DEPARTMENT OF PERIODONTOLOGY AND ORAL IMPLANTOLOGY SWAMI DEVI DYAL HOSPITAL AND DENTAL COLLEGE,BARWALA

SEMINAR ON

INFLAMMATION

Presented by :
Dr.Prabhjot Kaur

CONTENTS:
1. Introduction 2. Agents causing inflammation 3. Types of inflammation 4. Acute inflammation 5. Events in acute inflammation 6. Chemical mediators of inflammation 7. Inflammatory cells 8. Factors determining variation in inflammatory response 9. Morphology of acute inflammation 10.Systemic effects of acute inflammation 11.Fate of acute inflammation 12.Chronic inflammation 13.General features of chronic inflammation 14.Types of chronic inflammation 15.References

INTRODUCTION The word inflammation is derived from Latin word enflammare, which means the state of being inflamed. Inflammation is fundamentally a protective response whose ultimate goal is to get rid of the organism of both the initial cause of cell injury and consequences of such injury, the necrotic cells and tissue. Without inflammation infections would go unchecked, wounds would never heal and injured organs might remain permanent festering sore. However, inflammation and repair may be potentially harmful. It can be defined as local response of living mammalian tissues to injury due to any agent. Its bodys defense reaction in order to eliminate or limit spread of injurious agent. According to Robbins, its a protective response intended to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury as well as necrotic cells and tissues resulting from original insult. Inflammation is divided into acute and chronic patterns. Acute

inflammation is of relatively short duration lasting for minutes, several hours or a few days and its main characteristics are exudation of fluid and plasma proteins and emigration of leukocytes predominantly neutrophils. Chronic inflammation on other hand is of longer duration and is associated histologically with presence of lymphocytes and macrophages and with the proliferation of blood vessels and connective tissue.

AGENTS CAUSING INFLAMMATION: The agents leading to inflammation may be classified as ; 1) Physical agents like heat, cold, radiation, mechanical trauma. 2) Chemical agents like organic and inorganic poisons. 3) Infective agents like bacteria, viruses and their toxins. 4) Immunological agents like cell mediated and antigen antibody reactions. Inflammation involves 2 basic processes with some overlapping viz early inflammatory response and later followed by healing. Through both these processes generally have protective role against injurious agents they may cause considerable harm to the body as well.

TYPES OF INFLAMMATION:
Inflammation can be broadly classified as : A). acute inflammation b). sub acute inflammation c). chronic inflammation. ACUTE INFLAMMATION : The changes in acute inflammation can be conveniently described under 2 headings. I. II. Vascular events Cellular events

I. Vascular Events : Alteration in the microvasculature is the earliest response to tissue injury. These include ; a) Hemodynamic changes b) Changes in vascular permeability

Hemodynamic Changes : These results from changes in the vascular flow caliber of small blood vessels in injured tissue. The sequence is ; 1) Transient vasoconstriction of arterioles with mild form of injury. Blood flow is reestablished in 3-5 seconds while with more severe injury the vasoconstriction may last for about minutes. 2) Next follows persistent progressive vasodilatation which involves mainly the arterioles, the change is obvious with in half an hour of injury. Vasodilatation results in increased blood volume in microvascular beds of the area which is responsible for redness and warmth at the site of acute inflammation. 3) Progressive vasodilatation in turn elevate the local hydrostatic pressure resulting in transudation of fluid into the extracellular space. This leads to swelling at the local site of acute inflammation. 4) Slowing of stasis of microcirculation occurs and is attributed to increased permeability of microvasculature that result sin increased concentration of red cells and thus raised blood viscosity. 5) Stasis or slowing is followed by leucocytic margination or peripheral orientation of leucocytes mainly neutrophil along the vascular endothelium. The leucocytes stick to the vascular endothelium briefly and then move and migrate through the gaps between the endothelial cells into extravascular space. This process is known as emigration. The features of haemodynamic changes in inflammation are best demonstrated by the Lewis equipment by stroking inner aspect of forearm by a blunt point. The reaction so elicited is known as triple response or red line response consisting of ; 1) Red line : Appears in a few seconds from vasodilation of capillaries and venules. 2) Flare : Is the bright reddish appearance or flush surrounding the redline and results from vasodilatation of adjacent arterioles.

3) Wheal : Is the swelling or oedema of the surrounding skin occurring due to transduation of fluid into extravascular space. ALTERED VASCULAR PERMEABILITY : Pathogenesis : In and around the inflamed tissue there is accumulation of oedema fluid in the interstitial compartment which comes from blood plasma by its escape through the endothelial wall of peripheral vascular bed. In the initial stage, the escape of fluid is due to vasodilatation and consequent elevation in hydrostatic pressure. This is transudate in nature. (Filtrate of blood plasma without changes in endothelial permeability and is a character of non inflammatory edema). oedema, exudates But subsequently the characteristic inflammatory by increased vascular permeability of appears

microcirculation. The appearance of inflammatory oedema due to increased vascular permeability of microvascular bed is explained on the basis of Starlings hypothesis. In normal circumstances, the fluid balance is maintained by 2 opposing set of forces. 1) Forces that cause outward movement of fluid from microcirculation are intravascular hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure of interstitial fluid. Forces that causes inward movement of interstitial fluid into circulation are intravascular osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure of interstitial fluids. Whenever little fluid is left in the interstitial compartment is drained away by lymphatics and thus no oedema results normally. However in inflamed tissues, the endothelial lining of microvasculature becomes more leaky. Consequently intravascular osmotic pressure decreases and osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid increases resulting in excessive outward flow of fluid into the interstitial compartment which is exudative inflammatory oedema.

CELLULAR EVENTS : The cellular phase of inflammation consists of 2 processes. 1) Exudation of leucocytes 2) Phagocytosis 1) Exudation of Leucocytes : The escape of leucocytes from the lumen of microvasculature to the interstitial tissue is the most important feature of inflammatory response. In acute inflammation polymorphonuclear neutrophils comprise the first line of body defense, followed later by monocytes and macrophages. The changes leading to migration of leucocytes are as follows. 1) Changes in the formed elements of blood : Normal axial flow consists of central stream of cells comprises by leucocytes and RBC and peripheral cell free layer of plasma close to vessel wall. Due to slowing and stasis the central stream of cells widens and peripheral plasma zone becomes narrower because of loss of plasma by exudation. This phenomenon is known as margination. As a result of this redistribution, the neutrophils of the central column come close to the vessel wall, this is known as pavementing. 2) Adhesion or Rolling : Peripherally marginated and pavemented neutrophils stick briefly to the endothelial cells lining the vessel walls or roll over it. Injury leads to neutralization of the normal negative change on leucocytes and endothelial cells so as to cause adhesion. This phenomenon of loose and transient adhesion between endothelial cells and leucocytes and later tight adherence of the leucocytes and later tight adherence of the leucocytes to the vascular endothelium is brought about by 4 types of distinct adhesion molecules ; 1) Selectins 2) Adressins 7

3) Integrins 4) Immunoglobulin super family adhesion molecule 3) Emigration : After sticking of neutrophils endothelium, the former move along the endothelial surface and throw out cytoplasmic pseudopods. Subsequently the neutrophils lodged between the endothelial cells and basement membrane cross the basement membrane by damaging it locally with secreted collageases and escape out into extravascular space this is known as emigration.

4) Chemotaxis : The chemotactic factor mediated transmigration of leucocytes after crossing several barriers (endothelium, basement membrane, and matrix) to reach the interstitial tissue is called chemotaxis. The agents acting as potent chemotactic substances for different leucocytes called chemokines are as follows ; i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) Platelet factor 4 Components of complement system Cytokines Soluble bacterial products (such as formylated peptides). Chemotactic factor for CD4 + T cells Exotoxin chemotactic for eosinophils

In addition chemotactic agents also induce leucocyte activation that includes, the production of arachidonic acid metabolites. Degranulation and secretion of lysosomal enzymes generation of O2 metabolites, increased intracellular calcium and increase in leucocyte surface of adhesion molecules.

Phagocytosis : Is defined as the process of engulfment of solid particulate material by the cells (cell eating). The cells performing this function are called phagocytes. There are 2 main types of phagocytic cells. i) ii) PMNs which appear early in acute inflammatory response, also called microphages. Circulating monocytes and fixed mononuclear phagocytes called as macrophages. The process of phagocytosis is similar for both polymorphs and macrophages and involves the following 4 steps ; 1) Attachment stage (Opsonization) 2) Engulfment stage 3) Secretion (degranulation stage) 4) Killing or degradation stage 1) Attachment Stage : The phagocytic cells as well as microorganisms to be ingested have usually negatively charged surface and thus they repel each other. In order to establish a bond between bacteria and the cell membrane of phagocytic cell, the micro-organisms get coated with opsonins which are naturally occurring factors in serum. The two main opsonins present in serum and their corresponding receptors on the surface of phagocytic cells are IgG opsonin and C3b opsoin. 2) Engulfment Stage : The opsonised particle bound to the surface of the phagocyte is ready to be engulfed. This is accompanied by the formation of cytoplasmic pseudopods around the particle enveloping it in a phagocytic vacuole. Eventually the plasma membrane enclosing the pahgocytic vacuole breaks from the cell surface so that membrane lined phagocytic vacuole lies free in the cell

cytoplasm. The lysosomes of the cell fuse with the phagocytic vacuole and forms phagocytosome or phagosome. 3) Secretion (Degranulation) Stage : During this process the performed granule stored products of PMNs are discharged or secreted into the phagosome and the extracellular environment. In particular the specific or secondary granules of PMNs are discharged (eg. Lysosomes). While the azurophilic granules are fused with phagosomes besides the discharge of preformed granules, mononuclear phagocytes synthesis and secrete certain enzyme (eg. INL2 and 61 TNF). Arachidonic acid metabolites (Eg. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, Platelet activating factor) and O2 metabolites. 4) Killing or Degradation : Next comes the stage of killing and digestion of microorganism completing the role of phagocytes as scavenger cells. The microorganisms after being killed by antibacterial substances are degraded by hydrolytic enzymes. However this mechanism fails to kill and degrade some bacteria like tubercle bacilli. Mechanisms : 1) O2 dependent bactericidal mechanism. 2) O2 independent bactericidal mechanism 3) Nitric oxide mechanism CHEMICAL MEDIATORS OF INFLAMMATION : Also called as permeability factor or endogenous mediators of increased vascular permeability, these are a large and increasing number of endogenous compounds which can enhance vascular permeability. However currently many chemical mediators have been identified with partake in other processes of acute inflammation as well.

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The substance acting as chemical mediators of inflammation maybe released from the cells, the plasma or damaged tissue itself. They are broadly classified into 2 groups. 1) Mediators released by cells. 2) Mediators organization from plasma.

Chemical Mediators of Acute Inflammation : I. Cell derived 1. Vasoactive amines (Histaine, 5 hydroxy tryptamine). 2. Arachidonic acid metabolites. i) ii) Metabolites via cycloxygenase pathway (Prostaglandins, thromboxane A2, prostacyclin). Metabolites via lipoxygenase pathway (Leukotrienes) 3. Lysosomal components 4. Platelet activating factor 5. Cytokines (IL1, TNF-, TNF-, Chemokines). II. Plasma derived mediators (Plasma proteases). There are products of: 1) Kinin system 2) Clotting system 3) Fibrinolytic system 4) Complement system

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Chemical mediators involved in causing increased vascular permeability Source

Mast Cells Basophils, Platelets Cell derived Platelets Inflammatory cells Lysosomal enzymes Platelet activating factor Prostaglandins Leucotrienes Cytokines Nitric oxide and O2 metabollites Fibrin split products Kinin/bradykinin Anaphylaxis C3a, C4a, C5a

Mediator
Histamine Serotonin

Main action
permeability Permeability Tissue damage

permeability Vasodilation permeability Fever Tissue damage permeability permeability permeability

Plasma derived

Clotting and fibrinolytic system Kinin system Complement system

INFLAMMATORY CELLS : 1) Polymorphonuclear neutrophils (Neutrophils or polymorphs). Functions : A) B) C) Initial phagocytosis of microorganisms as they form first line of body defense in bacterial infection. Engulfment of antigen antibody complex and non microbial material. Harmful effect of neutrophils is destruction of basement membrane of glomeruli and small blood vessels. 2) Eosinophils : Contains a variety of enzymes of which the major basic protein and eosinophilic cationic protein are the most important granules which have bactericidal and toxic action. High levels of steroid hormones leads to fall in number of eosinophils and even disappearance from blood.

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Their increase occurs in following conditions and takes part in inflammatory reaction. 1) Allergic conditions 2) Parasitic conditions 3) Skin diseases 4) Certain malignant lymphomas

Basophils : In immediate and delayed type of hypersensitivity reaction and release of histamine by IgE sensitized basophils. Lymphocytes : Besides their role in antibody formation and in cell mediated immunity these cells participate in following inflammatory responses. 1) In tissues, they are dominant cells in chronic inflammation and late stage of acute inflammation. 2) In blood, their number is increased in chronic infectious like tuberculosis. Plasma Cells (Develops from lymphocytes) Most active in antibody synthesis. Their number is increased in 1) Prolonged infection with immunological responses. Rheumatoid arthritis and T.B. 2) Hypersensitivity states 3) Multiple myeloma Mononuclear Phagocyte Cells / Macrophages : Functions : 1) Phagocytosis and pinocytosis (cell drinking). Eg. Syphilis,

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2) These on activation by lymphokines or by non immunologic stimuli elaborate a variety of biologically active substances like proteases, plasminogen activator etc. FACTORS DETERMINING VARIATION IN INFLAMMATORY

RESPONSES : Although acute inflammation is typically characteristic by vascular and cellular events with emigration of neutrophils, not all are characteristic by same for Example, Typhoid fever is an example of acute inflammation but the cellular response in it is lymphatic. Morphologic variations in inflammation depends upon a number of factors and process. I. Factors Involving Organisms : 1) Type of injury and infection. Eg. Skin reacts to herpes by formation of vesicle. 2) Virulence of species. 3) Dose : Concentration of organism in small doses produces local infection. While larger dose results in more severe spreading infections. 4) Portal of entry : Some organisms are infective only if administered by particular route. Eg. Vibrio cholesal is not pathogenic if injected subcutaneously but cause cholera if swallowed. 5) Product of organism : Some produce enzyme that helps in spread of infection. Eg. Hyaluronidase Cl.welchi. II. Factors involving the host 1) General health of host poor health renders host more prone. 2) Immune state of host. 3) Leukaemia 4) Site or type of tissue involved 5) Local host factors Ischemia, Presence of foreign body chemicals cause necrosis and are harmful.

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III. Types of exudation : Serous : when fluid exudates resembles serum, or in watery. Eg. Pleural effusion in TB and blister formation in burns. Fibrinous : When fibrin content of the fluid exudates is high. Pneumococcal infections. Purulent or supportive exudates in formation of pus as seen in infection with pyogenic bacteria. Eg. Abscess. Haemorrhagic : When there is vascular damage. Eg. Acute hemorrhagic pneumonia in influenza. Catarrhal : When the surface inflammation of epithelium produces increased secretion of mucous. Eg. Common cold. IV. Cellular Proliferation : Variable cellular proliferation is seen in different types of inflammation. 1) No significant cellular proliferation in acute bacterial infections except in typhoid fever. 2) Viral infections have ability to stimulate cellular proliferation. Epidermal cell proliferation in herpes simplex. 3) Chronic inflammation cellular proliferation of macrophages, fibroblasts and endothelial cell occurs. Eg. Eg.

V. Necrosis : The extent and type of necrosis in inflammation is variable. In gas gangrene there is extensive necrosis with discolored and foul smelling tissues. In chronic inflammation such as TB, there is characteristic of caseous necrosis.

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MORPHOLOGY OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION : 1) Pseudomembraneous inflammation : Inflammatory response of mucous surface. As a result of denudation of epithelium, plasma exudes on surface, it coagulates forms false membrane that gives this type of inflammation its name. 2) Ulcer : Local defects on surface of organ by inflammation. 3) Suppuration : In which acute bacterial infection is accompanied by intense neutrophilic infiltrate in inflamed tissue it results in tissue necrosis. A cavity is formed (abscess) that contains purulent exudates. 4) Cellulitis : Is diffuse inflammation of the tissues resulting from spreading effects of substances like hyaluronidase released by some bacteria. SYSTEMIC EFFECTS OF ACUTE INFLAMMATION : 1) Fever : Occurs due to bacteremia mediated through prostaglandin IL-1, TNF. 2) Leucocytosis : Commonly accompanied the acute inflammatory reactions, usually of the range of 15,000 20,000/l. When counts are higher than this with shift to left of myeloid cells leukemoid reaction occur. 3) Lymphangitis : Lymphadenitis is one of the important manifestation of localized inflammatory injury. The lymphatics and lymph nodes that drain the inflamed tissue show reactive inflammatory changes in the form of lymphangitis and lymphadenitis. 4) Shock : May occur in several cases. Massive release of cytokines TNF, a mediator of inflammation in response to severe tissue injury or infection results in profuse systemic vasodilation, increased vascular permeability and intravascular volume loss and causes shock.

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Fate of Acute Inflammation : The acute inflammatory process can culminate in one of the following 4 outcomes. 1) Resolution 2) Healing by scarring 3) Progression to suppuration 4) Progression to chronic inflammation. Resolution: It means complete return to normal. This occurs when tissue changes are slight and the cellular changes are reversible. Eg. Resolution of lobar pneumonia. Healing by Scarring : This takes place when the tissue destruction in acute inflammation is extensive so that there is no tissue regeneration but actually there is healing by fibrosis. Suppuration : When the pyogenic bacteria causing acute, inflammation result in severe tissue necrosis, the process progresses to suppuration. Chronic Inflammation : The acute inflammation may progress to chronic inflammation. CHRONIC INFLAMMATION : Definition and Causes : Chronic inflammation is defined as prolonged process in which tissue destruction and inflammation occur at the same time. Chronic inflammation can be caused by one of the following 3 ways ; 1) Chronic inflammation following acute inflammation. Eg. Osteomyelitis, pneumonia. 2) Recurrent attacks of acute inflammation. Eg. Recurrent urinary tract infection leading to chronic pyelonephritis.

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3) Chronic inflammation starting denovo eg. Infection with mycobacterium TB. GENERAL FEATURES OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION : 1) Mononuclear Cell Infiltration : Chronic inflammatory lesions are infiltrated by mononuclear inflammatory cells like phagocytes and lymphoid cells. sometimes multinucleated giant cells. Phagocytes are

represented by circulating monocytes, tissue macrophages, epitheloid cells and Other chronic inflammatory cells include lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils and mast cells. The macrophages comprise with most important cells in chronic inflammation from ; a) Chemotactic factors for macrophages. b) Local proliferation of macrophages c) Longer survival of macrophages at the site of inflammation. 2) Tissue destruction or Necrosis : Are common in many chronic inflammatory lesions and are brought about by activated macrophages by release of a variety of biologically active substances. 3) Proliferative changes : As a result of necrosis, proliferation of small blood vessels and fibroblasts is stimulated resulting information of inflammatory granulation tissue. Eventually healing by fibrosis and collagen laying takes place. TYPES OF CHRONIC INFLAMMATION : Conventionally chronic inflammation is subdivided into 2 types ; 1) Non specific, 2) Specific

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Non-specific : When irritant substance produces a non specific chronic inflammatory reaction with formation of granulation tissue and healing by fibrosis. Eg. Chronic osteomyelitis, chronic ulcer. Specific : When the injurious agents causes a characteristic histologic tissue response. Eg. T.B., Leprosy, syphilis. However for more descriptive classification histologic features are used that are 2 types ; 1) Chronic non specific inflammation is characterized by nonspecific inflammatory cell infiltration. 2) Chronic granulomatous inflammation on characterized by formation of granulomas. sarcoidosis etc. Granuloma is defined as a circumscribed tiny lesions about 1 mm in diameter. Composed preaminonantly of collection of modified macrophages called epithelioid cells and rimmed at the periphery by lymphoid cells. Eg. Tuberculosis, leprosies, syphilis, actinomycosis,

REFERENCES : 1. General Pathology Robbins 2. Essentials of Oral Pathology Shafer and Hine, 4th Edition. 3. Pathology for Dental Students Harshmohan, 2nd Edition.

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