuals are selected for study because, they appear typical to the investigator they are the only ones readily accessible the selection does not matter, for the property or the process studied is uniform in the population

The validity of non-probability sampling is readily seen when the individual members of a population have common inherited traits, or when each individual exhibits all the essential traits required to distinguish the population, The non-probability sampling comprises a group of procedures such as purposive sampling (judgment sampling, quota sampling, accessibility sampling) and the chunk (convenience) sampling. (5 marks)

(iii) Reliability and Validity Reliability refers to consistency to obtaining the same results again and again. For instance, a clock is supposed to measure time and to do so continuously. If it were sometimes slow and sometimes fast, we would call it unreliable.

Validity on the other hand tells whether the question or item really measures what it is supposed to measure. For instance, a clock is supposed to measure true time and to do so continuously. A clock that shows wrong time can be said to be invalid. If it were sometimes slow and sometimes fast it would be said to be unreliable.

It is possible to have a measure that is highly reliable (consistent) yet of poor validity (inaccurate).The degree of reliability (consistency) sets limits to the degree of validity possible. Validity cannot rise above a certain point, if the measure is inconsistent to some degree. On the other hand, if a measure has excellent validity, then it must also be reliable. That is why social science, an indicator must not only be reliable. It must also be valid in order to form the basis for informed or accurate interpretations and conclusions. (5 marks) (iv) Total Response Rate and Individual Item Response Rate. The total response rate refers to the number of interviews or respondents successfully contacted or covered. The individual item response rate refers to the number answering a specific question compared to the number to whom the question is applicable. Thus if a survey targeted a sample size of 400 and successfully interviewed 350 the total response rate will be or 85.5%.

However if all the 400 respondents are to provide information on their incomes but only 250 actually did so, then the individual/item response rate for income will be or 62%.

Response rates affect the level of confidence in the survey in the survey findings. For example if a survey achieves 100% total response rate but obtains low response on specific questions that are relevant to the survey objectives, the survey results would not be acceptable. (5 marks) (v) Pilot Survey and Post Enumeration Survey Pilot survey refers to a test run of a survey before the actual survey. Its main objective is to evaluate all aspects of the survey questionnaire, field work preparations, interviewer preparedness and so on in order to make appropriate changes or improvements before launching the survey in full.

Post enumeration survey, on the other hand, is enumeration carried out after the survey. Its main objective is to ascertain quality of coverage and content. It is also sometimes used to collect additional information. (5 marks)

Q4. A survey can be defined as the process of sampling a population to estimate numerical characteristics.

Surveys are the most frequently used model of observations and data collection in social science research. Surveys are used for descriptive, explanatory and exploratory purposes. Proper use of probability sampling can allow researchers to select a sample of respondents whose characteristics reflect the large population. Many surveys involve the following six components: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Survey planning Development of survey questionnaire Sampling technique to collect data from a sample to represent the larger population Choice of method to administer the questionnaire Editing and organization of survey data Analysis of presentation of results of survey in the form of a report (8 marks)

b. Surveys many be divided into three groups, depending on how regular they are conducted. These are continuous (regular) surveys, periodic surveys and ad hoc (irregular) surveys

Continuous Survey Surveys conducted regularly at short, known intervals are referred to as continuous or regular surveys. Examples of such surveys include the bi-weekly price collection which

generates the monthly consumer price index in Ghana and the monthly industrial production index.

Periodic Surveys Surveys conducted regularly at long, known intervals are referred to as periodic surveys. Examples of periodic surveys include Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) which is conducted every five years. The Living Standard Measurements Survey (LSMS) are

conducted in most developing countries every five years.

Ad Hoc Surveys Ad hoc surveys, also called, irregular surveys are special surveys with no regular time of their conduct. For example, government may want to have particular information about the population (unemployment among school and college leavers, the number of physically challenged persons in the country, etc). The Government then commissions the Director of Statistics to mount a special survey to collect the necessary data. An example is the Child Labour Survey conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service in 2000. Surveys mounted by researchers, students, non-governmental organizations in an attempt to study a particular problem are also ad hoc surveys. (7 marks)

c. The student is expected to take any one published period survey paying attention to the Objectives of the survey Sampling scheme used Variables upon which information was collected (3 marks) (3 marks) (4 marks) (10 marks)

EXAMPLE: DEMOGRAPHIC AND HEALTH SURVEY 2003 i. OBJECTIVES OF THE SURVEY The principal objective of the 2003 Ghana Demographic and Health survey is to provide data to monitor the population and health situation in the (GDHS) country. This is the

fourth round in a series of national level population and health surveys conducted in Ghana under the Worldwide Demographic and Health Surveys program. The primary objective is to provide current and reliable data on fertility and family planning behaviour, infant and child mortality, breastfeeding, antenatal care, childrens immunizations and childhood diseases, nutritional status of mothers and children, use of maternal and child health service, and awareness and behaviour regarding AIDS and other STIs. Now features of the 2003 GDHS include the collection of information on malaria and ownership and use male circumcision treated bed nets, and hemoglobin and HIV testing.

The long-term objective of the survey includes strengthening the technical capacity of major government institutions, including the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). The 2003 GDHS also provides comparable data for long term trend analyses in Ghana. Since the surveys were implemented by the same organization, using similar data collection procedures. It also contributes to the ever-growing international database on demographic and health-related information. (3 marks)

ii. SAMPLE DESIGN The sample for the 2003 GDHS covered the population residing in private households in the country. A representative probability sample of about 6,600 households was selected nationwide. The list of enumeration areas (EAs) from the 2000 Ghana population and Housing Census was used as a frame for the sample. The frame was first stratified into the 10 administrative regions in the country, then into rural and urban EAs. The sample was selected in such a manner as to allow for separate estimates for key indicators for the country as a whole, for each of the 10 regions in Ghana, as well as for urban and rural areas separately. The 2003 GDHS used a two stage stratified sample design. At the first stage of sampling, 412 sample points or EAs were selected, each with probability proportional to size, based on the number of households. A complete household listing exercise was carried out between May and June 2003 within all selected AEs (clusters).The second stage of selection involved systematic sampling of households from this list. The sample selected per AE varied by region depending on the population size. Fifteen households per AE were elected in all the regions

except in Brong Ahafo, Upper East, and Upper West Regions, where 20 households per EA were selected, and in the Northern Region, where 16 households per EA were selected. The objective of this exercise was to ensure adequate numbers of complete interviews to provide estimates for important population characteristics acceptable statistical precision. Due to the disproportional number of EAs and different sample sizes selected per EA among regions, the household sample for the 2003 GDHS is not self-weighted at the national level. (3 marks)

(iii) VARIABLES UPON WHICH INFORMATION WAS COLLECTED. The survey obtained detailed information on fertility levels, marriage, sexual activity, fertility preferences, awareness and use of family planning methods, breastfeeding practices, nutritional status of women and young children, childhood mortality, maternal and child health, awareness and behaviour regarding HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections (STDs).In addition, the 2003 GDHS collected information on malaria and use of mosquito nets and carried out anemia testing in children and women and HIV testing in adults. (4 marks)

EXAMPLE: GHANA LIVING STANDARD SURVEY OBJECTIVES OF THE GLSS4 Subsequent to the introduction of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP), poverty reduction, including the set up of a monitoring and evaluation of welfare information system, has been the focal point of Government policy and programmes. Additionally, the need has been expressed for a labour information system to monitor levels of employment, underemployment and unemployment on a continuous basis to measure the effects of the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) launched in 1983. GLSS 4 therefore carried a special module on the force.

The GLSS 4 is a nation-wide survey which collected detailed information on a variety of topics, including demographic characteristics of the population, education, health, employment and time use, migration, housing conditions, household agriculture and non-farm businesses. It is expected

that together with the results of the earlier rounds, the GLSS 4 will provide needed information to policy-makers, business persons and academic analysis for evaluating living standards and labour force information systems in the country.

For purposes of comparability the income and expenditure module used in the third round survey was not modified. This is particularly useful as it will enable the evaluation of poverty trends over the survey period. Researchers who are interested in carrying out further analysis with the GLSS data sets are encouraged to apply to the statistical service for further details. (3 Marks)

SAMPLE DESIGN FOR ROUND 4 OF THE GLSS A nationally representative sample of households was selected in order to achieve the survey objectives.

Sample Frame For the purposes of this survey the list of the 1984 population census Enumeration areas (EAs) with population and household information was used as the sampling frame. The primary sampling units were the 1984 EAs with the secondary units being the households in the EAs. This frame, though quite old was considered inadequate, it being the best available at the time. Indeed, this frame was used in the earlier rounds of the GLSS.

Stratification In order to increase precision and reliability of the estimates, the technique of stratification was employed in the sample design, using geographical factors, ecological zones and location of residence as the main controls. Specifically, the EAs were first stratified according to the three ecological zones namely; Coastal, Forest and Savannah, and then within each zone further

stratification was done based on the size of the locality into rural or urban.

Sample Selection EAs

A two-stage sample was selected for the survey. At first stage,300 EAs were using systematic sampling with probability proportional to size method (PPS) where the size measure in the 1984 number of households in the EA. This was achieved by ordering the list of EAs with the sizes according to the strata. The size column was then cumulated, and with a random start and a fixed interval the sample EAs were selected.

It was observed that some of the selected EAs had grown in the size over time and therefore needed segmentation. In this connection, such EAS were divided into approximately equal parts, each segment constituting about 200 households. Only one segment was then randomly selected for listing of the households.

Households At the second stage, a fixed number of households were systematically selected from each selected EA to give a total of 6,000 households. Additional 5 households was selected as reserve to replace missing households. Equal number of households was selected from each EA in order to reflect the labour force focus of the survey. (3marks)

(iii) VARIABLES UPON WHICH INFORMATION WAS COLLECTED. Household Questionnaire The household questionnaire was used to collect information on various topics, some of which pertain to eligible individual household members. The questionnaire was in two parts, (A and B).

PART A. Section 1: Household Roster. The purpose of this section is to identify usual members of households, and to collect demographic data such as age, sex, marital status etc .regardless of his or her other socio economic standing.

Section 2: Education The objective of this section is to measure the level of education or formal schooling of all households members aged five(5) years or more. It is also intended to measure how much was

spent on education of household members during the past 12 months, time spent on primary schooling, type of school (public or private) attended and the highest educational qualification achieved, including short training course. Information on adult literacy levels and apprenticeship of persons was collected in this section.

Section 3: Health This section gathers information on health status of all household members that will be used to measure the cost of medical care and the use made of different kinds of health services and facilities available. Information on preventive services during the past 12 months, fertility and child mortality.

Section 4: Employment This section is designed to gather information on employment, time use and the different sources of income for the household members aged 7 years and over. This section is the special modules of the fourth round of the survey and therefore expanded to include several labour details.

Section 5: Migration The purpose of this section is to gather limited data on the spatial mobility of household members. The section is brief, focusing on the most recent migration to elicit information on the previous place of residence, type of work and reasons for moving.

Section 6: Identification of Respondents for Next Visits. This section is mainly used to identify eligible members of the household and to make appointments with them for sections 8,9 and 10 of the questionnaire.

Section 7: Housing The quality of the house occupied by the household is paramount to the welfare of the members. In this regard, the section seeks information on the type of dwelling, occupancy status, number of rooms and room space, expenditures, utilities and amenities as well as the physical characteristics of the dwelling.

PART B. Section 8: Agriculture The purpose of this section is to collect data on the households agricultural activities. It covers agricultural assets such as lands, livestock and equipment. Furthermore, it provides data on agricultural production, technology, processing, marketing, income and consumption patterns.

Section 9: Household Expenditure. This section collects data on households expenditures on food and non-food item over a period of 35 days.

Section 10: Non-Farm Enterprise This section is designed to obtain information on income for the household, specifically from nonfarm enterprises. It also identifies which household members are responsible for each non-farm enterprise in terms of decision making and the allocation of income it generates. Non-farm enterprises that are currently operating and those that were operational sometime in the past 12 months but currently not operating are considered.

Section11: Remittances Information on cash and /or in-kind remittances is collected in this section. Transfers to the household are considered as income whereas transfers from the household constitute expenditures. In this analysis however, net remittance is used.

Section 12: Credit, Assets and Savings. This section of the questionnaire is designed to collect information on loans, assets and savings. The household members who contracted loans and those operating savings accounts are identified for interviewing. (4 marks)

Q5.

The student should preface his/her answer by indicating the role or importance of Survey Logistics in the entire sample survey process.

A researcher employing survey research must be familiar with the advantages and disadvantages of survey mechanisms, sampling issues and the development of survey instruments. However, the most technically competent survey can come apart if the logistics are not planned properly.

The student should then describe each aspect of the Logistics Plan, and briefly indicate why it is important.

1.

Hire and Train Personnel Identify potential interviewers and supervisors who have confident assertiveness, have a knack of instantly engaging people personally Determine number of interviewers and supervisors required Prepare Training Manuals Train interviewers and supervisors Consider the feasibility of gender and ethnic group matching Determine interviewer/supervisor remuneration (payment per interview, payment by day, or one-sum payment)

2.

Arrange Space to Conduct the Survey (survey Headquarters)

3.

Decide Survey Timing Time of year Day of week Time of day

4.

Design Control Forms To keep account of respondent contacts (questionnaires distributed, returned, etc) Record of personnel, daily progress of the survey, etc

5. 6.

Coding and Key Punching Determine Budget Key elements: Interviewer costs Other labour costs Professional staff Travel costs Printing costs Communication costs Travel costs Clerical supplies Computer time Publicity costs Stationery costs

7.

Arrange Methods to encourage Response Publicity, advance notice, incentives, follow-up efforts, verification procedures

8.

Data analysis and report writing Choice of statistical analysis programme Data analysis facilities (computers, printers, etc) Computer analyst (25 marks)

Q6. (a)

The student is expected to note that in most surveys, a device is needed to collect and record survey measurements in some systematic manner. This device is called a survey instrument (or a questionnaire). A definition of questionnaire is as follows: A questionnaire is a tool used

in the communication method of collecting data. It involves a set of well formulated and structured questions pertaining to a subject matter for respondents to respond to. Its development is an art that improves with practice and experience.

(5 marks) The student is expected to describe, with illustrative examples, the main points that should be considered in designing a structured questionnaire. The main points in designing a structured questionnaire are as follows:

Objectives of study Explain the purposes of the study, and the benefits that should follow stress the nonpersonal nature of the study, say, it is to provide statistics, not evidence for use in other ways An assurance should be made that the answer will be treated confidentially.

Obligation of Response A lot of people are not readily willing to answer questions or complete forms. i) If the completion of the form is voluntary, explain this, and solicit the co-operation of the respondents.

ii)

If the completion of the form is compulsory make this clear, state by what authority it is required and the penalties that will be incurred if it is not completed.

Simplicity Keep the questionnaire as short as possible. There is and inverse relationship between the length of a questionnaire, the rate of response to the survey. That is, the longer the questionnaire, the lower will be the response; the shorter the questionnaire, the higher will be the rate of response because few people enjoy completing forms or answering question. Experience has show that a good questionnaire should be such that a respondent can answer completely in a maximum of 30 minutes.

Keep each question short and if possible answerable by simple yes or no, or by a name or a figure. As far as possible devise a simple response, such as tick or a cross inserted in a particular box for each question. If people have to write something many hesitate to do so because they spell poorly or cannot writ e neatly.

Avoid over loaded question. Where a subjective opinion is being asked for, limit the possible responses. Thus a question like what did you think of the seminar on Women and Development would produce a mass of comment, some quiet lengthy perhaps. It could be rephrased to read: Underline one of the following four comments which best describes your opinion of the seminar on Women and Development: Excellent, Very good, good, fair, poor.

Avoidance of Sensitive Questions For example, a question like-what is your husbands name? assumes already that the respondent is married, which may be a wrong assumption. It may embarrass the respondent. When she feels that her prestige is involved, she may tell a lie by naming a man, when in actual fact, she may not have a husband. Whenever information on sensitive issues is needed: leave these questions until the end: assure the respondent that such information will remain completely confidential formulate the questions to reduce emotional response and embarrassment. For example, the question above could be broken into two: Q1. Do you have a husband? (If yes answer the following question)

Q2. What is the name of your husband? (It would also be helpful to assure the respondent that information will remain completely confidential).

Avoidance of Computations

Avoid questions that will necessitate computation by either the respondents or the interviewers. Some questions that involve a bit of simple computation cannot be avoided completely. For example, a question may be asked about annual income. A respondent may not know what he earns yearly but can give his grade, and /or take home pay and his industry or employer. Necessary computations can be made later.

Logical Sequence of Questions Sequencing of questions plays a major role in determining what answers we get from respondents.

Keep the sequence logical and natural to allow for free flow of thought. To achieve this, put down all relevant questions that one can think of about the topic and then rearrange them. Thus the following sets of questions are in the correct sequence: Q1. Are you married? Q2. How many children (if any) have you? Q3. Give the names, and date of birth, of each?

If the first question was asked the second, question 3 might well give offense. No question should give a clue to the answer of the subsequent question

Avoidance of Leading Questions Questions should not be phrased so as to suggest a particular answer. For example, during a period of mass unemployment, a manpower survey questionnaire may wrongly contain the following question: Are you unemployed because of the depression?

Ambiguity Questions should not be ambiguous, that is questions should not be capable of being misunderstood. Vague words such as large, small, or overweight should be avoided.

Non-technicality

Questions should not be very technical for the ordinary man.

Coding Prepare a coding frame, where possible, for handling the respondents answers. For example, for the question asked on Women and Development, we may prepare a coding frame such as the following: Q1: What is your opinion on the seminar on Women and Development?

Opinion Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor

Code 1 2 3 4 5

Instead of writing fair, the respondent simply circle 4.Coding makes the processing( whether manual or mechanical) of completed questionnaires easier in the latter stage and also saves time and space.

Clear Instructions: Give clear instructions on how the questionnaire on how the questionnaire is to be completed (Skip instructions).

Completeness: The questions should be adequate to obtain the information required That is: (i) must include all we need to know to meet the research objectives and answer the research questions. (ii) (iii) Reduce what is nice to know (i.e. O.K but not too relevant, and Avoid what is absolutely not necessary (i.e. irrelevant for the specific research issue at hand)

(20 marks)