Master Program Environmental Engineering Surface Hydrology Summer Semester 2002/2003

Arbeitsbereich Wasserbau
Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. Pasche
Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Importance of Freshwater The quantity of water available to the Earth is constant, water is only flowing through different phases of the hydrologic cycle and its physical conditions are changing. The following changes are to be considered: - Arial and temporal changes of water quantity - Arial and temporal changes of water quality On the other side, the water demand is growing as a consequence of the following trends: continuous population growth (app. 6 billion people) increase of the specific water consumption due to the higher life quality increase of consumption by progressing global industrialisation. The consequence: from 1900 till now the domestic water consumption has grown more than 10 times. The water consumption for industry has almost doubled. Beside the withdrawal due to consumption, the water losses have been increased due to the irrigation and higher evaporation form water storage (1.800 km/a) As the water demand and its availability are not distributed evenly over time and area, it is necessary to transfer water and provide it for the following purposes.
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Surface Hydrology-Introduction
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Nourishment Industry Food Industry Energy source
1.2 Water cycle and Water balance Water cycle (also knows as the hydrologic cycle) is the idealised form of water movement and its recycling on the earth. Water is constantly being cycled between the atmosphere, the ocean and land. The power of the sun together with the gravitation is driving this cycle and is responsible for continuous changes of the physical conditions of water as well as . The water cycle is composed of the following processes: Evaporation from oceans and surface Advection of the water vapour Condensation and precipitation Back flow of the precipitation as surface and underground discharge Water balance equation is expressed as: N = A + V +/- DS Where is: N: A: V: DS: Mean precipitation height of the catchment area [mm] Mean discharge [mm] Evaporation [mm] Storage change in the catchment [mm]
Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.1.
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Figure 1.1 Hydrologic Cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)
1.3 Tasks of the Hydrology and Water Management Definition Hydrology is considered as a natural science because it is concerned with the class of natural phenomena governed by general laws. Hydrology is science that treats the waters on the Earth, their occurrence above, on and beneath the surface, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties and their reaction with the environment including their relation to living things. It is of essential importance to understand water circulation processes and interrelations between them, as well as our own impact on water use in order to achieve a sustainable balance between protecting ecosystems and meeting human needs As hydrology deals with those processes, is of the great importance for Water Resources Engineering and sustainable management. Definition Water Resources Engineering (Water Management) is the determined order of all human effects on the aboveground and underground water regarding quality, quantity and biology (DIN 4049). Water Resources Engineering deals with the water use by humans as well as with the water protection. Further, it can be divided into Qualitative and Quantitative WRE. This course predominantly deals with the Quantitative WER. The following tasks are to be considered in the Water Management:
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monitoring of quantity and quality of the water yearbooks water quality reports setting up statistics derivation of calculation parameters estimation of frequency
forecasting of discharge water level and quality to the purpose of the flood protection and the risk estimation by regression analyses by process modelling
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Management of Reservoirs for the water supply to the flood protection and for power production Assessment of the available water Design of the reservoirs Presentation of case scenarios Operation and monitoring the of the systems using graphical tools (cumulative line method or mathematical models e.g. rainfall runoff models) Storm water management on spot and streets runoff
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determination of the discharges parameters setting up drainage concepts monitoring and operation of drainage mechanisms
Integral approach in river basin management. Additionally, setting up water saving concepts, in which the water use is regulated, e.g.: quantity and quality of the wastewater discharge water withdrawals flood protection measures definition of official and natural flood areas (boundaries) agricultural use of water depending on type and extent of use usage of pesticide and nitrates in agriculture irrigation setting up the concepts for erosion protection of surfaces and water courses Generally, different managerial tools are used for setting up the concepts in river basin management (e.g. river basin models, material transfer models).
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1.4 Importance of modelling in Water Management In order to accomplish the tasks of Water Management described in the section 1.3, mathematical models are widely used. One differentiates between stochastic models (inductive) ,that only take into account the random aspect of natural phenomena and deterministic models (deductive) that assume that all physical, chemical, and biological parameters of a watershed are known. They can be further subdivided according to their characteristics (STDTER): Block model: input and output values are determined only by measuring data and expressed in mathematical algorithms. Detailed model: based on the physical interrelations between initial conditions and output values.(e.g. rainfall runoff models). Unstructured model: Catchment are is not divided into subcatchments. Structured model: Catchment area is divided into subcatchments. Output parameters are calculated separately for each of those subcatchment. Short term model: the simulation of rainfall runoff processes is limited to flood simulation. Long term simulation: Rainfall runoff model are conceptualised for the calculation over longer period (water balance models, low water models) The above mentioned models are used in Water Management in order to solve the following problems: a) Rainfall runoff model (short term simulation) design of dams and flood control storage (retention basins) b) Operational models (block model, water balance model) Intake for potable water from retention basins Intake from rivers Optimisation of operation of a dam c) Long term simulation model (continuity models, water balance models) those models describe the overall water balance of a selected catchment. They are suitable for the following tasks: low-water analysis high- water analysis change of the water regime by groundwater use
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change of the water regime by agriculture (sealing of the surfaces) effects of the retention and climate changes on the discharge in the waters
Beside the quantitative models, the mass transfer models are also used. They quantify the mass flux through the water body. One differentiates: - erosion models: - mass transport models: - hydromorphological models: calculate the planar agricultural area. soil erosion, e.g. on
calculate diffusive nitrate and phosphorus mass transport in the catchment area calculate sediment transport in a water body.
Those models are used in order to quantify the impact of the diffuse mass transport to the waters and to assess the effectiveness of the applied sanitation measures. This course predominantly deals with the rainfall runoff models, their scope of application, and especially their contribution to efficient flood management as well as their applicability for the low water calculations. Regarding flood management, the following tasks are to be considered by Water Resources Authorities: Securing Flood Protection in Urban Areas No increase of peak flood flow Preservation o flow capacity Determination of inundation areas Resistance to flooding Modern flood management implies Landuse and River Management and favours natural retention against technical flood protection In order to achieve high level of flood protection, it is necessary to have reliable and thorough hydrologic data.
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Determination of flood probability Determination of flow from storm water network Determination of flood stages Determination of inundation areas
Better understanding of flood management measures for:

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Efficiency of retention measures in watershed area Unpavement of sealed urban areas Retention by detention ponds Extensive use of arable land Efficiency of retention measures along the river Restoration of natural rivers Restoration of natural flood plains Flood retention reservoirs
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Chapter 2- Hydrologic Cycle
2.1 General considerations
The hydrologic cycle is the most fundamental principle of hydrology. It is the idealised form of water circulation and its recycling on earth. Water cycle is continuous process by which water is transported from the oceans to the atmosphere to land and back to the sea. Because the total quantity of water available to the earth is finite, hydrologic system can be looked upon as closed. In that system, the processes, such as, evaporation, advection of the water vapour, formation of precipitation and back flow as surface and groundwater discharge, are in equilibrium. This is expressed in the following balance equation: N = A + V +/- DS Where is: N: A: V: DS: average height of precipitation in the catchment [mm] average height of runoff (discharge) [mm] Evaporation [mm] changes of storage in the catchment [mm]
Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 2.1.
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Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle
Figure 2.1 Hydrologic cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)
The concept, that the water cycle is a closed system, is the simplification of the real processes in the nature. The hydrologic cycle is made up of many different factors, as a result, it can become quite complicated when trying to analyse the relationships between those factors. A complete mathematical description of the hydrological processes is one of the most difficult tasks in engineering and natural sciences and has not been completely solved yet. It comprises the setting up of a integral model system, in which the components such as global climate model, surface runoff model and groundwater model of saturated and unsaturated soil layers are coupled together. Considering the fact, that in each of those model components, there are still unexplained physical processes and lots of natural processes are the small-scale ones, this simplification of the hydrologic cycle becomes reasonable. Further, a closed mathematical model that describes the water cycle is set and it is composed of relevant physical processes in the nature. The processes over the see surface are not considered. Furthermore, processes like vapour advection or condensation are also excluded. Those phenomena are meteorological and their simulation in Hydrology is not of great importance. But, the important for this simulation is temporal and arial distribution of the precipitation over the surface. This information is provided by the weather service or any other meteorological institution. Finally, considering those modifications and simplification of the real system, one can distinguish the following processes relevant for the simulation in hydrology: They are listed in Table 1.
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Table 1. Processes of the Hydrologic Cycle
Rainfall formation Surface layer Snow storage/ ablation, Interception Surface discharge Infiltration Transpiration and Evaporation Unsaturated soil layer (zone of aeration) Soil/ groundwater storage Interflow/groundwater seepage Percolation (Groundwater recharge) Groundwater discharge Basic flow Flood wave Horizontal process Horizontal process Vertical processes Horizontal process Vertical processes
Saturated soil layer Water course
As it is shown in the Table above, one can distinguish two types of processes: horizontal and vertical. 2.2 Precipitation (rainfall)
During the precipitation event, 2 types of processes are predominantly occurring over the surface. Concerning the state of water one can distinguish the following forms of precipitation. They are given in Table 2.
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Table 2. Different forms of Precipitation
Type of formation
Form liquid solid
Direct condensation or sublimation in the atmosphere ( precipitation from clouds, rainfall)
Drizzle Snow (drops cca 0,5mm) Snow grains Snow pellets Rainfall Graupel Hail (1-6 mm) Hail (ice balls size 5-50mm) Ice needles(1.5mm) Dew Frost Hoar Glazed frost
Indirect condensation or sublimation of water vapour close to the surface ( precipitation as condensation)
In comparison to the other meteorological parameters such as temperature or solar radiation that are relatively constant, precipitation often varies in space and time. Convective precipitation is the most heterogeneous and is typical of the tropics. It is formed when the air is heated near ground which then expands and rises. It cools as rises and becomes saturated. An example is a summer thunderstorm, that is very intensive and limited in space (they appear locally). Cyclonic precipitation is considered as long-lasting precipitation It is formed when cold air mass meets warm air mass. Warm air is less dense and is forced upward resulting in cooling and precipitation. Cyclonic precipitation can be classified as frontal and non frontal. Cold advancing fronts move fast bringing intense localised storms. Warm advancing fronts move more slowly creating disperse and less intense precipitation. Those kind of precipitation are evenly distributed in space. In case of the cold front, the area under the precipitation event reaches 150 km and in case of warm front 650 km. Orographic precipitation, is formed by mechanical lifting of moist air over natural barriers such as mountain ranges. It has different intensity and prolongation, depending on the changes in topography. One can distinguish the following intensity grades and respectively the type of the precipitation:
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Intensity in in < 2,5 mm/h 2,5 < in < 7,5 7,5< in
Description Poor rain Moderate rain Heavy rain
According to the weather service Offenbach, one rain is considered to be heavy if the following condition is fulfilled:
N 5 t - ( t / 24)2
Where is: N = rainfall height in mm t = duration of the rainfall event in min There is a very important dependence between the intensity and duration of a precipitation event. The shorter duration of the precipitation event, the more intensive it is. Contrary, long lasting rainfall has very low intensity. In order to determine the spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall, the network of gauging station is established. However, they provide only information about the height of precipitation at fixed points. In order to achieve accurate estimation of the spatial distribution of rainfall, it is necessary to use interpolation methods, for example, the Thiessen* method that is considered as the most important in engineering praxis. THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD assigns weight of station proportional to representative polygon area analogically to Delauny- Triangolation. The method implies the following steps: 1. points are plotted on map 2. adjoining stations are connected with the lines 3. perpendicular bisectors on lines are constructed 4. polygon formed by bisectors gives area (planimeter) are associated with central location 5. rainfall value for gauge is multiplied by area 6. all values from (5) are summed and divided by total basin area An example of spatial precipitation distribution according to Theissen method can be appreciated in Figure 2.1.
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Figure 2.2 Tyssen method
Another example of Thiesssen method is given in Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3 example of Thiessen method

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Although widely used in engineering praxis, this method has its shortcomings. In order to overcome them, more accurate methods are used, in which the whole are is rastered and each of those rasters is calculated according to the quadrant method. For each of the four quadrants is the nearest gauging station determined and the precipitation at the raster point is weighted according to the following relation:
hNj = w ij hNi
i =1 4
where is: w ij = weight of the gauge station regarding the raster point j
hNj = precipitation height at the raster point j
hNi = measured precipitation heights at the gauging station i
In order to achieve a homogenous field, it is necessary to calculate the weight w ij as spatial distance according to the following formula:
w ij = 1 di
i =1
di
If the weather conditions differ considerably between gauging station and raster point (e.g. river, mountains) or there are significant topographic changes between them, it is necessary to consider those differences using correction parameters and applying one of the convenient methods (e.g. Kringing-method). Still in the testing phase, are the methods that measure arial and temporal precipitation continuum e.g. precipitation radar. Finally, DWD weather forecast service of Germany and Europe provide with the information about the area with the rainfall for 48 hours in advance. The quantitative distribution of this forecast quality value is, however, interesting only for water management purposes. 2.3 Interception
Precipitation that is falling on the surface , is partly retained by the canopy. This storage of water above the ground surface, mostly in vegetation is called interception. First of all, the leaves are becoming wet as fine drops are collecting on their surface and in the end, the intercepted water is drained from the leaves. The intercepted water can be drained in different ways. It can drip down from the leaves or can be drained along the stem of the plant. Parallel to this drainage process, part of the intercepted
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water is returning back to the atmosphere (interception evaporation). In the beginning this process is not intensive. Before the precipitation really reaches the ground, it is further partly retained by near ground plants and leaves. This process is similar to the interception of bigger vegetation species. Interception plays an important role in the calculation of water balances in hydrology. Almost one third of the precipitation can be retained as interception and than evaporate. The storage capacity and consequently the interception capacity, heavily depends on the vegetation cover. The most important vegetation parameters that shape the interception are specific area under vegetation cover, lifestage of the plants and the characteristics of the land. Interception is highly seasonal dependent (seasonal landuse). For the maximal interception capacity, the following values are considered : Deciduous without leaves with leaves till 1mm till 2mm till 9mm
Conifers
For the calculation purposes of accurate mathematical models, three main components of canopy interception can be identified 1. throughfall 2. stemflow 3. canopy storage that part of the precipitation that doesn't reach the ground, because it evaporates from the canopy (canopy interception loss- e.g. MEUSER, 1989) and from near-ground plants and leaf (interception loss) or, to a lesser extent, is absorbed by plants. Under still conditions throughfall and stemflow do not begin until the storage capacity of the canopy is completely full. Once storage capacity is exceeded, then additional water made available cannot be retained, and gravitational effects prevail. Under windy conditions the branches are shaken and drip (throughfall) is enhanced. This renders the mass of water storage variable. After the gust of wind there is some additional storage capacity available, so the drip rate decreases temporarily. The main processes related to interception are given in Figure 2.4.
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Figure 2.4 Downward losses
Where Pa Actual precipitation TF Throughfall SF - Stemflow IInterception E - Evaporation Since the necessary data for this differential approach is usually not available, Interception loss is usually calculated according to the treshhold value method. In this method, the whole vegetation cover is considered as a storage and the following continuity equation is obtained:
dIc ( t ) ' = in ( t ) - ETa ( t ) - in ( t ) dt
Where is: Ic ( t )
' in ( t ) ETa ( t ) in ( t )
= actual content of the interception storage
mm
= intensity of the precipitation on the soil mm/h = actual evapotranspiration rate from the interception storage mm/h = intensity of the rainfall that reaches soil mm/h
2.4
Snow-hydrological processes
The snow is a form of precipitation and it is formed if the air in a cloud is below freezing. The longer temperature stays below zero (expressed as mean daily temperature), the thicker the snow cover is(accumulation phase). If the temperature rises over freezing point, warm air compresses the snow cover and increases its compactness. It is about the same effect that is caused by rain.
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Maximal compactness is achieved (cca 45%), if it is not possible to increase density of the snowpack any more. The excessive amount of water, in form of thawed snow, penetrates the ground (ablation). When the temperatures are above zero and there is no snow cover, the rainfall reaches the groundwater storage without time delay. Those snow melt processes can be mathematically described by the Snow-Compaction-Method. This method is based on the physical processes during the snow melting, while the water loss through the evaporation is neglected as the order of those values is too small (0,1 -0,8 mm/d). In this method, the influence of wind speed, humidity and temperature corrections, depending on the elevation is considered through averaged parameters.
2.4.1 Accumulation
The increase in the snow depth Dl occurs when the precipitation occurs by the temperatures below zero. As temperature values, the mean daily temperatures are considered. The snow depth resulting from the precipitation is calculated by the absolute amount of precipitation and the water content of snow according to the following equation:
Dl( t ) = P( t ) W A / 100
where is: P(t) : precipitation [mm] and WA : Initial water content in snow [%].
2.4.2 Compression
The compression of the snowpack occurs when the temperatures are above zero. It is assumed that the melt rate and free water from precipitation cause the compression (i.e. reduction of the snow height) and higher compactness. Procentual height reduction of the snowpack can be calculated according to the following empirical equation (BERTLE, 1966):
PD = 147,4 - 0,4774 PW
where is: PD : snow height in % of the initial height [%] and PW : accumulated water of the water equivalent of the dry snow (initial water content) [%]. Considering the above mentioned relation, the compaction Dh is calculated as following:
Dh = h A PD / 100 = h A 1/ 100 (147,4 - 0,474 PW )
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where is: hA Dh : initial snow height [mm] and : compression of the snow pack [mm].
The indication of accumulated water PW requires the estimation of the potential snow melt rate. It can be quantified according to the Temperature-Factor-Method. In this method, the snow melt rate is divided into the temperature dependent and the temperature independent part. The temperature dependent part is proportional to air temperature and the temperature independent part is represented by a constant. This constant is to be estimated based on the average rates of the absorption of the snow pack ,wind speed, relative humidity and the cloudiness. Further, it is necessary to consider the heat flux that reaches the snow cover by precipitation. This dependencies is shown in the following equation(MEUSER 1989)
i s ( t ) = a u + a T T( t ) + 0,0125 iP ( t ) T( t )
where is: is au aT : potential snow melt rate [mm/h],
: temperature independent melt rate [mm/h], : temperature dependent melt rate [mm/h/oC], with the plausibility area [mm/h/oC], T : positive air temperature (Consideration: precipitation temperature is equivalent to the air temperature) [oC] and iP(t) : precipitation intensity [mm/h]. Accumulated snow water content PW is dependent on the snow melt rate, according to the following equation:
PW (t) = W ( t ) + P( t ) Wr (t )
where is: W(t) = absolute water content in the snow pack [mm], Dt = time between the simulations [h] and Wr ( t ) = W ( t ) - i s ( t ) Dt Wr(t) = water content reduced by portion of melted snow
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2.4.3
Ablation
Snow ablation usually refers to removal by melting. Water removal out of a snowpack occurs if compactness Pw(t) is higher that maximal compactness Pmax of a snowpack. This water removal can be calculated as following:
i A ( t ) = ( W ( t ) - h Pmax / 100) / Dt ,
falls W ( t ) > h Pmax
where is: iA : water removal in [mm/h], Pmax : maximal snow compactness [%] (i.d.R. 45%) and H : snow depth [mm]. This amount of water that is removed from the snowpack is used as output load for the soil water. For example, if the snow depth is 0 and the temperature is above 0, there is no storage in snow storage. 2.5 Evapotranspiration
The physics of the evaporation process is based on the process of providing sufficient energy for breaking the bonds between water molecules. Supplying the system with heat, causes water molecules to become increasingly moveable which results in increase in distance between them. The higher temperature is ,the more water molecules escape the surface into the lower layers of the air. The physical cause for this phenomenon is Brownian movement. Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous state. For changing the aggregate state from liquid to gaseous, it is necessary to provide higher amount of energy (2450 J/g) then for the melting process (340 J/g). There are two processes considered for evapotranspiration: evaporation and transpiration. Evaporation is loss of water from a wet surface through its conversation into its gaseous state. Surface can be bare soil (soil evaporation), open water (including river, lakes and oceans) or intercepted water held upon plant surfaces (interception evaporation). Transpiration comprises water taken up by plants from soil which is then moved up to leaves and lost through biological processes in vegetation (DIN 4049,1994). The sum of soil, interception and open water evaporation and transpiration is called evapotranspiration.
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One should distinguish between maximal(potential) and actual evapotranspiration. Maximal (potential) evapotranspiration ETp is by definition the rate of evapotranspiration from an extended surface of an 8 - 15 cm tall green grass cover, actually growing, completely shading the ground and not short of water (DIN 4049,1994). This maximal evapotranspiation is also called reference evapotranspiation.
The actual evapotranspiration ETa is by definition the rate of the evapotranspiration from a surface under field conditions and with limited water supply. Under those conditions, the actual evapotranspiration is much less then the potential, especially if the soil water storage capacity is limited. In order to illustrate the ratio and the contribution of the above mentioned processes, an example for Germany is given. The evaporation of free water bodies is 2.2%, Interception 16.0% and transpiration 72,6% of the total evapotranspiration. According to KELLER,1979 the amount of total evapotranspiration to the amount of precipitation is 64%. At the global scale, evapotranspiraton and precipitation are principal elements of the hydrologic cycle. Rate of evapotranspiration depends on the different parameters (arial and temporal variable). Those parameters are defined considering atmosphere, soil and type of vegetation cover. While it is possible to assess accurately those parameters for open water and atmosphere, it is very difficult to quantify forces in soil and vegetation cover. In soil, for example, they depend on radius in capillaries and in vegetation, this process is regulated through small pores on the leaves (stomata). Soil, plant and atmosphere form parts of a continuos flow in which water moves at varying rates. In soil, water moves under the influence of moisture gradient toward the roots of the plant. It is then absorbed and travels up the plant stem to the plant leaves from where it is finally vaporised. Plants can control transpiration by varying the opening of stomata. In that way they can prevent dehydration.
2.5.1 Methods to determine evapotranspiration
Despite the crucial importance of evapotranspiration in hydrological cycle, it is very difficult to measure it and quantify. In order to assess evapotranspiration, the following methods are applied: - direct methods - indirect methods
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- computational methods Direct measuring of evapotranspiration is not possible, as such a method has to manage turbulent mass transport of water vapour, which technically has not been solved yet. Measuring techniques, such as evaporimeter, are although considered as direct methods, can give only reference values. In this method, evapotranspiration is calculated from water balance equation, where the other elements (variables) of the equation are measured. Indirect methods are based on the interrelation between directly measured meteorological parameters and water vapour transport or heat flow of the evaporation process in air layer close to the surface. As the measuring methods that are mentioned above are very complex, computational methods, are developed. Computational methods calculate evapotranspiration using energy budget equation and aerodynamic principles.
2.5.1.1 Direct Measuring
The results obtained by the instruments for direct measuring of evapotranspiraton (Evaporimeter) do not coincide with the real potential or actual values as those results depend on the type of the instrument and local conditions (place the equipment is located). It is however possible to calculate reference values using correction factors and formulas. There are two types of instruments - atmometer - atmograph Atmometer: with daily readout and atmograph with continual registration are equipped with standardised glass cylinder (PICHE atmometer) with inner diameter of 11mm and outer of 14mm. This atmometer uses a filter paper disc or fleece paper as the evaporating element. It is pressed against the bottom opening on the device with a spring clip. The amount of water evaporated through the paper is read at the graduated tube reservoir (in ml) and this value is to be corrected as a function of the filter paper size. Due to the different physical conditions the rate of evaporation of the PICHE evaporimeter is higher than actual evaporation of free water or bare soil surface. Therefore this conversion is necessary. Evaporation pans Evaporation pans are open vessels, that are filled with water. Because of its simplicity it is probably the instrument used most widely to estimate potential evaporation. The
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values for water loss obtained for an evaporation pan are used as reference values for water bodies or potential evapotranspiration (ET0). Although this method is very simple and widely used it has shortcomings which are to be considered. The evaporation from a pan can differ significantly from that from an adjacent water body or land covered with vegetation. Therefore it is necessary to accommodate these differences using empirical pan coefficients. Those coefficients vary significantly with siting and pan design as well as with climatic factors. The most widely used instrument is Class-A-Pan introduced by U.S. Weather Bureau. It consists of the following parts: - cylindrical container with inner diameter of 1.207mm and 255mm depth placed on a slatted wooden frame so that the top rim is about 10cm from the ground. - mechanism for reading off the water level - swimming minimum/maximum thermometer - instrument for wind speed measuring (anemometer), 50cm over the ground - rain gage Raft evaporation tanks The methods that are explained so far, give us reference or approximate values of evaporation over land. The measurement of the evaporation over free water is done using raft constructions, which serve as carriers for one or more evaporation tanks immersed into the water. Those tanks are of different size, between 0.2 m and 3 min area, and 40-60cm deep. As material brass tank with copper bottom, white-enamelled or with silver, bronze painted sheet iron, is used. The results obtained during those measurements should also been corrected. This correction is between 3-5% Lysimeter Lysimeter is an instrument for determination of the water balance of a soil volume, with known dimensions, characteristics and vegetation growing on it. One differentiates between weighing and non weighing lysimeters. In case of weighing lysimeters, which measure the weight in regular time intervals (e.g. daily), the change in water storage is determined by weight difference: W = (WE - WA) Further, the equation for the actual evaporation (Eta) in function of drainage from the soil volume (SW) and precipitation (p in 1m height) is derived from water balance equation:
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ETa =
P - SW - DW Dt
Not weighing lysimeter(drainage gauges-measurers) are suitable for determination of the average values of evaporation over a longer period of years, calculated as a difference between precipitation and drainage, as in this case the water content of the soil is balanced and it is not necessary to measure it. When using big lysimeters e.g. drainage gaugers in the forest area, it is necessary to provide the natural conditions in the vessel. It is achieved by filling the lysimeter with soil in layers as they are stratified in the natural compression. Determination of water content in the soil Evaporation of bare soil, if the groundwater is far enough from the sample area, can be determined by termin measurements of water content in soil W. There is a variety of practical methods for those measurements of soil moisture, from which the following ones are most widely in use: 1. gravimertical methods: soil sample is extracted and in the water content is determinated in the lab by measuring and drying the sample. When converting the water content into soil moisture value, the compaction of the soil layers is to be considered. Shortcoming of this method is contained in the fact that the natural soil profile is disturbed (disrupted). The following methods are overcoming this deficiency. 2. tensiometer this device measures the pressure potential or matrix potential of the at various depths. This is the force with which water is held in the soil. Pressure potential or tension (which is the positive value of pressure potential) is a measure of this force. It is then possible to express the soil moisture based on the curve water pressurewater content (pF-Curve). 3. neutron scattering in this method, the gradient of deceleration of neutrons is measured. This deceleration of neutrons in proportional to the soil moisture. 4. Time-Domain-Reflectometry (TDR)- Method TDR measures the propagation of an electromagnetic pulse along the transmission lines (wave guides). By measuring the travel time, the velocity and hence the apparent dielectric constant of the soil can be estimated. This then allows the water content of the soil to be determined. This method is limited only to loose rocks. In
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order to determinate the evaporation of the soil, it is necessary to consider following cases: If the horizon between increasing water percolation and drainage in deeper soil layers (watershed) is below the soil root layer, the evaporation can be determined according to the following equation:
ETa = P - DW Dt
If the water shed is in the root layer, the plants take up a certain amount of water as well as a part of ground water discharge Therefore, total evaporation can be calculated according to the following formula:
ETa = P - (DWo + DWu ) - SW Dt
where:
Wo: change in water content above the watershed Wu: change in water content below the watershed
In order to determine SW it is necessary to determine permeability of an unsaturated soil layer and afterwards the drainage(infiltration) according to Darcy law. 5. Turbulence-Correlation method (Eddy Flux) Near the surface, turbulent eddies within the body of the moving air cause movements of the evaporated water. Vertical movement of water vapour can be calculated from the temporal averaging of the products of the fluctuations. For determination of the fluctuations, different measuring instruments are used (e.g. ultrasonic anemometer for wind velocity, LYMAN alpha or infrared hygrometer for humidity.
2.5.1.2 Indirect methods
- gradient measurements in the near the surface air layer The assumption for this method is that evaporation causes horizontal and vertical turbulent exchange. It causes the flow of water vapour, heat and impuls and can be calculated applying diffusion equation. 6. Energy Balance (Budget) Method According to this method, it is possible to calculate evaporation as
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-LE = Rn + G + H where: LE = latent heat flux out Rn = Solar energy G = sensible heat flux into ground (QW) H = sensible heat flux Evaporation height(E) can be calculated as : E = LE / L L = specific heat flux (245 J/cm/mm at 20 C atmosf. temperature) The individual components of the energy balance equation are determined by the following measuring methods: 7. Solar radiation It is measured directly by special radiation balance measures with range of 1,52,0m. Those devices measure the difference between upwards and downwards oriented radiation from short and long wave radiation. Alternatively, radiation can be determined as a difference between other wave lengths. Measurements with pyranometer (Global radiation) Shortwave solar radiation and sky (diffuse) radiation is detected on the horisontal sensor surface with the termosensitive element. Alternatively, it is possible to measure relative sunshine duration S/S0, where the sunshine duration is registered by the instrument called sushine autograph. It consists of a glass bowl with special effect, so that the sunshine is registered on the adhesive tape. - Heat Flux G It is determined with so called Heat Flux Plates under closed conditions, or by the gradients of the soil temperature applying the heat conduction equation. - - perceptible heat flow with application of the fluctuation method, wind and temperature components under dissolution of their turbulent fluctuation sizes are measured and set in correlation to the perceptible heat flow.
2.5.1.3 Calculation of evaporation
The following methods are considered:

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- Aerodynamic method (Dalton-process) - Energy balance methods - Combination of the above mentioned processes
2.5.2 Determination of potential evapotranspiration of an area with vegetation cover
In most cases, only total evaporation from an area plus transpiration (from vegetation) is of real interest. Penman- Monteith Model is a method that combines energy budget and mass transport for determining the evapotranspiration. It assumes that the heat flux into and out of the soil is small enough to be neglected and that the plants are taking the whole available energy for evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is limited by two antagonistic conditions: regarding small pores on leaves-stomata and aerodinamic conditions. If those conditions are known, it is possible to determine potential evapotranspiration ET0 according to DVWK, booklet 238 as grass reference evapotranspiration according to FAO-Standard:
RN - G 3,75 +g V2 (e s (T ) - e ) L T + 273 ET0 = s + g (1 + 0,34 V2 ) s
with the following terms (according to DVWK-bulletin 238/1996): ET0 s RN G L T V2 g mm hPa/K W

m2 W m2
Grass-/Reference evapotranspiration (FAO-Standard) Slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve for water Net solar radiation Heat flux between soil and atmosphere Heat required for evaporation of 1mm water Air temperature Wind speed, at 2m above the ground Psychrometric constant (= 0,65 hPa/K)
C m s hPa K
With the following consideration: L = (249,8 - 0,242 *T) [J / (cm ( mm)]
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In this equation, G can be neglected and g is a constant (g = 0,655 [hPa/K]). Therefore, the equation for saturation vapour pressure eS(T) gives:
e s (T ) =
7,48T 6,11 10 273 + T
Further, it allows the slope of the saturation vapour pressure curve for water to be calculated as follows:
s = e S (T ) 4284
(243,12 + T )2
Net solar radiation RN can be calculated as follows:

S 4 0,34 - 0,044 e 0,5 R N = (1 - a ) RG - V (T + 273,15 ) 0,1 + 0,9 S0
where is V = 0,49 ( 10-6 [(J : cm k4)] Joule Stefan-Bolzmann-Constant g a S S0 RG R0 z j diml. h h W

m2 W m2 diml. Grad
m 2K 4
Albedo for grass and agricultural used land Sunshine duration Astronomic possible sunshine duration Global solar radiation Extraterrestrial radiation Function considering the selected day in year Latitude
Where the global radiation is calculated in the following way:

S . 0,34 - 0,044 e 0,5 R G = R 0 0,19 + 0,55 S0
If the measurements of solar radiation are available, it is possible to use it directly in the following way:
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S R G = R 0 0,19 + 0,55 S0 Extraterrestrial radiation can be calculated as follows:
R0 = 245 [9,9 + 7,08 sinz + 0,18 (j-51) (sinz-1)] Where z is function that considers the day in year JT = z = 0,0172 JT - 1,39 If there is no available measuring data for sunshine duration, it is possible to calculate it according to the following formula:
R S = S 0 1,82 G - 0,35 with S = 0 for S < 0 R0
Finally, it is necessary to determine the astronomic possible duration of sunshine. It can be done according to the following equation:
j - 51 S 0 = 12,3 + sin V 4,3 + 6
This theoretical analysis clearly shows that , just by measuring air temperature, sunshine duration, wind speed and relative moisture as daily values it is possible to determine evapotranspiration. The calculated value for reference evapotranspiration ET0 is corrected with the correction factor Kc and converted into canopy specific potential (reference) evapotranspiration ETpfl. ETpfl = Kc ET0 Factor Kc can be found in Table 6.2 in DVWK-bulletin 238/1996. In order to consider forest conditions additional correction factor for higher values of interception evaporation of 1,1 is considered. (see DVWK-bulletin 238/1996). Additionally, it is necessary to set the rooting depth as deep or shallow, depending on the age and type of forest. The important difference between the evaporation from open water and from vegetation covers is that in open water it is not determinated by the water regime of the plants. However, the heat transport occurs also in water body and has to be considered for the balance equation. The evaporation from open water can be determinated according to Daltons law. Basic formula for this procedure is:
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EW = f(v) (es(Tw0) - e)
in [mm/d]
Where is TW0 [C] the temperature of water surface and f(v) wind function expressed in the following way: f(v) = a + b vc Constants a and b (according to Richter, see DVWK-bulletin 238/1996) are calculated depending on the wind speed. Temperature of the water surface is rarely measured. It is usually calculated as a function of the of the measured mean air temperatures T [C] in the following way: TW0 = p T* + q (for the period without ice April - December) Where is:
1 n +m T = T (n+m) n+m 1 and T* [C] mean at temperature of the day n and number of days before the day nm, that is calculated as follows: m = 1,04 z + 4,0
*
and depends on the water depth z [m] For winter months January till March it can be calculated as: TW0 = 0,98 T* - 0,12 where m is set to constant = 10 Finally, T* is given as follows:
1 1+11 T = T (11) 11 1 Empirical constants p and q can be found in the Table 5.2 of DVWK-bulletin 238/1996
*
2.5.3
Determination of the actual evapotranspiration
The potential evaporation of the vegetation cover ETpfl and the soil water tension ( reduction of soil moisture in root layer) is to be considered. WENDLING proposes the following balance equation
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EVA = P(t) - (P(t) - ETpfl) Ri Where is: P(t) Ri mm diml. Precipitation Reduction function
Reduction factor Ri is calculated as follows:

WP WE ETP BF( t ) Ri = + 0,1 WP WE ETpfl 1FK WE 1-
Where is: WP WE BF(t) FK

ETP
% dm mm % mm/d
Mean wilting point in effective root layer Effective root depth Soil moisture in the effective root layer in period t Mean field capacity in the effective root layer Mean long-term value of ETpfl in the vegetation period
Further, according to WENDLING (DVWK-bulletin283/196) it gives: Ri = 1, P(t) > ETpfl Ri = 1, Ri > 1,0 Ri = 0, Ri > 0,0
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Chapter 3- Modelling of the soil moisture regime
3.1 Hydrologic processes in the unsaturated soil layer Interception splits precipitation into that delivered to the land and water surfaces and that caught on the canopy and returned to the atmosphere by evaporation. Water delivered to the land surface may run off directly, as overland flow or infiltrate the soil. To which extent the infiltration in the soil occurs, depends on the physical characteristics of the upper soil layer as well as on the actual soil moisture. Reliable quantification of the process of water distribution in the soil, requires soil moisture modelling. It implies calculation of the actual soil moisture BF(t) using continuity equation for the unsaturated soil layer. Elements of the vertical water flow can be appreciated in Figure 3.1. In Figure 3.2, different types of soil layer are given.
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Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime
Figure 3.1 Vertical profile soil-vegetation-atmosphere with water balance components (source DVWK)
Figure 3.2 Distribution of the soil layers
For the purposes of mathematical modelling the soil is divided into layers with homogeneous structure- lamellas (as shown in Figure 3.3).
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Figure 3.3 Functional dependence between Infiltration (Inf), Evapotranspiration (Eva), Percolation (Perk) and Interflow (Intf) to soil moisture
Thus, the quantity equation gives:

dBFi (t ) = Inf i (t ) - ( Perci (t ) + Intf i (t )) - Evai (t ) + CU (t ) dt
where is: BF : Available water (for plants) [mm], Inf : Infiltration [mm/h], Perk : Percolation [mm/h], Eva : actual Evapotranspitration [mm/h] Intf : Interflow [mm/h]. CU : Capillary uprise [mm/h] Analysing this equation, it becomes clear that the soil moisture can be determined from inflow components Infiltration rate (Inf) and capillary uprise (CU) as well as from Percolation (Perc) and Evapotranspiration (Eva). Before each of those components is thoroughly analysed it is necessary to give an introduction to soil characteristics and soil water.
3.1.1 Soil moisture
Definition: Soil moisture is the water content that can be removed via drying the soil sample at 105 C in the oven. Seasonal differences in water inflows and losses in soil are summarised under the term soil moisture regime. The amount of rainfall that infiltrates into the soil, percolates only partly to groundwater. The rest remains in the unsaturated soil layer i.e remains above the groundwater level. In the case of saturated soil layer, water fills all available pore space in that layer. Important parameters considering the extent to which the water is attached to the soil particles and size of pores are :Wilting point (WP), Field capacity (FC), available field capacity (aFC), air capacity (AC), total pore volume (TPV) and maximal water capacity (BFMAX). They are defined according to the Bodenkundlicher Kartieranleitung, Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1982 They are also called soil water constants and have been introduced to facilitate comparisons between different hydrological status of different soils. Field Capacity (FC): It is defined as the amount of water that remains 2-3 days after the saturation of a soil with water (after gravity movement of water has largely ceased). As a
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rule, soil moisture tension of 101.8 and 102.5 mbar occurs in soil. It varies considerably depending on the clay and silt content, soil texture, content of organic matter, humus form, coherency of soil and ion characteristics in soil colloids. Field capacity rate depending on soil texture is as follows: Sand>Loam>Silt>Clay>Peat - Permanent Wilting Point (WP) Permanent wilting point (PWP) is the lowest amount of water that is hold in the soil and which plants are unable to use. Soil water that is incorporated into soil structure with higher soil moisture tension than 104.2 mbar is not useful for majority of the plants through root system. The remained soil moisture is considered as dead water. - Available Field Capacity (aFC): Available Field Capacity is the difference between Field Capacity (FC) and wilting point of a soil. It is considered as water available for plants to extract from the soil moisture zone. According to the definition of WP and FC, the values for the soil moisture tension (SMT) are between 101.8 and 104.2 . - Air Capacity (AC): It specifies the size of the drained macro-pore space. The water percolating in the soil has flown downwards and is not available for the plants any more. It coincides with the size of the pore space that is filled with air at the field capacity conditions. - Total Pore Volume (TVP): The amount of all cavities in soil expressed in Volume-% - Maximal water capacity BFMAX: Maximal water content of soil (by total water saturation). If it is expressed in Volume-% it coincides with the total pore volume (TVP). According to BEAR, the following soil water types are considered in the unsaturated soil layer. (see Figure 3.4, BEAR). - Hygroscopic water Hygroscopic water is held in the soil between air dry and oven dry. Unavailable water remains when soil is drier than wilting point. Unavailable water is soil water held so firmly to soil particles by adsorptive soil forces that it cannot be extracted by plants. Neither evaporation nor percolation into deeper soil layer is possible.
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- Capillary water Soil moisture in this zone is between Wilting Point (WP) and Field Capacity (FK). This water is available for plants and transpiration also occures in this zone. The capillar forces are held by formation of menisci at the contact points with the mineral particles, so that neither percolation into deeper soil layers nor discharge between different soil layers is possible. - Gravitational water (excess soil water) This zone is above the Field Capacity. Gravitational water drains or percolates readily by gravitational force. Since drainage takes time, part of the excess water may be used by plants before it moves out of the root zone. Alternatively, this water flows horizontally forming interflow. Distribution of those zones depending on the soil moisture can be appreciated in Figure 3.4
Figure 3.4 Porosity according to Bear
Within those soil moisture zones, it is possible to simplify the dependencies of the Infiltration, Pecolation, Transpiration and Interflow rates and present them as linear functions of soil moisture. It can be appreciated in Figure 3.5.
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Figure 3.5 :
Infiltration (Inf), Evapotranspiration (Eva), Percolation (Perk) and Interflow (Intf) expresses as linear function of soil moisture
For setting up this mathematical model, the conditional equations for Infiltration, Percolation, Evapotranspiration and Interflow are obtained. They vary between Wilting Point (WP) and Field Capacity (FK) as well as between Field Capacity (FK) and maximal soil saturation (BFMAX).
3.1.2 Infiltration
Water that falls on the ground in form of precipitation, can either infiltrate or runs off as overland flow. Infiltration rates mostly depend on the soil type and surface structure. In case of sealed areas, almost 100% of the rainfall is converted into overland flow and no infiltration occurs. In case of natural areas, this rate depends predominantly on the soil structure. It is further shaped by pore volume in the soil. It is possible to distinguish between 2 types of pores: - Macro(equivalent radius > 3mm) - Micro (capillary system) Different pore types and their spatial distribution in the soil is illustrated in Figure 3.6.
Figure 3.6 Pore distribution in the soil

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Macro pores are of importance for the infiltration process as water percolates 100400 times faster through macro pores than through the micro ones. The macro pores are created by plant roots, channels and paths of the soil fauna (e.g. mice, moles) soil aggregation and the soil cultivation. The most important factor that shapes soil porosity created by fauna are earth worms, that make uniform vertical pore system. Beside that, physical soil parameters, such as granulation, particle shape, soil structure and soil compaction are also of relevance. As it can be deduced from the figure 3.5, CIN determines the rate of infiltration. The higher values for CIN are, the smaller portion of precipitation is converted into overland flow. Due to the large number of relevant parameters for infiltration ,an accurate determination of the infiltration capacity (CIN) is possible only by performing field tests. Approximatively, it is possible to estimate the infiltration capacity from soil type, effective compaction according to Bodenkundlicher Kartieranleitung, Arbeitsgruppe Boden, 1982 and hydraulic conductivity obtained for soil saturation conditions kF and presuming loose soil (Ld 1-2)
CIN= k F,1 / 2
Real infiltration is determined as function of the soil structure, slope inclination and actual water content In the zone of Wilting point, this value coincides with the infiltration capacity. It is linear till it reaches the point of maximal soil capacity. CEX parameter shows the rate of ex filtration capacity (to the layers laying below the observed one). Concerning the values for soil moisture portions corrected for Wilting point, potential Infiltration of the soil Infp, the following conditional equation is obtained:
Infpi ( t ) = CINi BFMAXi - BFi ( t ) BFMAXi - WP
The actual infiltration Inf depends on the intensity of the rainfall and percolation rate of the soil layers. for soil layer i=1:
Inf 1 (t ) = Infp1 (t ) if i N ,eff (t ) > Infp1 (t )
Inf1 (t ) = i N ,eff (t ) if i N ,eff (t ) Infp1 (t )

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for soil layer i>1:

Inf i (t ) = Infp i (t ) if Perk i -1 (t ) > Infp i (t )
Inf i (t ) = Perki -1 (t ) if Perki -1 (t ) Infpi (t )

3.1.3 Percolation
Percolation is water trickling downward through the cracks and pores in soil and subsurface material, similar to the infiltration process. However, it reaches maximum at the field capacity conditions. Percolation capacity heavily depends on the soil structure and texture, air capacity and soil compactness. It can be estimated by hydraulic conductivity and for higher compactness of the soil, this equation gives:
CEX= k F,4 / 5 Considering those assumptions, potential percolation Percp from soil lamella i can be calculated as follows:
0, if Percpi (t ) = BFi ( t ) CEX i ((BFMAX-i FKi )i , if - FK

3.1.4 Determination of the actual evapotranspiration
BFi < FCi BFi FCi
Potential transpiration ETpl should be reduced to actual transpiration ETa where the water tension (limitation of available soil moisture in effective rooting depth) is to be considered. According to WENDLING, this balance equation is expressed as follows: EVA = P(t) - (P(t) - ETpfl) Ri It calculates actual transpiration as function of actual soil moisture and vegetation specific transpiration parameters as daily value continuum. Where is: P(t) Ri mm diml. Precipitation Reduction function
Determination of the reduction function Ri can be calculated as follows:

1Ri = WP DWT ETP BF( t ) + 0,1 WP ETpfl 1FK
Where is: WP
Mean wilting point in the effective root layer

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DWT BF(t) FK
ETP
dm mm % mm/d
Effective root layer Soil moisture in effective root layer at the tine point t Average field capacity in the effective root layer Average value of ETpfl over longer period of years in vegetation period
And further, according to Wendling (DVWK-bulletin 283/196) : Ri = 1 for P(t) > ETpfl Ri = 1 for Ri > 1,0 Ri = 0 for Ri > 0,0
3.1.5 Capillary Uprise
Capillary uprise from ground water in the effective root layer close to the groundwater horizon (level) can be of great importance for water balance assessment. It can be calculated based on the water conductivity and suction power (force) and is expressed as Capillary Uprise (CU). It varies as a function of the depth of the groundwater level (GW) below the lower bound of the effective root layer and the soil characteristic. For sand it the capillary upise reaches 3mm/d if the groundwater level is 5dm below the lower boundary of the effective root zone. If this distance is 8dm, capillary uprise is only 0.2mm/d. In order to estimate the capillary uprise rates, die Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung and DVWK bulletin 238 are used.
3.1.6 Interflow
That part of the precipitation which infiltrates the surface soil and moves laterally through the upper soil horizons above the water table toward surface waters. Also called subsurface runoff (see baseflow). The interflow Intf from the soil lamella i can be calculated as difference between potential percolation Percp and actual Percolation Perc.
Intfi ( t ) = Perkp i ( t ) - Perk i ( t )
In order to consider this lateral movement of water in the soil, this value is multiplied with the ordinate of the time-area function, that discharges in the time interval t.
QIntfi ( t ) = 1/ 3,6 A i Intfi ( t )
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where is Intfi : Interflow through the lamella i [mm/h], QIntfi : Interflow through the lamella i [m3/s] and Ai: contact surface part [km2], that in the time interval t discharges to the lamella i The remaining portion of the interflow contributes to the increase of the soil moisture of the lamellas above the observed lamella i. At the lower boundary it is necessary to correct the value for the soil moisture as there are no chargeable lamellas bellow it:
BFMAX i , if BFi (t ) + (1 - Ai ) Intf i (t ) > BFMAX i BFi (t ) := BFi (t ) + (1 - Ai ) Intf i (t ), if BFi (t ) + (1 - Ai ) Intf i (t ) BFMAX i
If the first condition is fulfilled, then is:

BFi ( t ) + (1 - A i ) Intfi ( t ) - BFMAX i
returned to lamella i-1.
3.2
Mathematical solution to soil water equation
The continuity equation for inhomogeneous, linear differential equation in ist general form is expressed as:
dBF( t ) + C 2 BF( t ) = C1 dt Constants C1 and C2 are calculated in dependence of the Infiltration, Percolation, Evapotranspiration and Interflow.
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003
Chapter 4- Processes of discharge concentration

1. General Information
The discharge formation can be mathematically described as predominantly vertical process and therefore, the catchment area is divided into individual homogeneous vertical layers (columns). The next step of the rainfall runoff modelling would be the mathematical definition of the runoff formation (discharge concentration). For this modelling, the physical process is considered that transforms the effective precipitation of a catchment area into a discharge hydrograph at the outlet node of this catchment area. In one detailed rainfall runoff model, each discharge component is separately considered and afterwards linearly superpositioned. In principle, it is possible to describe accurately the process of the discharge concentration applying the partial differential equations. But the closed solution to this equation is only rudimental due to the high numerical complexity of the system. For example, in the SHE-Model (Systme hydrologique europienne) for the individual components such as groundwater, interflow and surface runoff the system of the differential equations is solved and the interaction between those components is implemented in form of the boundary conditions. For the surface runoff is, for example, applied the 2 dimensional depth-averaged shallow water equations for quasi laminar flow. In order to obtain the numerical solution to those equations, the whole catchment is sub divided into raster elements and for example, applying the finite element method, it is solved for all raster cells.
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The wide application of this hydrodynamic model for description of the rainfall runoff processes has its shortcomings, predominantly related to: - thorough data as basis for the model is usually not available - technology is not completely developed - the results that are obtained through this method are not significantly better than the ones obtained applying other methods The last point underlines the fact that this method as well as the other ones fail to a certain extent in describing accurately the basic mechanisms of the runoff formation. It is obvious that it is necessary to apply more detailed numerical decomposition and more accurate spatial data. Both of those requirements is not possible to achieve in the foreseeable future. Therefore, for the calculation of the runoff formation , the so called hydrologic model approaches will dominate. They assume that the discharge concentration can be decomposed into translation and retention process, where both of them can be linearly superposed. The translation refers to the process of the temporal delay of the water. In a translation model outflow is delayed for
q (t) = p (t - tL ) Applying this translation model, it is possible to describe time delay of the runoff (discharge) streamlines in the water network and subcatchments.
Lines of the same translation time, that correspond to the flow duration of a water particle from one point of the catchment area to the outlet node is referred to as isochrone. Beside that, the discharge depends on the retention characteristics. Thus, the discharge concentration is also influenced by the storage capacity of the catchment and not only by the translation process. The retention capacity depends on the soil type and cover as well as on the slope of the terrain between 0,7 and 8,0 mm and represents considerable amount of water that should not be neglected especially in flat catchment areas. It particularly influences the shape of the rising limb of hydrograph. In the following text, the concept of translation and retention will be introduced. 2. Translation model
In translation model, the concentration time to the outlet node for discrete segments of the catchment area is determined. Relating those segments to the flow time, the time-are function is obtained. Multiplied by the discharge height of 1mm this diagram corresponds to the rising limb of the hydrograph for an effective precipitation of a millimetre exclusive of translation. It is also referred to as Unit Hydrograph. One
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can say the unit hydrograph represents direct runoff at the outlet of a basin resulting from one unit of precipitation (of 1mm) excess over the basin. If the time steps are discretised, the unit hydrograph can be mathematically expressed in the following way:
Ut (i Dt ) =
h =1
A(iDt) - A[(i - 1) Dt]

k =1
i -1
Dt A e
where: A(i D t) = Ae = Dt = u(i D t) = Segments that are discharging at the time i D t Catchment area Time interval Ordinate of the unit hydrograph at time i D t
For runoff from plain surfaces, the time-area function is rectangle. If duration of the rainfall is equal to the concentration time of the catchment tc , the hydrograf is in form of isosceles triangle. Nowadays, the concepts for flood protection that are used in water management in urban areas are based on this principle. Natural catchments are considerably inhomogeneous in terms of translation, as the relief in such areas substantially varies. For calculation of the concentration time, lot of more or less empirical formulas are in use. For the scope of this course, the approach based on the kinematic wave is applied.
L t c = 9,2184 k St
0,6 -0 i eff - 0,4 I so ,33
where: tc = L= kSt = ieff = Iso =
Concentration time Flow path Strickler-constant Intensity of the effective rainfall Average gradient (terrain)
This formula also considers the average slope of the terrain and surface roughness. If the terrain is considerably heterogeneous , this formula gives only the approximative value. In this case it would be more accurate to divide the catchment into the segments with homogenous gradient and roughness and the concentration time is calculated as the sum of those individual segments, as follows:
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n s tc = i v i =1 i
where si = n= vi = Length of the segment i Number of segments to the outlet Mean flow velocity in segment i
Mean flow velocity can be calculated assuming the quasi-stationary flow for discharge and applying universal flow laws. The Gauckler-Manning-Strickler law is commonly in use.
v i = k St,i hi2 / 3 I1 / 2 so,i
where kSt = hi = Strickler-coefficient Flow depth
For the empirical parameter and adopted flow depth h, some data is taken from the literature. According to Pasche/Schrder and the research and analysis of the hydrologic data using GIS 1994, the following values are obtained.
Agricultural crop land (arable): Grassland (meadows): Forest Water depth kSt = kSt = kSt = h= 4,5 m 1/3s 1 4,5 m 1/3s 1 5,5 m 1/3s 1 0,03m
If the catchment area is heterogenous, neither flow paths nor concentration time is possible to calculate manually due to the complexity of such a system. This fact opens room for application of Geographic Information System (GIS). It the basic data for the catchment is available, it is possible to automatise the generation of the time-area function for each catchment type and structure. Further, based on the unit hydrograph derived from the time-area function, it is possible to calculate the discharge for any effective rainfall with the intensity ieff(t) for each catchment, as follows:
Q ( t ) = c A( t - t ) i eff ( t ) dt
0
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Again, if the constant discharge is discretised over time with the time step Dt , than the equation above can be transformed as following.
Q (i Dt ) = c A(iDt - (i - 1)Dt ) ieff (ii Dt )
i =1 k
1 3,6 Dt It is important to mention that for this approach, the retention effects on discharge flow are not considered. Therefore, it is applicable only in small catchments with high sealing rate. c=
3.
Retention model
In hydrology, the retention model is usually simplified. A very simple and widely used model is linear-reservoir. According to this approach, the outflow from the retention is directly proportional to the reservoir content.
V (t ) = k Qout (t )
where V (t) = Qout(t) = k= Reservoir content at time t Outflow from reservoir at time t Retention constant
Further, considering the continuity equation i.e. Inflow = Outflow + Change of the storage, the equation above gives:
Qin (t ) = Qout (t ) + k dQout (t ) dt
where Qin(t) = reservoir inflow in time t General solution to the equation gives:
Qout (t ) = Qout (t 0 ) e -(t -t0 ) k + 1 Qz (t ) e -( t -t ) / k dt k t =t 0
for Qout(to) = 0 and to = 0 this equation is as follows:

1 Qout (t ) = Qin (t ) e -( t -t ) / k dt k 0
-5t
If Qin( t ) is the inflow and Qout(t) outflow, considering the equation above it is to conclude that, the outflow is derived directly from the inflow and multiplied by a unit flow. The unit flow reflects the transmission characteristics and thus the retention features of the catchment.
1 UR ( t - t ) = e - ( t - t ) / k k
This unit hydrograph corresponds to the discharge hydrograph , with evenly distributed precipitation of N=1mm. If the duration of the precipitation t 0 , the Instantaneous Unit-Hydrograph (IUH) is obtained. Again, if the continuos discharge flow is discretised over time and the intensity of the effective rainfall in time Dt is multiplied by the total catchment area:
Qin (t ) = ieff (iDt ) Ae
the following summation formula for the discharge flow due to the retention gives:
Q a (n Dt ) =A e i eff (iDt ) uR [n D t - (i - 1) Dt ]Dt
i =1 n
where:
u [n Dt - (i - 1) D t ] = 1 -[n D t - (i - 1) D t ]/ k e k
According to this equation, the discharge at time n Dt is obtained through the superposition of all catchment responses that are developed from one inflow generated during the effective rainfall within the time period t = 0 to t = n Dt . Individual responses are product of the effective intensity at time D t and the axis t =t (folding) of the Unit Hydrograph.
1 The retention constant, with unit can be directly determined from the recession h
limb of the hydrograph.
k=
4.
t 2 - t1 ln Q A (1) - ln Q A (2)
Combination of translation and reservoir models
As it was already induced, discharge concentration in a catchment area is subject to translation as well as to the retention. Combination of these two different physical approaches can be mathematically described. The time-area function is through a linear reservoir led to the outlet of the catchment i.e. the time-are function is folded by the instantaneous unit hydrograph.
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u TR ( t - t ) = u T ( t ) uR ( t - t ) dt
0
where is:
uT (t) = A (t) Ae
Another possibility to describe accurately the discharge concentration is to introduce the system of the reservoir chain. The translation of the catchment is considered by the number of the reservoirs n. The outflow from the n reservoir of the linear reservoir chain as reaction to the inflow of 1mm rainfall gives:
u sk ( t ) = 1 t k (n - 1)! k
n -1
e-t / k
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Chapter 5- Subsurface runoff (Interflow and groundwater runoff)
In addition to the runoff processes on the surface, the subsurface runoff processes are also to be considered. The ones relevant for the water balance assessment are interflow that occurs in the upper soil layer, and groundwater outflow and base flow. The subsurface runoff is delayed comparing to the surface runoff and in the hydrology is modelled independently. 5.1 Interflow In soil water regime modelling, an unsaturated layer is divided into horizontal lamellas depending on the hydro-geologic characteristics. For setting up the concept of the interflow the following assumptions are to be considered: - in lamella i interflow occurs only if the lamella below the lamella i is already saturated - boundary between lamellas is inclined. In the soil water regime modelling, the soil water is balanced for each hydrotop.(see semi-distributed model). The discharge, however, regards the entire subcatchment area, which consists of n Hydrotops. The interflow rate Intfij from each Hydrotop and each lamella is aggregated to a total discharge QIntf within the subcatchment area:
QIntfi ( t ) = 1 / 3,6 A j Intfij ( t )
j =1 i =1
-1-
n m
Surface Hydrology-Subsurface runoff
where is: Aj area [km2] of the Hydrotop j Interflow behaves similar to the surface runoff in terms of Translation and Retention effects. Thus, it is possible to draw the stream lines of the interflow applying the isochrone method as following:
Qa (n Dt ) = QIntf (iDt ) uTR [n D t - (i - 1) Dt ] Dt
i =1 n
u TR [n Dt ] =
A(iDt ) 1 - [n D t - (i - 1) D t ] / k e Ae k i =1
However, it is to be considered that subsurface translation and retention occur to much larger extent than in case of surface runoff. So, the time-area function A(t) and retention constant k that are assessed for the surface runoff are not the same ones that are to be used for the subsurface runoff. They should be derived considering the physico geographical and geological conditions of the soil. In principle, the derivation of the time-area function (t) for subsurface runoff is much more difficult than from the surface due to the complexity of the media. It is often the case that the time-area function for the surface runoff is also taken for the Interflow and simply multiplied by a constant and in that way linearly transformed. Better and at the same time physically based approach assumes that the flow velocities of the Interflow are behaving proportional to the Darcys law:
v Intf = k f IG
where is: kf = permeability coefficient for the saturated soil [m/s] and IG = mean gradient of the terrain along the longest flow path [-]. Physical processes are also simplified in this method, as the parameter is averaged for the whole catchment and kf value of the saturated soil layer is taken also for the unsaturated layer. As it is assumed that the flow velocity is constant in the whole catchment area, the time-area function becomes a direct function of the areas with the same flow path, as following:
-2-
A(nDt ) = DA[nDt ] - DA[(n - 1)Dt ]

i =1 i =1
where is: DA[nDt ] = total area of the subcatcment with the same flow path s[nDt ] = nDt v Intf In order to estimate the retention constants k there is no approved method yet. Therefore, it should be done by calibration from the rising limb of a flood hydrograph, whereby the considered times t1 and t2 should lie on the recession limb of the flood hydrograph. t 2 - t1 k= ln Q A (1) - ln Q A (2) 5.2 Discharge concentration in aquifer (groundwater flow)
The water that percolates from the last soil lamella into deeper layers represents the ground-water formation, which flows to the ground-water reservoir. The calculations of the ground-water reservoir is performed integrally for the total catchment area. All hydrotps with recharge to the groundwater reservoir are aggregated. One can distinguish 3 different types of the groundwater reservoir (GWR): - upper GWR - lower GWR - carst or deep GWR Upper and Lower GWR are illustrated in Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1 Cross section GWR -river
-3-
Upper and lower GWR can be considered together as they differ from each other by the height of the groundwater level in the reservoir. But, the deep GWR should be considered as an independent element. Upper GWR is in direct contact with the channel. Outflow of this reservoir flows to the channel. Infiltration from the channel to the upper GWR is not considered. On the other side, the discharge from the lower GWR flows to the GWR of the adjacent catchment. It is possible that max 3 catchments receive the discharge from the one catchment, only the weighting of those inflows can be different. It is to mention that the capillary uprise from the GWR is neglected in the model. The deep GWR is, as already adduced, an independent element that drains into a recepient. The location where it occurs can be chosen arbitrary. GWR receives the inflow from the soil water as well as from the GWR of the adjacent catchments. Inflow is proportionally divided into GWR and deep GWR, as follows:
1 AH Perc H (t ) 3 .6 QGW inf (t ) = QGWNGzu (t ) + (1 - ITRH ) Qinf;H (t ) Qinf; H (t ) =
QTGW inf (t ) =
Hydrotop
ITR H Qin , H (t )
where: QGWNGin AH PercH(t) QGWinf(t) QGWTinf(t) ITRH
: Inflow to the groundwater reservoir (GWR) from the adjacent (GWR) [m3/s], : Hydrotop area [km2], : Percolating water from the soil water storage [mm/h], : Inflow to the GWR (from above and below) [m3/s], : Inflow to the deep GWS (characteristical for carst areas) [m3/s] : weighting factor [-] depending on the Hydrotop.
Theoretical background for the concept is the continuity equation of the inflow, outflow and changes in the storage. Inflow is composed of the discharge of the adjacent element (GWR) and does not depend on the actual water content in the reservoir. On the other side, the outflow from the observed GWR depends on the water quantity in it. The outflows from the GWR are, for example, in the program package BCENA iterratively calculated, according to the following equation:
dV (t ) = Qin(t ) - Qout (t ) dt
Q (t ) dV (t ) = k out dt dt
(Balance equation)
(Linear reservoir)
-4-
where is:
V(t) : actual water content in the reservoir [m3], Qin(t) : Inflows to the GWR [m3/s], Qout(t): Outflows from the GWR [m3/s] k : retention constant of the linear reservoir [s]. In its developed form, the balance equation gives:
it is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2 Water balance for the catchment area 2
5.2.1 Discharge from the Upper and Lower GWR
In the model BCENA, upper and lower GWR are joined and considered as one unit. According to the model concept, it is considered that the channel runs over the water table of the lower GWR. Thus only an exchange of water of the ground-water reservoir and the channel is possible starting from a certain water level height in the GWR. The range of the GWR without contacts to the channel is referred to as lower GWR and the one overlying the channel bad is called upper GWR. The program BCENA enables indication of the lower (hGu) and upper height (hGo), for the definition of the size of the two reservoirs. If the isotropic i.e. homogeneous aquifer is presupposed, that is characterised by very poor spatial variability, that the reservoir volume can be determined depending on the
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groundwater level. An additional assumption is that the groundwater level is uniform for the subcatchment.
V (t ) = GWR(t ) Pors A 10 6
where is V(t) GWR(t) Pors A
:actual water content of the reservoir[m], :water height in the reservoir element (m), :porosity of the aquifer[-] :area of the catchment (km).
Figure 5.4 Upper and lower groundwater reservoir
Considering the concept of the model, the following cases are possible concerning the groundwater level and its relation to the hGu and hGo. (refer to Fig 5.4) 1. .case: GWR(t) < hGu Groundwater height is below the lower groundwater level. Thus, the total water volume is assigned to the lower groundwater reservoir. It can be described as follows:
VGWlo (t ) = GWR(t ) Asc PORS 10 6 VGWup (t ) = 0
2. case: hGu GWR(t ) hGo The groundwater level is between hGu and hGo
(GWR - HGU ) 6 VGWlo (t ) = GWR(t ) - 0,5 Asc PORS 10 HGO - HGU GWR - HGU 6 VGWup (t ) = 0,5 (GWR - HGU ) Asc PORS 10 HGO - HGU
3.
case: GWR(t) > hGo
Groundwater level is above the upper height. The volume of the lower groundwater reservoir is not increasing.
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VGWup (t ) = (GWR(t ) - 0,5 (HGO - HGU )) PORS A 10 6 VGWlo (t ) = 1 (HGO + HGU ) ATE PORS 10 6 2
The outflows from the upper and lower GWR depend on the actual water content in the reservoir according to the linear reservoir concept and considering the corresponding retention constants RetBas and RetGW.
5.2.2 Deep groundwater outflow
Deep groundwater outflow can be calculated from the system of the differential equations that has already been introduced. Additionally, the retention constant for the deep groundwater reservoir RetTGW, is introduced. This outflow can be assigned to any node, not necessarily to the outlet node. Further, it is possible to construct the net independent from the one for the surface runoff and can for example, simulate the flow paths in carst areas.
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Chapter 6- Flood wave formation in the channel
In the hydrologic cycle the following components are of relevance for the modelling: surface runoff (overland flow), interflow and basic flow. Additionally, the flow in channel is considered as a part of the inflow:
Qin (t ) = QSurface (t ) + QInterflow (t ) + QBasis (t ) + QChannel (t )
(1)
For flood wave propagation in natural channels, two important phenomena should be considered: attenuation of the peak flow and time lag that leads to the modification of the discharge hydrograph. Figure 6.1 shows the transformation of the flood wave. This discharge hydrograph is modified if the water section flows through retention.
Figure 6.1 Inflow/Outflow hydrograph of a flood wave

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Surface Hydrology-Flood wave formation in channel
The computation methods that are applied to describe the processes in the water course, are summarised under the name Food Routing. Flow routing may be classified as either hydrologic (lumped) or hydraulic (distributed). The hydraulic computation methods employ both, the equation of continuity and the equation of motion (momentum conservation). They model the integral movement process of the water in the channel, but in engineering practice one and two-dimensional models are commonly in use. In the rainfall runoff models are currently in use only hydrologic methods. They do not deal with the overall motion process, but they concentrate of the water strand and treat it as a linear reservoir of the volume V(t) that is changing with the outflow Qout(t) as follows:
dV (t ) = k dQout (t )
(2)
Thus, those methods determine only the resulting process that is generated as a reaction to the inflow. 6.1 Flood Routing applying the linear reservoir model Generally, flood routing is a mathematical method used to predict the temporal and spatial variation of a flood wave, at one ore more points along a water course (river or channel). The watercourse may be a river, stream, reservoir, estuary, canal, drainage ditch or storm sewer. In case of a stationary discharge flow, there is a clear connection between the water depth h and discharge Q for each water section.
Q = f (h)
(3)
To each water strand corresponds only one volume, and therefore it is possible to define a unique relation between volume and discharge:
Q = f (V )
(4)
Further, for the stationary flow of the linear reservoir model, it becomes:
dV (h) = K (h) dQout (h)
(5)
In the equation above, the parameter k(h) represents the time necessary for water to flow through the channel subsection.
-2-
Different analysis of the river courses showed that the parameter k changes insignificantly over the discharge range, so that it can be considered as a constant. K(h) = k = const. (6)
With this assumption, the conditions for applying the liner reservoir concept are fulfilled, as the outflow is linearly related to the storage. The integration of this equation over the water depth gives:
Qout = 1 (V - V0 ) k
(7)
where, V0 is the volume that remains in the scours of the river bed in dry season. This volume is not of importance and can be neglected. Again, the continuity equation is applied:
Qin dt - Qa dt = dV ,
(8)
where Qin is the inflow, Qout is the outflow and dV represents the changes in the storage. Inserting the Eq (7) in the Eq (8), the following is obtained:
dV 1 + V = Qz dt k
(9)
For the special case, that is Qin = 0 , the equation can be modified as follows:
dV 1 = - dt V k
(10)
Integrating this equation (0,t) it gives:

t ln V = - + C k
(11)
And in its exponential form

V = C e
t k
(12)
For t=0 is V= V0 so that the equation becomes:

V = V0 e
t k
(13)
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If one replaces V with Qout k and V0 with Qout (t 0 = 0) k , the following is obtained:
Qout = Qout (t 0 ) e
t k
(14)
In the second step, the special case Qin = 0 is introduced to the general solution Qin 0 , in the Eq 12. The first derivation of this equation is as follows:
dV dC - k 1 = e -C e k dt dt k
t t
(15)
Introduced in the Eq 9, this equation gives:

dC 1 - k 1 1 e - C e k + C e k = Qz dt k k k t t t
(16) (17)
t
or
dC = Qin e k dt
t
Integrating this equation over time and replacing the constant C with V e k (Eq 12), leads to:
V = e (V0 + Qin (t ) e dt )
0 t k t t k
(18)
Again, if V is replaced with Qa k , and V0 with Qa (t 0 = 0) k , the following is obtained.

Qout (t ) = Qout 0 e
t k
1 -k e Qin (t ) e k dt ) k 0
(19)
According to the result of the derivation, the temporal discharge variation consists of: discharge due to taking the water form the reservoir that is available at time t=0 discharge as consequence of the inflow
Since closed-form solutions to the complete hydraulic routing differential equations do not exist, it is solved by discretising inflow hydrograph over time, with intervals Dt and with the assumption Qin=const in those time intervals. Now, it is possible to write the equation above as a summation in the following way:
Qout (nDt ) = Qout (t = 0) e
nDt k
1 e k
nDt k
or:
-4-
mDt n Qin (mDt ) e k Dt m=1
(20)
1 n Qout (nDt ) = Qout (t = 0) e - nDt / k + Qin (mDt ) e -( n -m ) Dt / k Dt k m=1
(21)
where, Qin (nDt ) is the inflow and Qout (nDt ) is the result and this transmission characteristics can be described in terms of impulse response function as follows:
u[(n - m) Dt ] = 1 -( n-m ) Dt / k e k
(22)
It formally coincides with the Unit Hydrograph, that is already introduced in the Chapter 5, when explaining the processes of the discharge concentration. So, the wave transformation in channel is the process analog to the discharge concentration on the surface. 6.2 The method of Kalinin-Miljukov
In the previous text the stationary state flow for discharge was assumed. However, this assumption is hardly applicable to the flood wave situation, as the storm state in a flood wave is always instationary, that is indicated as temporal change of the mean velocity v and water depth h along the channel as follows:
dv 0 dt dh 0 dt
The results derived for the stationary state, applied for the instationary (unsteady) storm is not fully correct, since in the case of instationary flow, there is no unique volume/discharge relation. Differently from the stationary state, discharge depends not only on the water level but also on the slope. It can be denoted as following:
Q = f (h, I) Q = f ( V , I)
Consequently, for each section of the channel, exists a so called Hysteresis curve, that means: storage versus outflow is not a single valued function. (Fig 6.2)
-5-
Figure 6.2a Hysteresis curve
Figure 6.2 b: Hysteresis curve
As it depends on the flood wave propagation (transformation), can not be a priori determined. Considering the Hysteresis curve (6.2), to each discharge Qout (t1 ) it is possible to assign 3 different water depths; on the rising and falling limb of the instationary flow and the one for the case of the stationary (steady) flow. Kalinin Miljukov, however, showed that it is possible to define an unique function between discharge and volume in spite of the dependency on the slope if the channel is represented by a cascade of n linear reservoirs with the length L (characteristic section). The unsteady flow in those sections can be approximated by a quasistationary flow. For one single reservoir is assumed that the time required for the increase of the discharge volume DQ from the inflow side l to the outflow side r corresponds to the flow time in the stationary storm state. Further, it is coupled with the assumption of a weak instationary flow, so that the discharge increase DQ becomes so small and its flattening can be neglected. The replenishment of this additional water volume DV occurs with the increase DQ. The time required for this process can be estimated according to the linear reservoir method as following:
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k inst =
DV DQ
(23)
Assuming little changes in the inflow, then the time k inst corresponds to the flow time of the flood wave peak. Further, an unique discharge curve for the characteristic channel reach is obtained, if we consider the characteristic of the Hysteresis curve that the time lag Dt of discharge on the rising as well as on the recession limb of the flood, can be observed on the gauge. If the discharges of the cross section r are assigned to the water levels in the cross section m, it becomes:
lm = v Dt ,
(24)
so that the discharges of the stationary discharge curve at the crossection m can be assigned to the corresponding instationary ones at the cross section r. The length of the characteristic section is:
L = 2lm
(25)
is calculated by the discharge volume and the characteristics of the water course. Further, the instationary discharge Q in the cross section r is divided into a stationary and the additional discharge:
Qinst = Qstat + Qd
(26)
In the same way, discharge volumes and water surface slope can be divided:
Vinst = Vstat + Vd Iinst = Istat + Id
(27) (28)
Kalinin-Miljukov Method is based on the considerations of the validity of the linear reservoir assumption also for the unsteady flow:
d( Vstat + Vd ) = k d(Qstat + Qd ) bzw. dVd = kdQd
(29)
Further, assuming that the flow resistance coefficients of the instationary storm correspond to the same ones for the stationary flow for the same water depth, and that
-7-
energy line is parallel to the water surface line, it is possible to compute the discharge Q applying the Darcy Weisbach law.
Qinst = A r ( 8g rhy ,r )1 / 2 (Iinst )1 / 2 lr
(30)
In the cross section r, the following relation of the instationary storm state to the stationary flow with the same hydraulic radius resp. water depth, can be concluded:
I Qinst = inst Q stat Istat
(31)
Applying the Eq 28, the instationary water table slope can be transformed as following: I 1 I (32) Iinst = Istat + Id = Istat 1 + d = Istat (1 + d ) 2 Istat Istat Placing this expression in the Eq 31, the following is obtained:
1 I Qinst = Qstat ,r (1 + d ) 2 Istat
(33)
Further considering Eq 26 and 33, it becomes:

Qd = I 1 Q stat ,r d 2 Istat
(34)
Qd corresponds to the additional volume Vd, that can be represented only by small increase/decrease of the water level by multiplying the water level with the stationary discharge Qstat and the mean depth of the additional water level hd.
Vd = Qstat hd
(35)
Further, if it is assumed that the slope is constant, along the characteristic section, it becomes:
Vd = Qstat Id L / 2
(36)
If the Eq 34 and 36 are differentiated over Id, it gives.

dVd = Qstat L / 2 dId
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(37)
and
dQd = 1 Qstat ,r dId 2 Istat
(38)
Inserting the Eq 37 and 38 into Eq. 29, it becomes:

1 Qstat ,r dId = k Qstat L / 2 dId 2 Istat
(39)
Transforming and inserting the
1 dVd = , finally gives conditional equation for the k dQd
characteristic channel section L:

dVd dQd L = 2l = I stat Qstat Qstat ,r
(40)
This equation can be applied to channels with any cross section. It can be simplified if the changes of the volume predominantly depend on the water level.
dVd = Qstat dhd ,m
(41)
In this case, the Eq 40 becomes:

L = 2l = Qstat dhd ,m I stat dQstat
(42)
By very small changes of the profile along the channel reach, the changes of the water level in the balance point m can be approximated by the one of the crossection r.
L = 2l = Qstat dhd ,r I stat dQstat
(43)
6.3
Application of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method to a large channel reach
Until now, only the channel reaches with the limited length L were considered, where the length L was derived from the hysteresis curve and from the linear reservoir method. It means, that if we consider a channel strand with the length LG, applying the Kalinin-Miljukov method, it has to be divided into n equal sections with the length L.
-9-
Each section represents one independent reservoir, and the Eq 22 describes the wave formation for it. The outflow from the reservoir n is the inflow to the reservoir n-1.
Qin (n - 1) = Qout (n)
(44)
where the numbering of this reservoir chain starts on the lower boundary of the total channel length LG and is proceeded against the flow direction. Inserting the Eq 44 into Eq 22, it becomes:
1 n Q a ,n-1 (nDt ) = Q a ,n (mDt ) e -( n-m ) Dt / k Dt k m=1
(45)
The total channel reach can be understood as a unit, if the reservoir chain represented as a summation of those individual reservoirs. It is expressed as follows:
Qa (nDt ) = 1 Dt Qz (nDt ) ( )n-1 e -nDt / k , k (n - 1)! k
(46)
where the number of reservoirs is calculated in the following way: L n= G L
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Chapter 7- Application aspects of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method
7.1 Basic Equations for the discharge calculation in channel According to the Kalinin-Miljukov method, the integral channel reach is subdivided into individual sections of the length L. Each of those sections is represented by a linear reservoir cascade with n single reservoirs. In principle, this reservoir chain can be successively calculated from the beginning of the section to the lower boundary (run out) for the individual reservoir using the following equation:
n Qout , j -1 (nDt ) = Q j (mDt ) u j [n - m + 1)Dt Dt m =1
where,
u j [(n - m + 1)Dt ] = 1 -( n-m+1) Dt / k e kj
j nS
=1,2,....nS
index of the single reservoir, starting from the lowest one
= total number of the reservoirs in one subsection
As the intermediate results are usually not of relevance, the superpositioned reservoir equation is used.
-1-
where is
Qout (nDt ) = Qin (nDt ) u[(n - m + 1)Dt ]
u[(n - m + 1)Dt] =
Dt 1 ( )n S 1 e - (n - m +1)Dt / k k(nS - 1)! k
In these equations, the retention constant k corresponds to the flow time t in a single reservoir j. It is assumed, that each single reservoir of the cascade has the same hydrologic characteristics. The total number of the reservoirs nS can be calculated according to Kalinin/Miljukov method, considering the characteristic length L, as follows:
nS = LG L
where:
L=
Q stat dh d,m Istat dQ stat
To bear in mind: The above shown conditional equation for L is derived considering the simplification, that the changes of the reservoir volume V is predominantly function of the water depth h. If it is not the case, it is necessary to apply the extended form of the equation:
dVd dQd L= Istat Qstat Further, applying the Kalinin/Miljukov method, the retention constant k is to be determined. It is done assuming that the flow of a flood wave is a weak instationary process. In that case, the flow time tF corresponds to the following expression: Qstat
tF = k j = dVd Q j (h) Dh = dQd DQ
where surface) 7.2
Q j (h) = L b(h) (with the water depth h corresponding water level
Extending the basic equation for channel flow for the characteristic profile
Most of the water courses, overflow its banks by flooding. As a consequence, an extended channel profile is formed, that consists of the left and right flood planes and the main (dominant) channel.
-2-
The extended profile is shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Flood cross section
Where is: Flood Plain: The flat area of land adjacent to a stream that is formed by current flood processes. Bankfull Stage: The stage at which water starts to flow over the flood plain; the elevation of the water surface at bankfull discharge. At the very beginning of the overflow in the river, the water surface changes, more or less discontinuely. The h-Q-Function shows no linearity in case of those discharges. In this case, it is not necessary to apply the extended form of the equation for L, instead of the linear chain, the parallel reservoir cascade is used. n Q a (nDt ) = Q z (m Dt ) u[(n - m + 1)Dt ] Dt m =1 where is and
u[(n - m + 1)Dt ] = a u1[(n - m + 1)Dt ] + (1 - a) u 2 [(n - m + 1)Dt ]
1 n S,1 -1 - (n - m +1)Dt / k 1 ) e k 1(nS,1 - 1)! k 1 1 n -1 Dt u 2 [(n - m + 1)Dt ] = ( ) S,2 e - (n - m +1)Dt / k 2 k 2 (nS,2 - 1)! k 2 The first reservoir cascade represents the discharge into the main channel and the second cascade, the discharge to the foreshore (flood plain). The parameter a corresponds to the discharge distribution between flood plains and the main channel u1[(n - m + 1)Dt ] = (
a = 1-
Dt
Q fp Qtot
where:
Qtot = Qchannel + Q fp
Qfp Qchannel
(Total flow in the channel) : total discharge from the flood plain [m/s], : discharge from the channel [m/s]
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7.3
Determination of the parameters for the Kalinin/Miljukov method
The empirical parameters of the Kalinin/Miljukov method require lots of data as well as the execution of the complex hydraulic calculations, since neither h-Q-relation of the subsection (from measurements) nor the discharge distribution between flood plain and the main channel is available. As basic data, the channel and profile data are considered. They have to be located on the places that can relevantly describe the processes in retention. In general, calculation of the hydrologic Flood Routing does not require so dense profile distribution that is necessary for computation of the water table, since for the weak non uniform flow conditions, the h-Q-B relations is sufficiently accurate described by stationary-uniform flow calculations for the Kalinin-Miljukov method. Therefore, every 500 m of the channel and valley profiles are required. It is often the case that the Flood Routing analysis is followed by the water table calculation in order to assess the influence of the flood volume, determined by the Flood Routing method, to the water course. In order to accomplish that, the channel and valley profiles are required, only in this case the density of the profiles has to be considerably higher, since the irregularity of the flow can not be neglected. Therefore, the distance between 2 profiles should not exceed 50-100m. When defining the profiles for the water table calculation, it is possible to use the ones already used for the Flood Routing Method. In principle, two different approaches are possible: 1. Determination of the parameters using the mean profile Within the subsection of the channel, for which the Flood Routing calculation is performed, all profiles that are in this subsection are pondered(integrated) and one mean profile is defined. For this profile, the stationary-uniform flow is assumed (IE = IWsp = ISo) and the h-Q relation as well as V-Q relation is calculated. Finally, the parameters nS and k are derived, both for the flood plains and for the main channel, as well as distribution factor a, between the sub cross sections. The following example illustrates this procedure:
Discharge Channel reservoir n k [-] [h] 30,0 0,002 23,3 0,001 14,7 0,001 12,7 0,001 10,1 0,001 Flood plain reservoir width height
[cbm/s] 0,171 1,729 5,466 9,447 31,316
n [-] 30,0 27,6

-4-
k [h] 0,005 0,001
[m] 1,54 3,08 4,62 16,11 30,08
[m+NN] 173,26 173,61 173,96 174,16 174,43
Sum Mean value Distribution factor
90,80 ~18 0,70
0,001
57,60 ~29
0,002
2. Determination of the parameters for each profile and afterwards aggregation For each profile within the subsection of the channel, the relation h-Q as well as V-Q using the water table calculation method and the corresponding parameters nS and k as well as a are calculated as mean values of the profile according to the above shown procedure. Further, those values for the single profiles, are aggregated to one value that applies for the whole subsection, as follows:
k=
k j lj
j =1 np
np
Retention constant:
lj
j =1
Number of the reservoirs:
nS = nS, j
j =1 np
np
Distribution factor:
a=
a j lj
j =1 np
lj
j =1
Bankfull discharge:
Q bankfull =
Q
j =1
np
bankfull
, j lj
l
j =1
np
This way of aggregating is not mathematically correct, especially if the geometric deviations of profiles are considerably high. If this is not acceptable, it is then necessary to divide the section into subsections considering the profiles j, j-1and j+1.
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Master Program Environmental Engineering SURFACE HYDROLOGY Summer semester 2002/2003 Linear Reservoir model -Appendix-
Linear reservoir model represents the catchment area as a reservoir, in which the inflow in form of precipitation is stored and with time lag discharged. It is also considered as a black box method, as the processes in the system are not completely described, but merely the transmission characteristics of the system, especially the correlation between the input and output, are taken into account. One can conclude that the linear reservoir is of great importance in hydrological modelling which purpose is to define the universal relation between rainfall and the resulting discharge hydrograph for one catchment area.
Q( t ) = f [i( t )]
In the LRM, the overall system is divided into subsystems and the individual components that are forming the total discharge, such as overland flow, interflow, seepage and groundwater recharge are considered as linear reservoir and are linearly superposed.
For the purposes of mathematical formulation of the linear reservoir, the behaviour of the catchment area is simplified, assuming that the catchment area behaves like a
-1-
Surface Hydrology-Linear Reservoir
container (reservoir) with the linear relation between actual volume in the reservoir and discharge:
V (t ) = k Q A (t )
(8)
where V (t) = QA(t) = k= Volume in Reservoir at time t Outflow from the reservoir at time t Retention constant
This is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Linear reservoir and corresponding outflow and volume curve
Further, applying the continuity equation for the reservoir

Qin (t ) = Qout (t ) + V (t ) dt
(9)
the first order differential equation for the linear reservoir is obtained:
Qin (t ) = Qout (t ) + k dQout (t ) dt
(10)
where Qin(t) = reservoir inflow at time t.
This equation can be solved by multiplying both sides by the factor e t / k . It becomes:
-2-
et / k
dQ A ( t ) 1 t / k 1 + e Q A (t ) = e t / k Qz (t ) dt k k
(11)
Applying the product rule this equation can be rewritten as follows:

d 1 ( Q A (t ) et / k ) = et / k Qz (t ) dt k
(12)
Integrating this equation in range QA(to=0) and QA(t) it gives:
Q A (t) t 1 d( Q A ( t ) e t / k ) = e t / k Q z ( t )dt Q A (0) 0 k
(13)
The general solution to this equation is :

t 1 Q A ( t ) e t / k - Q A (0) = e t / k Q z ( t)dt 0 k
(14)
and after transformation :

Q A ( t ) = Q A (0 ) e
-t k
t =0
1 Q z ( t) e -( t - t ) / k dt k
(15)
For QA(0) = 0 this equation becomes:

1 Q A ( t ) = Q z ( t ) e - ( t - t ) / k dt k
0 t
(16)
If the Qz( t ) is inflow impulse and QA(t) outflow impulse, then according to the equation above, the outflow impulse is directly derived from the inflow impulse, multiplying it by a unit impulse. Transferred to the catchment area, Qout (t ) corresponds to the discharge hydrograph at outlet node and the Qin(t ) to the precipitation N( t) = A e i( t ) and the intensity i(t) off the effective rainfall, as following:
1 Q A ( t ) = N( t ) e -( t - t ) / k dt k
0
(17)
The system function

-3-
1 u( t - t ) = e -( t - t ) / k k
(18)
represents the transmission characteristics of the catchment. It corresponds to the discharge hydrograph generated for one catchment for the effective rainfall of 1mm that is spatially and during the time t uniformly distributed over the catchment and shifted for the (t-t). It is also called the Unit Hydrograph (UH)
Q A ( t ) = N( t ) u( t - t)dt
0 t
(19)
This equation is basis for the Linear reservoir model. If the duration of the rainfall t 0 , Instantaneous Unit-Hydrograph (IUH) is obtained. Until now, the continual temporal field was presumed. If time is discretised with the time steps Dt, the effective rainfall of the m. interval (corr. to the time point t=(m-1)Dt) becomes:
N(mDt ) =
(m-1)Dt A e i(t)dt = A e i(mDt ) Dt
mDt
(20)
The time shift between inflow and outflow impulse for the time interval t=nDt is:
t v = t - t = (n - m+1)Dt.
The Unit Hydrograph is discretised over time: 1 (n -m +1)Dt u[(n - m + 1)Dt ] = u( t v )dt Dt (n -m)Dt where t v = t - t = V is the time lag
(21)
If the Eq 20 and 21 are inserted the following summation formula is obtained:

Q A (nDt ) =Dt A e
m =1
N(mDt ) u[(n - m + 1) Dt]
(22)
where is
1 u [(n - m + 1) D t ] = e -[(n -m + 1) D t ]/ k k
-4-
In order to have a better overview of the main properties of a hydrograph, they are illustrated in following Figure:
(source: Florida International University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering)
-5-
Table of Contents:
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Importance of Freshwater 1.2 Water cycle and Water balance 1.3 Tasks of the Hydrology and Water Management 1.4 Importance of modelling in Water Management
Chapter 2: Hydrologic Cycle

2.1 General considerations 2.2 Precipitation (rainfall) 2.3 Interception 2.4 Snow-hydrological processes 2.4.1 Accumulation 2.4.2 Compression 2.4.3 Ablation 2.5 Evapotranspiration 2.5.1 Methods to determine evapotranspiration 2.5.2 Determination of potential evapotranspiration of an area with vegetation cover 2.5.3 Determination of the actual evapotranspiration
Chapter 3: Modelling of the soil moisture regime

3.1 Hydrologic processes in the unsaturated soil layer 3.1.1 Soil moisture 3.1.2 Infiltration 3.1.3 Percolation 3.1.4 Determination of the actual evapotranspiration 3.1.5 Capillary Uprise 3.1.6 Interflow 3.2 Mathematical solution to soil water equation
Chapter 4: Processes of discharge concentration

4.1. General Information 4.2. Translation model 4.3. Retention model 4.4. Combination of translation and reservoir model
Chapter 5: Subsurface runoff (Interflow and groundwater runoff)

5.1 Interflow 5.2 Discharge concentration in aquifer (groundwater flow) 5.2.1 Discharge from the Upper and Lower GWR 5.2.2 Deep groundwater outflow
Chapter 6: Flood wave formation in the channel

6.1 Flood Routing applying the linear reservoir model 6.2 The method of Kalinin-Miljukov 6.3 Application of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method to a large channel reach
Chapter 7: Application aspects of the Kalinin-Miljukov Method

7.1 Basic Equations for the discharge calculation in channel 7.2 Extending the basic equation for channel flow for the characteristic profile 7.3 Determination of the parameters for the Kalinin/Miljukov method
Appendix: Linear Reservoir Model

Master Program Environmental Engineering Surface Hydrology Summer Semester 2002/2003

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Arbeitsbereich Wasserbau

Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. Pasche

Nourishment Industry Food Industry Energy source

Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Hydrologic Cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)

Better understanding of flood management measures for:

Hydrologic cycle is illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Figure 2.1 Hydrologic cycle (source: Michael E. Ritter, University of Wisconsin)

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Table 1. Processes of the Hydrologic Cycle

Saturated soil layer Water course

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Table 2. Different forms of Precipitation

Form liquid solid

Direct condensation or sublimation in the atmosphere ( precipitation from clouds, rainfall)

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Intensity in in < 2,5 mm/h 2,5 < in < 7,5 7,5< in

Description Poor rain Moderate rain Heavy rain

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Figure 2.2 Tyssen method

Another example of Thiesssen method is given in Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3 example of Thiessen method

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Figure 2.4 Downward losses

= actual content of the interception storage

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

where is: is au aT : potential snow melt rate [mm/h],

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

falls W ( t ) > h Pmax

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

The following methods are considered:

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

with the following terms (according to DVWK-bulletin 238/1996): ET0 s RN G L T V2 g mm hPa/K W

With the following consideration: L = (249,8 - 0,242 *T) [J / (cm ( mm)]

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Net solar radiation RN can be calculated as follows:

where is V = 0,49 ( 10-6 [(J : cm k4)] Joule Stefan-Bolzmann-Constant g a S S0 RG R0 z j diml. h h W

Where the global radiation is calculated in the following way:

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

S R G = R 0 0,19 + 0,55 S0 Extraterrestrial radiation can be calculated as follows:

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Determination of the actual evapotranspiration

Surface Hydrology-Hydrologic Cycle

Reduction factor Ri is calculated as follows:

Where is: WP WE BF(t) FK

Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime

Figure 3.2 Distribution of the soil layers

Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime

Thus, the quantity equation gives:

Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime

Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime

Figure 3.4 Porosity according to Bear

Surface Hydrology- Modelling of the soil moisture regime