MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

B.TECH. DEGREE COURSE

SCHEME AND SYLLABUS (2002-03 ADMISSION ONWARDS) MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY KOTTAYAM,KERALA

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES M 502 Module 1 Patterns: - pattern allowances and materials-moulding-core and core printstypes of cores- pattern construction-layout and colour coding-tools-processesmoulding sand constituents, types and testing-moulding machines-moulding procedure-sand conditioning-gating system-cupola operation-pouring and cleaning of castings-defects in castings-inspection and quality control-casting machines-design of dies-centrifugal, continuous, investment, squeeze casting and shell- mould casting- -comparison of casting with other production processes.( include necessary figures) 3+1+0

Module 2 Welding: - definition-metallurgy of welding-applications classification mechanism-processes-gas welding - details, equipment, fluxes and filler rods -design effect of weld parameters on weld quality-flame cutting-ISI specification for welding. Arc welding applications- equipment polaritygoverning factor in fusion welding-electrodes and types-ISI specification for electrodes Welding design-butt joint-TIG-GMA-CO2 process. Submerged arc, electroslag plasma arc and flux cored arc welding-resistance, thermit solid state, electron beam and laser welding. Brazing: soldering-explosive welding-inspection and defects in welding-welding of plastics.(include necessary figures )
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Module 3 Rolling: - principles-types of rolls and rolling mills-semi finished and rolled products- rolling of tubes, wheels, axles, I-beam-thread and gear rollingfriction and lubrication in metal forming-hot and cold rolling-rolling machines-heating and cooling in rolling-strip velocity and roll velocity-roll and roll pass design -Theories of rolling and effect of parameters-load calculation-High velocity forming - energysources - material behaviour pneumatic, mechanical, electrohydraulic, electromagnetic, and explosive forming.

Module 4 Press working: - types of presses and pressworking operations involving shearing, bending, drawing, squeezing-Extrusion: - methods, machinesanalysis of rod extrusion-Wire and wire drawing operations-analysis-die angles-simple, progressive and compound dies-plastic and rubber processingCalendering-transfer, injection and compression moulding.

Module 5 Forging: -classification-process-equipments-drawing, deep drawing,

punching, blanking- tube piercing-spinning and coining-elastic and plastic deformation-hot forging, die forging- machinery for forging-operationheating in forging-manufacture of drop forging dies, presses-design of forgings and dies-upsetting-forging defects-forging analysis-quality

assurance for forging-non destructive testing. References 1. Workshop Technology - Raghuvanshi 2. Manufacturing Engineering & Technology - S.Kalpakjian and S.A.Schmidt 3. Manufacturing Processes - Begeman 4. Manufacturing Science & Technology; Vol. I - Suresh Daleela 5. Processes and Materials of Manufacture - Roy A.Lindberg

MODULE-1 CASTING PROCESS

Manufacturing came from Latin word manu factus (meaning made by hand), manufacture -first appeared in 1567 and manufacturing in 1683.It involves making products from raw materials by various processes, machinery & operations following a well organized plan for each activity required. Manufacturing is a complex activity which involves materials, capital, energy, and people. (People of various disciplines and skills). A variety of machinery, equipment tooling with various levels of automation (computers etc), and material handling are involved. Classification of manufacturing Process CASTING JOINING FORMING MACHINING

1. CASTING 1. History Casting technology, according to biblical records, reaches back almost 5,000 years BC. Gold, pure in nature, most likely caught Prehistoric man's fancy, as he probably hammered gold ornaments out of the gold nuggets he found. Silver would have been treated similarly. Mankind next found copper, because it appeared in the ash of his camp fires from copper-bearing ore that he lined his fire pits with. Man soon found that copper was harder than gold or silver. Copper did not bend up when used. So copper, found a 'nitch' in man's early tools, and then marched it's way into Weaponry. But, long before all this, man found clay. So he made pottery - something to eat from. Then he thought, "now, what else can I do with this mud. Early man thought about it, "they used this pottery stuff, (the first patterns), to shape metal into bowls ".

2. Introduction Virtually nothing moves, turns, rolls, or flies without the benefit of cast metal products. The metal casting industry plays a key role in all the major sectors of our economy. There are castings in locomotives, cars trucks, aircraft, office buildings, factories, schools, and homes some metal cast parts. Metal Casting is one of the oldest materials shaping methods known. Casting means pouring molten metal into a mold with a cavity of the shape to be made, and allowing it to solidify. When solidified, the desired metal object is taken out from the mold either by breaking the mold or taking the mold apart. The solidified object is called the casting. By this process, intricate parts can be given strength and rigidity frequently not obtainable by any other manufacturing process. The mold, into which the metal is poured, is made of some heat resisting material. Sand is most often used as it resists the high temperature of the molten metal. Permanent molds of metal can also be used to cast products. ADVANTAGES The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages. 1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by this process. As a result, many other operations, such as machining, forging, and welding, can be minimized or eliminated. 2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous. 3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be achieved. 4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.

5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way. 6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process. LIMITATIONS 1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting

processes are a limitation to this technique. Many new casting processes have been developed which can take into consideration the aspects of dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Some of these processes are die casting process, investment casting process, vacuum-sealed molding process, and shell molding process. 2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process.

PATTERN The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is substantial. Functions of the Pattern 1. 2. A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a

core and need to be made hollow. 3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may

form a part of the pattern.

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4.

Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting

defects. 5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Pattern Material Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages, limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Easily worked, shaped and joined Light in weight Strong, hard and durable Resistant to wear and abrasion Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.

Figure 1: A typical pattern attached with gating and risering system PATTERN ALLOWANCES Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting. Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Shrinkage or contraction allowance Draft or taper allowance Machining or finish allowance Distortion or camber allowance Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types: i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal

changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold. ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal

loses temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a standard rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule in measuring it 4 inch would actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage. The various rate of contraction of various materials are given in Table 1. Table 1 : Rate of Contraction of Various Metals Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance (inch/ft) 0.125 0.105 0.083 0.251 0.191 0.155 0.155 0.143 0.125

Grey Cast Iron

Up to 2 feet 2 feet to 4 feet over 4 feet Up to 2 feet 2 feet to 6 feet over 6 feet Up to 4 feet 4 feet to 6 feet over 6 feet

Cast Steel

Aluminum

Magnesium

Up to 4 feet Over 4 feet

0.173 0.155

Draft or Taper Allowance By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by the molder. Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of molding; and pattern material. Table 2 provides a general guide lines for the draft allowance. Table 2 : Draft Allowances of Various Metals Pattern material Height of the given surface (inch) 1 1 to 2 Wood 2 to 4 4 to 8 8 to 32 1 1 to 2 Metal and plastic 2 to 4 4 to 8 8 to 32 3.00 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50 1.50 1.00 0.75 0.50 0.50 Draft angle (External surface) Draft angle (Internal surface) 3.00 2.50 1.50 1.00 1.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 0.75

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Machining or Finish Allowance The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand molding or machine molding, sand casting or metal mold casting. The amount of machining allowance is also affected by the size and shape of the casting; the casting orientation; the metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish required. The machining allowances recommended for different metal is given in Table 3. Table 3 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals Metal Dimension (inch) Up to 12 Cast iron 12 to 20 20 to 40 Up to 6 Cast steel 6 to 20 20 to 40 Up to 8 Non ferrous 8 to 12 12 to 40 Allowance (inch) 0.12 0.20 0.25 0.12 0.25 0.30 0.09 0.12 0.16

Distortion or Camber Allowance Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can

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be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical ( (Figure 2). The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are caused on account of unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure taken to prevent the distortion in casting includes: i. ii. iii. Modification of casting design Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion

allowance (inverse reflection)

Figure 2: Distortions in Casting

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Rapping Allowance Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane. Core and Core Prints Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the mold. The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the casting operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity. A typical job,its pattern and the mold cavity with core and core print is shown in Figure 3

. Figure 3: A Typical Job, its Pattern and the Mold Cavity

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TYPES OF PATTERN

Patterns are of various types, each satisfying certain casting requirements.1. piece pattern 2. 3. Split or two piece pattern Match plate pattern Single

Fig 4: Types of patterns Single Piece Pattern The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types of patterns. This type of pattern is used only in cases where the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for application in very small-scale production or in prototype development. This type of pattern is expected to be entirely in the drag and one of the surface is is expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane. A gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help of sand tools. If no such flat surface exists, the molding becomes complicated. A typical one-piece pattern is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: A Typical One Piece Pattern

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Split or Two Piece Pattern Split or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. It is split along the parting surface, the position of which is determined by the shape of the casting. One half of the pattern is molded in drag and the other half in cope. The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins, which are fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern. A typical split pattern of a cast iron wheel Figure 6 (a) is shown in Figure 6 (b).

Figure 6 (a): The Details of a Cast Iron Wheel

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Figure 6 (b): The Split Piece or Two Piece Pattern of a Cast Iron Wheel

GATING SYSTEM The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through which molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system depends upon the function of different channels which they perform.

Down gates or sprue Cross gates or runners Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and passes through the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering into the mold cavity. Goals of Gating System The goals for the gating system are

To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

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To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify To avoid shrinkage Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.

Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

Hydraulic Principles used in the Gating System Reynold's Number Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating Reynold's number

RN V D m r

= = = = =

Reynold's number Mean Velocity of flow diameter of tubular flow Kinematics Viscosity Fluid density = Dynamic viscosity / Density

When the Reynold's number is less than 2000 stream line flow results and when the number is more than 2000 turbulent flow prevails. As far as possible the turbulent flow must be avoided in the sand mold as because of the turbulence sand particles gets dislodged from the mold or the gating system and may enter into the mould cavity leading to the production of defective casting. Excess turbulence causes

Inclusion of dross or slag Air aspiration into the mold

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Erosion of the mold walls

Bernoulli's Equation

h P v g r

= = = = =

height of liquid Static Pressure metal velocity Acceleration due to gravity Fluid density

Turbulence can be avoided by incorporating small changes in the design of gating system. The sharp changes in the flow should be avoided to smooth changes. The gating system must be designed in such a way that the system always runs full with the liquid metal. The most important things to remember in designing runners and gates are to avoid sharp corners. Any changes in direction or cross sectional area should make use of rounded corners. To avoid the aspiration the tapered sprues are designed in the gating systems. A sprue tapered to a smaller size at its bottom will create a choke which will help keep the sprue full of molten metal. TYPES OF GATING SYSTEMS The gating systems are of two types:

Pressurized gating system Un-pressurized gating system

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Pressurized Gating System

The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more turbulence and chances of mold erosion

Un-Pressurized Gating System

The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity Restriction only at the bottom of sprue Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full Less turbulence

Types of Gating Systems Riser Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally. Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers. Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages. 1. during the liquid state 2. during the transformation from liquid to solid 3. during the solid state First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the second type of shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that

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portion of the casting which is last to freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be able to feed the casting during this time. Functions of Risers

Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage Allow mold gases to escape Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF RISERS 1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of

(volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the risers. 2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered

by effectively calculating the feeding distance of the risers. 3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings

as spherical risers, although considers as best, are difficult to cast. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be shaped as hemisphere. CLASSIFICATION OF CASTING PROCESSES Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR categories: 1. Conventional Molding Processes 1.1. Green Sand Molding 1.2. Dry Sand Molding 1.3. Flask less Molding 2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes

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2.1 Shell Molding 2.2 Sodium Silicate Molding 2.3 No-Bake Molding 3. Permanent Mold Processes 3.1 Gravity Die casting 3.2 Low and High Pressure Die Casting 4. Special Casting Processes 4.1 Lost Wax Ceramics 4.2 Shell Molding 4.3 Evaporative Pattern Casting 4.4 Vacuum Sealed Molding 4.5 Centrifugal Casting Green Sand Molding Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal casting operations. The process utilizes a mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand. The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture in the molding sand. The mold material consists of silica sand mixed with a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) and moisture. Advantages Most metals can be cast by this method. Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low. No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal or alloy used Disadvantages

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Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and machining is often required to achieve the finished product. Sand Mold Making Procedure The procedure for making mold of a cast iron wheel is shown in (Figure 7 (a), (b),).

The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding board. The drag is placed on the board ((Figure 7 (a)). Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.

Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers; then the drag is completely filled.

The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. The ramming must be proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.

After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a straight bar known as a strike rod.

With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification.

The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.

Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the help of locating pins. The cope flask on the drag is located aligning again with the help of pins ( (Figure 7 (b)).

The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern. A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the pattern. Also, riser pin, if required, is placed at an appropriate place.

The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same manner as performed in the drag.

The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the top to pour the liquid metal.

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Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in the form of paste is applied all over the mold cavity and runners which would give the finished casting a good surface finish.

The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring

Figure 7 (a)

Figure 7 (b)

Dry Sand Molding When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the molds, air-dried molds are sometimes preferred to green sand molds. Two types of drying of molds are often required. 1. Skin drying and 2. Complete mold drying.

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In skin drying a firm mold face is produced. Shakeout of the mold is almost as good as that obtained with green sand molding. The most common method of drying the refractory mold coating uses hot air, gas or oil flame. Skin drying of the mold can be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed at the mold surface. Shell Molding Process It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a thermosetting resin is allowed to come in contact with a heated pattern plate (200 oC), this causes a skin (Shell) of about 3.5 mm of sand/plastic mixture to adhere to the pattern.. Then the shell is removed from the pattern. The cope and drag shells are kept in a flask with necessary backup material and the molten metal is poured into the mold.

This process can produce complex parts with good surface finish 1.25 m to 3.75 m, and dimensional tolerance of 0.5 %. A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need for machining. The process overall is quite cost effective due to reduced machining and cleanup costs. The materials that can be used with this process are cast irons, and aluminum and copper alloys.

Fig : 8, Shell moulding

Molding Sand in Shell Molding Process

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The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand and powdered bakelite. There are two methods of coating the sand grains with bakelite. First method is Cold coating method and another one is the hot method of coating. In the method of cold coating, quartz sand is poured into the mixer and then the solution of powdered bakelite in acetone and ethyl aldehyde are added. The typical mixture is 92% quartz sand, 5% bakelite, 3% ethyl aldehyde. During mixing of the ingredients, the resin envelops the sand grains and the solvent evaporates, leaving a thin film that uniformly coats the surface of sand grains, thereby imparting fluidity to the sand mixtures. In the method of hot coating, the mixture is heated to 150-180 o C prior to loading the sand. In the course of sand mixing, the soluble phenol formaldehyde resin is added. The mixer is allowed to cool up to 80 - 90 o C. This method gives better properties to the mixtures than cold method. Sodium Silicate Molding Process In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium silicate-based binder. For molds, the sand mixture can be compacted manually, jolted or squeezed around the pattern in the flask. After compaction, CO 2 gas is passed through the core or mold. The CO 2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate to cure, or harden, the binder. This cured binder then holds the refractory in place around the pattern. After curing, the pattern is withdrawn from the mold. The sodium silicate process is one of the most environmentally acceptable of the chemical processes available. The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs water, which causes a porosity in the castings.. Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold wall, shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can slow down production. Some of the advantages of the process are: A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives the casting good dimensional tolerances;

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 Good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable; Permanent Mold Process In all the above processes, a mold need to be prepared for each of the casting produced. For large-scale production, making a mold, for every casting to be produced, may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a permanent mold, called the die may be made from which a large number of castings can be produced. , the molds are usually made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as mold materials. The process in which we use a die to make the castings is called permanent mold casting or gravity die casting, since the metal enters the mold under gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject the molten metal with a high pressure. When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure die casting process.

Advantages Permanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior mechanical properties. The castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher degree of dimensional accuracy than castings produced in sand

The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent quality of finish on castings Disadvantages The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings The process is generally limited to the production of small castings of simple exterior design, although complex castings heads are now commonplace. such as aluminum engine blocks and

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Centrifugal Casting In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it. Because of the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and segregate towards the center. This process is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with a concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core needs to be used for making the concentric hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an inclined axis or about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten metal poured into the mold. Advantages Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores Less material required for gate Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity Disadvantages More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions Inaccurate internal diameter Investment Casting Process The root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or "lost wax" method dates back to at least the fourth millennium B.C. The artists and sculptors of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia used the rudiments of the investment casting process to create intricately detailed jewelry, pectorals and idols. The investment casting process alos called lost wax process begins with the production of wax replicas or patterns of the desired shape of the castings. A pattern is needed for every casting to

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be produced. The patterns are prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene in a metal dies. A number of patterns are attached to a central wax sprue to form a assembly. The mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry that can set at room temperature. The mold is then heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean cavity behind. The mould is further hardened by heating and the molten metal is poured while it is still hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is broken and the casting taken out. The basic steps of the investment casting process are 1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns 2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system 3. "Investing," or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry 4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material 5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material 6. Pouring 7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing. Advantages Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores Less material required for gate Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity Disadvantages More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions Inaccurate internal diameter Ceramic Shell Investment Casting Process

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The basic difference in investment casting is that in the investment casting the wax pattern is immersed in a refractory aggregate before dewaxing whereas, in ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a pattern into a slurry (refractory material such as zircon with binder). After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the assembly is allowed to thoroughly dry before the next coating is applied. Thus, a shell is built up around the assembly. The thickness of this shell is dependent on the size of the castings and temperature of the metal to be poured. After the ceramic shell is completed, the entire assembly is placed into an autoclave or flash fire furnace at a high temperature. The shell is heated to about 982 o C to burn out any residual wax and to develop a high-temperature bond in the shell. The shell molds can then be stored for future use or molten metal can be poured into them immediately. If the shell molds are stored, they have to be preheated before molten metal is poured into them. Advantages Excellent surface finish Tight dimensional tolerances Machining can be reduced or completely eliminated Full Mold Process / Lost Foam Process / Evaporative Pattern Casting Process The use of foam patterns for metal casting was patented by H.F. Shroyer on April 15, 1958. In Shroyer's patent, a pattern was machined from a block of expanded polystyrene (EPS) and supported by bonded sand during pouring. This process is known as the full mold process. With the full mold process, the pattern is usually machined from an EPS block and is used to make primarily large, one-of-a kind castings. The full mold process was originally known as the lost foam process. However, current patents have required that the generic term for the process be full mold.

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In 1964, M.C. Flemmings used unbounded sand with the process. This is known today as lost foam casting (LFC). With LFC, the foam pattern is molded from polystyrene beads. LFC is differentiated from full mold by the use of unbounded sand (LFC) as opposed to bonded sand (full mold process). Foam casting techniques have been referred to by a variety of generic and proprietary names. Among these are lost foam, evaporative pattern casting, cavity less casting, evaporative foam casting, and full mold casting. In this method, the pattern, complete with gates and risers, is prepared from expanded polystyrene. This pattern is embedded in a no bake type of sand. While the pattern is inside the mold, molten metal is poured through the sprue. The heat of the metal is sufficient to gasify the pattern and progressive displacement of pattern material by the molten metal takes place. The EPC process is an economical method for producing complex, close-tolerance castings using an expandable polystyrene pattern and unbonded sand. Expandable polystyrene is a thermoplastic material that can be molded into a variety of complex, rigid shapes. The EPC process involves attaching expandable polystyrene patterns to an expandable polystyrene gating system and applying a refractory coating to the entire assembly. After the coating has dried, the foam pattern assembly is positioned on loose dry sand in a vented flask. Additional sand is then added while the flask is vibrated until the pattern assembly is completely embedded in sand. Molten metal is poured into the sprue, vaporizing the foam polystyrene, perfectly reproducing the pattern. In this process, a pattern refers to the expandable polystyrene or foamed polystyrene part that is vaporized by the molten metal. A pattern is required for each casting. Process Description The EPC procedure starts with the pre-expansion of beads, usually polystyrene. After the pre-expanded beads are stabilized, they are blown into a mold to form pattern

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sections. When the beads are in the mold, a steam cycle causes them to fully expand and fuse together. 1. The pattern sections are assembled with glue, forming a cluster. The gating system is also attached in a similar manner. 2. The foam cluster is covered with a ceramic coating. The coating forms a barrier so that the molten metal does not penetrate or cause sand erosion during pouring. 3. After the coating dries, the cluster is placed into a flask and backed up with bonded sand. 4. Mold compaction is then achieved by using a vibration table to ensure uniform and proper compaction. Once this procedure is complete, the cluster is packed in the flask and the mold is ready to be poured . Advantages The most important advantage of EPC process is that no cores are required. No binders or other additives are required for the sand, which is reusable. Shakeout of the castings in unbonded sand is simplified. There are no parting lines or core fins. Vacuum Sealed Molding Process It is a process of making molds utilizing dry sand, plastic film and a physical means of binding using negative pressure or vacuum. V-process was developed in Japan in 1971. Since then it has gained considerable importance due to its capability to produce dimensionally accurate and smooth castings. The basic difference between the V-process and other sand molding processes is the manner in which sand is bounded to form the mold cavity. In V-process vacuum, of the order of 250 - 450 mm Hg, is imposed to bind the dry free flowing sand encapsulated in between two plastic films. The technique involves the formation of a mold cavity by vacuum forming of a plastic film over the pattern, backed by unbounded sand, which is compacted by vibration and held rigidly in place by applying vacuum. When the metal is poured into the molds, the plastic film first melts and then gets sucked just inside the sand voids due to imposed vacuum where it condenses and forms a shell-

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like layer. The vacuum must be maintained until the metal solidifies, after which the vacuum is released allowing the sand to drop away leaving a casting with a smooth surface. No shakeout equipment is required and the same sand can be cooled and reused without further treatment. Sequence of Producing V-Process Molds The Pattern is set on the Pattern Plate of Pattern Box. The Pattern as well as the Pattern Plate has Numerous Small Holes. These Holes Help the Plastic Film to

Adhere Closely on Pattern When Vacuum is Applied. A Heater is used to Soften the Plastic Film The Softened Plastic Film Drapes over the Pattern. The Vacuum Suction Acts through the Vents (Pattern and Pattern the Pattern. The Molding Box is Set on the Film Coated Pattern The Molding Box is filled with Dry Sand. Slight Vibration Compacts the Sand Level the Mold. Cover the Top of Molding Box with Plastic Film. Vacuum Suction Stiffens the Mold. Release the Vacuum on the Pattern Box and Mold Strips Easily. Cope and Drag are assembled and Metal is poured. During Pouring the Mold is Kept under Vacuum After Cooling, the Vacuum is released. Free Flowing Sand Drops Away, Leaving a Clean Casting Advantages Exceptionally Good Dimensional Accuracy Good Surface Finish Plate) to draw it so that it adheres closely to

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 Longer Pattern Life Consistent Reproducibility Low Cleaning / Finishing Cost MOLDING MATERIAL AND PROPERTIES A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores. They include molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally required in molding materials are: Refractoriness It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest. Permeability During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated. These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome this problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated inside the mold cavity. Green Strength The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.
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Dry Strength When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material. Hot Strength As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot strength. Collapsibility The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified casting it does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings. Besides these specific properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity. Molding Sand Composition The main ingredients of any molding sand are:

Base sand, Binder, and Moisture

Base Sand Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used for making mold are zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is easily available. Binder

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Binders are of many types such as: 1. 2. 3. Clay binders, Organic binders and Inorganic binders

Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the strength. The most popular clay types are: Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O) Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power. Moisture Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture. When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the plasticity. A typical composition of molding sand is given in (Table 4). Table 4 : A Typical Composition of Molding Sand Molding Sand Constituent Silica sand Clay (Sodium Bentonite) Water Weight Percent 92 8 4

MELTING PRACTICES

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Melting is an equally important parameter for obtaining a quality castings. A number of furnaces can be used for melting the metal, to be used, to make a metal casting. The choice of furnace depends on the type of metal to be melted. Some of the furnaces used in metal casting are as following:.

Crucible furnaces Cupola Induction furnace Reverberatory furnace

.Crucible Furnace. Crucible furnaces are small capacity typically used for small melting applications. Crucible furnace is suitable for the batch type foundries where the metal requirement is intermittent. The metal is placed in a crucible which is made of clay and graphite. The energy is applied indirectly to the metal by heating the crucible by coke, oil or gas. The heating of crucible is done by coke, oil or gas. . Coke-Fired Furnace.

Primarily used for non-ferrous metals Furnace is of a cylindrical shape Also known as pit furnace Preparation involves: first to make a deep bed of coke in the furnace Burn the coke till it attains the state of maximum combustion Insert the crucible in the coke bed Remove the crucible when the melt reaches to desired temperature

Oil-Fired Furnace.

Primarily used for non-ferrous metals Furnace is of a cylindrical shape Advantages include: no wastage of fuel Less contamination of the metal

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Absorption of water vapor is least as the metal melts inside the closed metallic furnace

Cupola Cupola furnaces are tall, cylindrical furnaces used to melt iron and ferrous alloys in foundry operations. Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from the top. A schematic diagram of a cupola is shown in Figure14. This diagram of a cupola illustrates the furnace's cylindrical shaft lined with refractory and the alternating layers of coke and metal scrap. The molten metal flows out of a spout at the bottom of the cupola. . Description of Cupola

The cupola consists of a vertical cylindrical steel sheet and lined inside with acid refractory bricks. The lining is lower portion generally thicker in the

portion of the cupola as the temperature are higher than in upper

There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron, steel scrap and flux is charged

The blast is blown through the tuyeres These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row around the periphery of cupola Hot gases which ascends from the bottom (combustion zone) preheats the iron in the preheating zone

Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which debris, consisting of coke, slag etc. can be discharged at the end of the melt

A slag hole is provided to remove the slag from the melt Through the tap hole molten metal is poured into the ladle At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent the spark emerging to outside

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Operation of Cupola The cupola is charged with wood at the bottom. On the top of the wood a bed of coke is built. Alternating layers of metal and ferrous alloys, coke, and limestone are fed into the furnace from the top. The purpose of adding flux is to eliminate the impurities and to protect the metal from oxidation. Air blast is opened for the complete combustion of coke. When sufficient metal has been melted that slag hole is first opened to remove the slag. Tap hole is then opened to collect the metal in the ladle.

.Figure 9: Schematic of a Cupola

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Reverberatory furnace A furnace or kiln in which the material under treatment is heated indirectly by means of a flame deflected downward from the roof. Reverberatory furnaces are used in copper, tin, and nickel production, in the production of certain concretes and cements, and in aluminum. Reverberatory furnaces heat the metal to melting temperatures with direct fired wall-mounted burners. The primary mode of heat transfer is through radiation from the refractory brick walls to the metal, but convective heat transfer also provides additional heating from the burner to the metal. The advantages provided by reverberatory melters is the high volume processing rate, and low operating and maintenance costs. The disadvantages of the reverberatory melters are the high metal oxidation rates, low efficiencies, and large floor space requirements. A schematic of Reverberatory furnace is shown in Figure 10

Figure 10: Schematic of a Reverberatory Furnace Induction furnace Induction heating is a heating method. The heating by the induction method occurs when an electrically conductive material is placed in a varying magnetic field.

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Induction heating is a rapid form of heating in which a current is induced directly into the part being heated. Induction heating is a non-contact form of heating. The heating system in an induction furnace includes: 1. Induction heating power supply, 2. Induction heating coil, 3. Water-cooling source, which cools the coil and several internal components inside the power supply. The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through the induction coil, which generates a magnetic field. Induction furnaces work on the principle of a transformer. An alternative electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal which converts the electric energy to heat without any physical contact between the induction coil and the work piece The furnace contains a crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil. The coil is called primary coil to which a high frequency current is supplied. By induction secondary currents, called eddy currents are produced in the crucible. High temperature can be obtained by this method. Induction furnaces are of two types: cored furnace and coreless furnace. Cored furnaces are used almost exclusively as holding furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic field heats the metal between two coils. Coreless furnaces heat the metal via an external primary coil. Advantages of Induction Furnace

Induction heating is a clean form of heating High rate of melting or high melting efficiency Alloyed steels can be melted without any loss of alloying elements Controllable and localized heating

Disadvantages of Induction Furnace

High capital cost of the equipment

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High operating cost

CASTING DEFECTS The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

Gas defects Shrinkage cavities Molding material defects Pouring metal defects Mold shift

Gas Defects A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal. Causes The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture present in the mold.

Metal contains gas Mold is too hot Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

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These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities. Molding Material Defects The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell. Cut and washes These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of molding sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system. Metal penetration When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a rough casting surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration. Fusion This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high. Swell Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
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Inclusions Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the mold can prevent this defect. Pouring Metal Defects The likely defects in this category are

Mis-runs and Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run results when the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and should be avoided in casting design. A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the casting design. The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.

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Mold Shift The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.

Figure 11 : Casting Defects METHODS OF TESTING CASTINGS 1. Destructive 2. Non destructive Destructive testing involves mechanical testings like tension, compression and shear testings using universal testing machines. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING Nondestructive testing (NDT) has been defined as comprising those test methods used to examine an object, material or system without impairing its future usefulness. The term is generally applied to nonmedical investigations of material integrity. Strictly speaking, this definition of nondestructive testing does include noninvasive medical diagnostics. Ultrasound, X-rays and endoscopes are used for both medical testing and industrial testing. In the 1940s, many members of the American Society for Nondestructive Testing (then the Society for Industrial Radiography) were medical X-ray professionals. Medical nondestructive testing,
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however, has come to be treated by a body of learning so separate from industrial nondestructive testing that today most physicians never use the word nondestructive. Main types of NDT testing involves 1. Visual Inspection 2. Ultrasonic Testings 3. X-ray Inspection 4. Pressure and Leak Test 5. Magnetic particle testing 6. Eddy current testing Nondestructive testing is used to investigate the material integrity of the test object. A number of other technologies - for instance, radio astronomy, voltage and amperage measurement and rheometry (flow measurement) - are nondestructive but are not used to evaluate material properties specifically. Nondestructive testing is concerned in a practical way with the performance of the test piece - how long may the piece be used and when does it need to be checked again? Radar and sonar are classified as nondestructive testing when used to inspect dams, for instance, but not when they are used to chart a river bottom. VISUAL TESTING It is most widely used and an experienced inspector knows where likely cracks, orientation of cracks are relative to various zones in the castings, surface porosity, potential weakness such as sharp notches or misalignment ULTRASONIC TESTINGS Non Destructive Testing with Ultrasonics for flaw Detection in Castings, Weldments, Rails, Forged Components etc.Flaw detection in metals and nonmetals Flaw measurement in very thick materials Internal and surface flaws can be detected Inspection costs are relatively low. It has rapid testing capabilities and portability. Ultrasonic waves are simply vibrational waves having a frequency higher than the hearing range of the normal human ear, which is typically considered to be 20,000
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cycles per second (Hz) .The upper end of the range, is not well defined. Frequencies higher than 10 GHz have been generated. However, most practical ultrasonic flaw detection is accomplished with frequencies from 200 kHz to 20 MHz, with 50 MHz used in material property investigations. Ultrasonic energy can be used in materials and structures for flaw detection and material property determinations. Ultrasonic waves are mechanical waves (in contrast to, for example, light or x-rays, which are electromagnetic waves) that consist of oscillations or vibrations of the atomic or molecular particles of a substance about the equilibrium positions of these particles. Ultrasonic waves behave essentially the same as audible sound waves. They can propagate in an elastic medium, which can be solid, liquid, or gaseous, but not in a vacuum. In solids, the particles can (a) Oscillate along the direction of sound propagation as longitudinal waves, or (b) the oscillations can be perpendicular to the direction of sound waves as transverse waves. At surfaces and interfaces, various types of elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles occur. Fundamentals of X-ray Inspection Imaging A collimated beam of ionizing radiation emitted from a X-ray tube passes through the casting being inspected. After the beam passes through the casting, it impinges on to the imaging device, which would be either an image intensifier or a digital imager. The imaging devices are discussed in the next section, headed "X-ray Inspection Techniques". As the beam passes through the casting the X-ray energy level is attenuated in proportion to the material thickness and the presence of any void, inclusion or discontinuity within the casting. In effect, an image similar to a shadowgraph is produced but with added information relating to the internal structure of the casting. This is illustrated in figure 2. The presence of a void such as porosity would reduce the amount of attenuation at the location of the void. This attenuation reduction has a direct relationship to the X-ray energy attenuation of the sound material immediately adjacent the void. Conversely, if a high-density inclusion is present within the casting the level of attenuation would be increased. The imaging device records the X-ray energy level impinging on the input face and from this information a two-dimensional X-ray image is produced.
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Fig 15: Fundamental setup for X-ray inspection The main parameters taken into account when producing the X-ray technique are as follows:

Focal spot size of the X-ray tube head. Geometric distances between the tube head and the imaging device and the

casting and the imaging device.

X-ray energy level to be utilized, i.e. kV. and mA.

The physical size of the focal spot (the area within the X-ray tube head that emits the X-ray beam) is a very important factor in determining resolution of the image. As illustrated in Fig 3a, if the focal spot size is too large the penumbral effect will create an un-sharp image and reduce the resolution capability. A more appropriate focal spot size is illustrated in Fig 3b. In this case the area of un-sharpness is small and as a consequence a sharp high-resolution image would be produced. However, it does not follow that the smaller the focal spot the better the over-all image quality. This is because the X-ray image quality is dependent on a combination of both resolution and contrast characteristics. One factor that effects contrast of the X-ray image, is the photon flux density of the X-ray beam, which is mainly dependent on the mA level. The smaller the focal spot size the less photon flux can be produced. Therefore, the optimum image quality is produced by a balanced approach between focal spot size and the amount of mA utilized. This is particularly important when inspecting light alloy castings. For light alloy castings the use of a tube head that has a variable focal

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spot can be an advantage. The tube head would need the capability of varying the focal spot from 70um to 300um.

Fig 13a: Geometric factors that influence image quality As it can be seen from Figs 13a and 13b, geometric distance has an effect on image resolution. There is no one rule to determine geometric parameters, as practical aspects associated with the physical size of the casting have to be taken into account. The "rule of thumb" would be to put the casting as close to the imaging device as possible but take into account the field of view that would be obtained.

Fig 13b: Geometric factors that influence image quality Again, there is no one rule for the settings of kV and mA parameters. The "rule of thumb" would be to set the kV at a level that is sufficient to penetrate the casting and then maximize the available mA. It can be concluded from the above comments, that determining the optimum technique requires a high level of skill, in-depth

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knowledge of the equipment to be used and sound knowledge of the castings being inspected.

ADVANTAGES

More reliable and consistent X-ray inspection results. Reduction of the time taken to carry out X-ray inspection. Reduction of labor cost to carry out X-ray inspection. As the X-ray inspection results are produced and tabulated immediately after then

inspection has occurred, the results can be used as a process control tool. PRESSURE AND LEAK TEST It is a common form is hydrostatic test. Hydrostatic test often required for pressure vessels, pipes, valves. Normally pressurized to 1.5 or 2 times the working pressure and used for sensitive leak test. Radioactive material, halogen or helium gases are used Basic steps of dye Penetrant Testing 1. clean the surface 2. 3. 4. 5. apply penetrant remove excess penetrant apply developer inspect / interpretation

The penetrant seep into flaw as developer draws penetrant on to surface MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING It is for locating surface & subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. Here leakage current occurs at the discontinuities / surface flaws when magnetized. Fine particles collect at the leakage sites EDDY CURRENT TESTING Eddy current induced when electrically conductive material close to alternating
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magnetic field. Eddy current generates magnetic field which interact with original magnetic filed. Eddy current testing detect both surface & near surface irregularities Close contact not needed Can be automated No clean up Low cost equipment Response can be sensitive interpretation difficult Depth of penetration limited Need to maintain constant distance between coil and specimen for good result

Casting Quality Sand casting Die casting Tolerance (0.02~0.6 mm) Good mechanical property and microstructure due to high pressure Excellent surface detail Tolerance (0.7~2 mm) and defects are affected by shrinkage Material property is inherently poor Generally have a rough grainy surface

Investment casting Tolerance (0.08~0.2 mm) Mechanical property and microstructure depends on the method Good to excellent surface detail possible due to fine slurry

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Module II WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of Heat, with or without the application of pressure and addition of Filler Material. Note : Base Metals: Metals being welded. Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld.

WELDABILITY Weldability is the capacity of a material to be welded under fabrication conditions and to perform satisfactorily in the intended service. Weldability depends up on 1. Melting Point of the metal. 2. Thermal Conductivity 3. Thermal Expansion 4. Surface Condition. 5. Change in Microstructure A metallic material with adequate weldabilty should fulfill the following requirements : Have good strength after welding. Good corrosion resistance after welding. Have good weld quality.

Weldability Tests: are testing conducted to gather information about the behavior of a material during welding.

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CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING : Welding of metals can be divided into two categories. 1. Plastic Welding and 2. Fusion Welding.
1.

Plastic Welding: In this type of welding the metals to be joined are to be heated to the plastic state and then forced together by external pressure without the addition of filler material. Eg. Forge Welding, resistance welding.

2.

Fusion Welding: In this type of welding no pressure is involved but a very high temperature is produced in or near the joint. The metal at the joint is heated to the molten state and allowed to solidify. The heat may be generated by electric arc, combustion of gases or chemical action. A filler may be material is used during the welding process. eg. Oxy-Acetylene Welding, Carbon Arc Welding etc

TYPES OF WELDING : 1. Gas Welding a) Oxy-Acetylene Welding b) Air-Acetylene Welding c) Oxy-hydrogen Welding d) Pressure Gas Welding 2. Arc Welding a) Carbon Arc Welding b) Plasma Arc Welding c) Submerged Arc Welding d) Metal Arc Welding e) Electro-Slag Welding f) Flux Cored Arc Welding g) Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG) h) Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG) i) Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding

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3. Resistance Welding a) Butt Welding b) Projection Welding c) Spot Welding d) Percussion Welding e) Seam Welding 4. Thermo Chemical Welding Process a) Thermit Welding 5. Solid State Welding a) Friction Welding b) Explosive Welding c) Ultrasonic Welding d) Diffusion Welding 6. Radiant Energy Welding a) Electron Beam Welding b) Laser Welding

ADVANTAGES OF WELDING: It produces a permanent joint. Overall cost of welding equipment is low. Large number of metals can be welded. Welding operation can be mechanized. Welding operation is economical. High corrosion resistance compared to bolting and riveting. Portable welding equipments are available.

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DISADVANTAGES OF WELDING : Welding operation distorts (deforms) the work-pieces. Skilled worker is a must to produce good weld. Welded joints require heat treatment. Edge preparation is necessary. Produces chemical and physical changes. Some welding operation gives off harmful radiations. Welding as compared to Riveting and Casting : Welding is economical and faster process compared to both riveting and casting. Fabricated parts have more strength as compared to cast parts. Welding can join dissimilar metals. Design of a welded structure is simpler as compared to cast part. Cost of pattern making and storing is eliminated. Fewer persons are involved in welding process. Welding is cheaper than riveting. Welded structures are comparatively lighter than riveted structures. Welded structure has better finish than riveted ones. Making changes in an already cast or riveted structures is difficult. But welded structures can be repaired easily.

Practical Applications of Welding : Welding has been employed in industry as a tool for: a) Fabrication works. b) Repair and maintenance works.

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Few important applications are given below. Aircraft Constructions: - Engine Parts, Turbine engine frames for jet engine parts. Automobile Construction: - Car wheels, body parts etc. Bridges Buildings: - Trusses. Pressure Vessels and Tanks Storage Tanks Rail Road Equipment Piping and Pipelines Ships Machine Tool Frames Household and office furniture. Earthmoving machinery and cranes. PRESSURE WELDING PROCESSES Pressure Welding Process consists of:1. Forge welding 2. Spot welding 3. Seam welding 4. Projection welding 5. Butt welding 6. Flash butt welding 7. Welding of tubes 8. Percussion welding.

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FORGE WELDING

Principle In Forge Welding the parts to be welded are heated, mating surfaces are then upsetted, cleft shape is formed at the mating surface and joined by applying excess pressure at the mating surfaces. Forge welding can be carried-out for wrought iron and low carbon steels. Forge welding is possible in metals having thickness above 30 mm. The parts to be welded are heated to about1000C. Heating is done using coke or charcoal. Then the parts to be welded are upsetted at the ends. A cleft shape is formed on the ends. After applying suitable flux, the parts are placed end to end and are hammered together. This forms a strong weld. Types of Forge Welding 1. Fire Welding : In this type of Forge Welding, the parts to be joined are heated in fire by the Blacksmith and join them by hammering. 2. Water Gas Welding : In this type, parts are heated by water gas flame (consisting of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen) and joined by hammering or by means of pressure rollers. Used to manufacture pipes, containers etc.

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Advantages : Have good strength if joined correctly. Disadvantages : Skilled labor is required. Process restricted to mild steel and wrought iron. Process is slow. Applications : Used for making pipes, containers etc.

RESISTANCE WELDING Resistance Welding is a group of welding process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from the resistance of the work to the flow of current is a circuit I which work is a part and by the application of pressure. No filler metal is needed. The major two factors responsible for Resistance Welding are
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Heat

: Generation of heat takes place where two pieces are to be joined.

Pressure : Pressure is applied at the place where the joint is formed. Welding Time Human Element Welding Machine characteristics.

Various Resistance Welding process are 1. Spot Welding 2. Seam Welding 3. Projection Welding 4. Resistance (Upset) Butt Welding 5. Flash Butt Welding 6. Percussion Welding 7. Resistance Welding of Tubes

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Advantages of Resistance Welding :

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Fast rate of production. No filler rod is needed. Semi-automatic equipments. Less skilled workers can do the job. Both similar and dissimilar metals can be joined. Less wastage of metals. Less deformation of metals.

Disadvantages of Resistance Welding :

1. 2. 3.

Initial cost is high. In some materials, surface preparation is needed. Bigger job thickness cannot be welded.

SPOT WELDING

Stages in Spot Welding

Spot Welding Process

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Principle Spot Welding is a process of joining overlapping sheets by the heat generated by resistance to the flow of electric current through the work-pieces held together under force by two pointed electrodes. Spot Welding is used for joining relatively light gauge (less thickness) parts (up to about 3mm thick) superimposed on one another as a lap joint. Steps involved in Spot Welding : 1. Parts to be welded are cleaned. 2. Electrode tips are cleaned. 3. Water is allowed to pass through the weld in order to avoid overheating and cool the weld. 4. Sheets to be welded are placed one over the other and is placed between the electrodes. Pressure is applied to the work-pieces by the electrodes. 5. Welding current is switched on for a definite period of time. The current may vary from 3000 to 100,000 A for a fraction of seconds to few seconds depending upon the nature of material and its thickness. 6. As the current passes through, a small area where the work-pieces are in contact is heated due to the resistance offered by the materials in the contact area. 7. The temperature of the weld zone is around 815 C to 930 C. 8. Welding current is then cut off and extra electrode force is then applied to the work-pieces. This electrode force or pressure holds together the work-pieces. 9. The electrode pressure is then released. Different types of Spot Welds are : 1. Direct Weld 2. Series Weld or Indirect Weld 3. Push-pull Weld Advantages of Spot Welding : Low cost. High speed. Less skilled worker.
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 Good uniformity. No edge preparation needed. Applications : Spot welding can be replaced with riveting. Containers can be spot welded. Spot welding is used in automobile and aircraft industries. Brackets, cases covers, clips can be produced using Spot Welding. Many assemblies that do not require gas or air tight chambers can be joined by Spot Welding

SEAM WELDING Principle Spot Welding is a process of joining overlapping sheets by the heat generated by resistance to the flow of electric current through the work-pieces held together under force by two rotating circular electrodes. Seam Welding is similar to Spot Welding, but differ in the type of electrodes used. In Seam Welding, rotating circular electrodes replaces pointed electrodes in Spot Welding. Spot Welds are produced using rotating electrodes with regularly interrupted current.

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Steps involved in Seam Welding : 1. Parts to be welded are cleaned. 2. Parts to be welded are overlapped suitably between the two electrodes. 3. Current is applied to through the rollers to the material. Heat generated thus 4. Rotating welding electrodes are cooled to prevent overheating. 5. Welding current is switched on for a definite period of time. As the current passes through, a small area where the work-pieces are in contact is heated due to the resistance offered by the materials in the contact area. 6. The heat generated makes the metal plastic and pressure from the electrodes completes the bond. 7. Power driven circular electrodes are in rotation and work-pieces move steadily through them. 8. The current applied through the electrodes is on for a definite length and off for a definite period. 9. If the current is put off and on quickly a continuous joint is produced and the process is known as Stitch Welding. 10. If the current is put off and on regular timed intervals individual spots are produced and the process is known as Roll Welding.

Advantages of Seam Welding : It can produce gas or air tight or liquid joints. Overlap can be less than for Spot or Projection Welds. Types of Seam Welding There are two types of Seam Welding. They are 1. Stitch Welding and 2. Roll Spot Welding

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 In Stitch Welding process, the electrodes rotates at a steady speed and current flows continuously or is interrupted so as to produce a continuous weld. In Roll Spot Welding, the electrodes rotates for a certain period and then stop. The current is then switched on and the weld is made. Stitch Welding is used for work-pieces having thickness less than 4.5mm thick and Roll Spot Welding is employed for work-pieces having thickness above 4.5mm.

PROJECTION WELDING

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Principle Projection Welding is a process of joining materials by which joint is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current through the work parts held together under pressure by electrodes. The Projection Welding is similar to Spot Welding except that pointed electrodes are replaced by flat and relatively large electrodes and electrical and mechanical power applied is more compared to Spot Welding. The success of the Projection Welding depends up on the surface preparation of the work-piece to be welded.

Steps in Projection Welding: Small projections or small deformations are produced on the work-pieces to be welded by embossing, casting or machining. These projections helps to concentrate the welding heat at these areas and helps to form the joint. The work-pieces are kept in contact with each other under electrode pressure. The current flows through the projections and heats the metal to the plastic state. Heat softens the metal and the pressure applied by the electrode forms the joint. Advantages of Projection Welding : Number of welds can be produced simultaneously. Projection Welds can be made in metals that are too thick to be joined by Spot Welding. Projection Welding electrodes possess more life than Spot Welding. Projection welding is not limited to sheet to sheet joints. Disadvantages of Projection Welding : Metals which cannot withstand projections cannot be welded using Projection Welding. Eg. Copper. For proper welding al the projections must be of same height. Projection welding can be used for metals having projections.

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Applications: Used in Automobile parts. Small parts can be welded with large components using Projection Welding.

RESISTANCE (UPSET) BUTT WELDING OR BUTT WELDING Principle Resistance Butt Welding is a process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current between the two surfaces and by the application of pressure. Pressure is applied before heating is started and is maintained throughout the process. This pressure is later on increased to form the weld.

Steps in Resistance (Upset) Butt Welding One of the work-piece to be welded is firmly gripped to a movable clamp and other to a stationary clamp. Clamps hold the work-pieces and also conduct welding current through the work-pieces.

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 Force is applied so that the faces of the two work-pieces touch together and remain under pressure. Force is applied by moving the work-piece fixed to the movable clamp towards the work-piece fixed to the stationary clamp. Current is allowed to flow through this joint. There will be heat generated at the point of contact due to the high resistance at the point of contact. Both pressure and current are applied throughout the process until face becomes plastic. Then the work-pieces are pressured together to form a solid joint. Upsetting takes place while the current is flowing and then the current is shut off. Work-pieces are unclamped. Applications Used for joining non-ferrous materials for bars, rods, wire etc.

FLASH BUTT WELDING

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Principle Flash Welding is a process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current between the two surfaces and by the application of pressure. Flash Welding derives its name from the Flash produced during the process. 1. Steps in Flash Butt Welding : Flash Welding machine consists of a moving platen and one stationary platen. One of the work-piece to be welded is firmly gripped to a movable clamp and other to a stationary clamp. Clamps hold the work-pieces and also conduct welding current through the work-pieces. The ends of the work-pieces to be welded are brought very close to each other and as the welding current (with high voltage) is turned on flashing is produced. (Note : Flashing is produced by the expulsion of incandescent metal particles from the moving work-piece towards the stationary work-piece) As the flashing continues, the ends of the work-pieces reach higher temperature and finally they attain welding temperature. At this stage, pressure of the moving clamp is quickly increased causing expulsion of slag and molten metal out of the joint, thereby by making a sold weld. Expelled metal around the joint is then removed by cutting or grinding. The welding current is then cut off and then the work-pieces are unclamped. Metals Welded by Flash Welding Low carbon steels. Tool steels. Stainless steels. Aluminum steels. Copper steels. Magnesium alloys. Advantages of Flash Welding Many dissimilar metals can be joined.

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 Strong welds can be obtained. Process is cheap. Process is fast. Disadvantages of Flash Welding It is difficult to control and protect flashing. Metal is lost during flashing operation. Shape of the metals must be similar. Straightness of the work-pieces may be lost. Application of Flash Welding Used for butt welding of rods, bars etc. Used in automobiles industries, aircraft buildings and household appliances.

Difference between Flash Welding and Upset (Butt) Welding

SL.No 1. 2. 3. 4.

Flash Welding Flashing takes place.

Upset (Butt) Welding No flashing takes place.

Flash welding consumes less Consumes more current. welding current. Pressure is increased after Constant pressure is applied during flashing is produced. the process. Pressure is applied after Pressure is applied during the sufficient heat is generated. heating process.

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ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING (ERW)

Electric Resistance Welding takes place at normal frequency i.e. 50Hz. The sheet is rolled in such a way that the edges either meet in Butt Joint or Lap Joint. Welding current is introduced through roller wheel electrode which makes contact with either side of the joint. The edges to be jointed are heated due to its own resistance to the flow of electric current. The two edges are squeezed between the rolls to complete the weld. Melting of work-pieces does not occur during electric resistance welding. Applications : Used to make tubes in sizes up to 0.4 meter diameter.

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HIGH FREQUENCY TUBE WELDING

In High Frequency Welding of Tubes, a high frequency of current (about 400 kHz) is used. Process is very much same as that of Electric Resistance Welding. Also high voltage is also used. Welding current is introduced through two water-cooled probes which make contact with either side of the joint. The edges to be jointed are heated due to its own resistance to the flow of electric current. The two edges are squeezed between the rolls to complete the weld. Melting of work-pieces occurs during high frequency welding process. Applications : Used to tube weld non-ferrous metals. PERCUSSION WELDING

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Principle Percussion Welding is a process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from an arc and by the application of pressure immediately following the electrical discharge. Steps in Percussion Welding 1. Work-pieces are cleaned. 2. Work-pieces are then fixed on to the machine. 3. End faces of the work-pieces are brought close to each other. 4. Work-pieces are brought into light contact to establish a flow of current. 5. Arc is struck between the faces by a suitable electric circuit. 6. Arc established heats the faces of the work-pieces to be joined. 7. At this stage welding-force is applied which extinguishes the arc and forms the joint. Metals Welded Copper Alloys Nickel Alloys Aluminum Alloys Low-Carbon Steels Medium Carbon Steels Advantages Fusion takes place only at the faces. Disadvantages Only butt joints can be obtained. Applications Contact assemblies of relays. Valve stems Used in telephone industry. Dissimilar metals can be joined.

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ARC WELDING Arc welding is one of the most widely used Fusion process for joining metals and alloys. In this the surface to be joined are fused by the heat produced from an electric arc. Electric Arc is provided by A.C. or D.C power source. A metal electrode is used for obtaining an arc between the metal parts to be joined and electrode. The electrode is allowed to touch the joint faces of the metal parts to be joined and is quickly removed to create a gap (2mm to 4mm) such that current continues to flow through a path of ionized particles called plasma. An electric arc is produced due to this and which may generate a temperature up to 6000 to 7000C at the center of the arc depending up on the electrode. Intense heat so produced melts the faces of the prepared joint forming a pool of molten metal. In most of the cases the electrode is also melted and is transferred across the arc to the molten metal pool. The arc is maintained by uniformly moving the electrode towards the work piece and hence keeping a constant gap between the electrode and work piece. At the same time the electrode is moved along the desired line of welding. On solidification this forms a joint between the two parent metals. The blast of Arc forces the molten metal out of the pool around forming a depression in the parent metal, around which there is molten metal. This is known as Arc Crater. Generally electrodes are coated with a slagging or fluxing materials. This

provide a gas shield around the arc to prevent direct contact of oxygen and nitrogen in the air with the deposited metal. In also covers the weld metal with a protective slag coating which prevents the oxidation of weld metal during cooling. The slag is brushed off after cooling.

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Welding Machine : Both A.C and D.C are used for Arc Welding. Each have advantages and disadvantages. Normal Welding voltage is ranges from 50-90 V and current ranges from 100A to 3000A. So a step down transformer is used for this purpose for A.C supply. Normal Welding voltage is ranges from 50-90 V and current ranges from 200A to 600A. So a step down transformer is used for this purpose for D.C supply.

A.C Welding Supply Parameter Efficiency Prime Cost Electrodes Maintenance Stability of Arc Voltage Supply Rotating Parts Magnetization of work-piece Polarity Striking of Arc High, compared to D.C Low Only Coated Electrodes Less Unstable Different Voltages can be obtained by Tapping No rotating parts No Cannot be changed Difficult D.C Welding Supply Low High Both bare and coated electrodes. More Stable Fixed Voltage Supply Has rotating parts to convert A.C to D.C Yes Can be changed. Easy

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Electrodes 1. Non-consumable Electrodes : May be made of carbon, tungsten or graphite

which do not consume during welding operation. 2. Consumable Electrodes : Are consumed during welding operation. May be made of various metals depending upon the purpose and chemical composition of the metals to be welded. Bare electrodes are used in coil form without coating in MIG Welding. Metal Arc welding make use of coated electrode. Commonly used core wire materials are: mild steel, low alloy steel, nickel steel etc. Consumable Electrodes may be classified into 1. Bare Electrodes : Molten metal is exposed to oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere and so undesirable oxides and other substances decreasing the strength of the weld formed. 2. Coated Electrodes: Coated electrodes (Flux Coated) are used to prevent the formation of oxidizes and helps to form slag. Due to Flux coating the molten metal is not exposed to oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere resulting in strong bond. Commonly used fluxes are asbestos, mica, silica etc. Coated Electrodes are again classified into
a) b)

Lightly Coated Electrodes Heavily Coated Electrodes

: Thin coating of Flux. : Thick coating of Flux.

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Selection of electrodes Factors that affect the selection of electrodes are : Availability of current Composition of base metal. Thickness of base metal. Welding position-flat, horizontal vertical etc. Amount of penetration required in welding. Polarity In Welding : With the use of a.c, the heat generated at each the pole is same. So changing over the connections to the electrode does not have any effect on its performance as polarity changes with each cycle. But polarity on d.c. has a great effect on its performance. About 66% of heat generated is at the positive terminal while rest of the total heat is generated at the negative terminal. If the work-piece is thick as more heat generation is required at the work-piece, the work-piece is connected to positive terminal and electrode to negative terminal. If the work-piece is thin as less heat generation is required at the work-piece, the work-piece is connected to negative terminal and electrode to positive terminal. So with d.c for welding thin materials, work is made as negative and for welding heavy material electrode is made as negative. If a light coated electrode is connected to positive terminal, it quickly becomes red hot and welding is impossible as the resistance is more due to less area of cross-section of electrode. If a light coated electrode is connected to negative terminal, more heat will be generated near the work-piece than near the electrode.

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Polarity is classified into two types : 1. Straight Polarity : In Straight Polarity, electrode is connected to negative terminal and work-piece to positive terminal. 2. Reverse Polarity : In Reverse Polarity, electrode is connected to positive

terminal and work-piece to negative terminal. If a light coated electrode is used with an a.c. welding machine, electrode will be heated and will melt, when the electrode becomes positive during cycles. This is why light coated electrodes are not usually used with a.c. welding machine.

Note : Current flows from Positive to Negative and electrons flow from Negative to Positive. H = I2Rt (ie. With increase in Resistance, Heat generated will increase). R = (L/A) (ie. With increase in area(thickness), resistance will decrease).

TYPES OF ARC WELDING : 1. Carbon-Arc Welding 2. Metal Arc Welding (MMAW-Manual Metal Arc Welding) or (SMAW-Shielded Metal Arc Welding) 3. Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG) 4. Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding (TIG) 5. Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding 6. Plasma Arc Welding 7. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 8. Flux-cored Arc Welding (FCAW) 9. Electro-slag Welding

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1. Carbon-Arc Welding:

Single Carbon Electrode Welding

Twin Carbon Electrode Welding

Principle: Carbon-Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which weld is produced by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between the carbon electrode and the work-piece. In this method a rod of carbon is used as negative electrode and work being welded as positive. The arc produced between the 2 electrodes heats the metal to the melting temperature (about 3200 C). The reason to use Carbon electrode is that less heat is generated at the electrode tip than at the work piece and carbon electrode will fuse with the job. In Carbon Arc Welding D.C is used to prevent electrode disintegration and the amount of carbon deposit at the weld metal. There are two types of Carbon Arc Welding. They are 1) Single Carbon Electrode Welding 2) Twin Carbon Electrode Welding

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Difference Between Single Carbon Electrode Welding and Twin Carbon Electrode Welding : SL.No Single Carbon Electrode Welding Arc is formed between the work-piece and electrode. D.C supply is used. Work-piece is part of the circuit. Twin Carbon Electrode Welding Arc is formed between the electrodes. A.C is used as positive electrode will consume at a faster rate if D.C is used. Arc is independent of the job and hence arc can be moved any where with out getting extinguished. After switching on the power, two electrodes are allowed to touch each other and removed quickly to a distance about 3mm distance to form the arc. There is an mechanism to adjust the position of electrodes.

1. 2.

3.

4.

Working :

5.

Heat input to the work-piece Heat input to the work-piece can be varied by changing the size or distance cannot be varied. between the arc and work-piece.

Advantages : Heat input to the work-piece can be easily controlled. Work-piece distortion is negligible. Process can be mechanized. Suitable for thinner pieces. Disadvantages : Separate filler metal is needed slowing the process. Chances of carbon deposit. Applications : Welding of Sheet Steel, Copper Alloys, brass , bronze and aluminum. On many applications, Carbon Arc Welding has been replaced by TIG Welding.

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2. Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMAW or SMAW):

Principle : Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which weld is produced by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between the flux coated electrode and the work-piece. Steel when exposed to air forms oxides and nitrides. These impurities weaken the weld. To prevent this molten metal is shielded by enveloping it completely with an inert gas or flux. In this method a metal rod is used as negative electrode and work being welded as positive. Arc melts the electrode and the job. The arc produced between these two electrodes heats the metal to the melting temperature (about 2400-2600 C). Both A.C and D.C can be used. Shielding can be in the following 4 forms : 1. Coated or Covered Electrode Welding. 2. Gas Shielded Welding. 3. Tape -Shielded Welding. 4. Flux Shielded Welding.

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Advantages : Flux Shielded Metal Arc Welding is the simplest of all the arc welding process. Equipment is portable. Big range of metals and alloys can be welded. Disadvantages : Mechanization is difficult due to the limited length of electrode. Process is slow. Metal transfer is not clear. Applications : Used for fabrication work and maintenance work. All commonly employed metals and alloys can be welded.

3. Metal-Inert-Gas Arc Welding (MIG) or (GMA-Gas Metal ARC):

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Principle MIG make use of the high heat produced by the electric arc between the consumable electrode and material to be welded. Gas Metal Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process. The electrode is continuously fed through a gun. The current ranges from 100 to 400 A depending upon the diameter of the wire. The speed of melting of the wire may be up to 5m/min. Usually constant voltage D.C machine is used for MIG Welding. Welding Gun is either water cooled or air cooled. Welding wire is often bare. CO2, argon or argon helium mixtures are often used as shielding gases. Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld. Advantages : Does not require much skill. Continuous welding at high speeds can be carried out. Deeper penetration is possible. Process can be mechanized. Thick and thin sections can be welded easily. Large metal deposition rates can be obtained. No flux is used. Faster compared to TIG and Metal Arc Welding. Disadvantages : Welding Equipment is much complex. Difficult to weld small corners. Slightly complex than TIG. Applications : Used for welding of carbon, silicon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel and their alloys, titanium etc. Used for manufacture of refrigerator parts. Used in industries like aircraft, automobile, pressure vessel and ship building.
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4. Gas-Tungsten-Arc Welding(GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG) :

Principle Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process. TIG Make use of the high heat produced by the electric arc between the nonconsumable tungsten electrode and material to be welded. Tungsten Electrode is used only to generate an arc. Filler metal may be or may not be used. Shielding is obtained by an inert gas such as helium or argon or mixture of two. Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld. Usually A.C machine is used for TIG Welding (for nonferrous alloys) except for ferrous alloys d.c is used. End of the welding gun is water cooled. Advantages : More different types of metals can be welded such as carbon steel, nickel steel, aluminum, brass, bronze, titanium. Unlike metals can be welded to each other like mild steel, stainless steel, brass to copper. Heat affected zone is very low. No flux is used.

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 Clear visibility of arc. Smooth welds can be obtained. Disadvantages : Under similar applications MIG is faster than TIG. Tungsten if transferred can contaminate the same. Costly. Applications : Welding sheet metals and thinner sections. Used in precision welding in atomic energy, aircraft and instrument industries.

Difference between TIG Welding and MIG Welding SL.No 1. TIG Welding MIG Welding

TIG uses non-consumable tungsten Uses continuous coil electrode of same chemical composition as the electrode. material being welded. TIG welding electrode serves the MIG welding electrode serves the purpose of producing the arc as well purpose of producing the arc only. as filler metal. TIG is not fast as MIG. Skilled labour is required. MIG is fast. Not required.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

If filler metal is engaged, operators Electrode and gas come through both hands are engaged. same gun. TIG is water cooled. No cooling required.

TIG is not used for welding plates It is best suited for plates having thicker than 6mm. thickness more than 6mm. Penetration is not so deep. Deeper penetration can be obtained.

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5. Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding:

Principle : In this process arc is struck between the terminals of two tungsten electrode and the work piece does not form any terminal. Heat is generated by striking an arc between the electrodes and work piece under the shield of hydrogen. Electric arc splits molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen which is not stable and has a strong tendency to combine. When it combines in molecular form generating heat. This combination raises the heat up to 4200C. Atomic hydrogen features of both arc and flame welding process. Combined energy of arc and a chemical reaction is utilized for welding. Steps : 1. Hydrogen gas supply and current are switched on. 2. Arc is struck by bringing the two tungsten electrodes in touch with each other and separating them by a predetermined distance (say 1.5mm) 3. Atomic hydrogen welding arc is held over the job till a molten pool forms. Advantages : Process is fast. No flux or separate shielding gas is used. Hydrogen its self acts as a shielding gas and avoids weld metal oxidation. Welding of thin materials is also possible. Uniform welds can be obtained.

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Disadvantages : Speed is less compared to MAW or MIG. Cost is more. Applications : Process can be used for welding of most of metals and alloys like plain carbon steel, alloy steel, aluminum, copper, nickel and their alloys.

6. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)( Hidden Arc Welding) or (Subarc Welding)

Principle Submerged Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is produced by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between a bare metal electrode and the work-piece.
a)

In Submerged Arc Welding, the arc is submerged under a layer of Flux and so the arc is invisible.

b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

Flux is fed through a Flux Hopper. The upper portion of flux is in contact with the atmosphere. The Flux may be made of silica, metal oxides or other compounds. Bare electrode (Steel stainless steel or copper etc) is fed through the gun. Normally d.c is employed for Submerged Welding, but a.c is also used. Instead of flux covered electrode, granular flux and a bare electrode is used. SAW is an automatic process for the production of high quality butt welds.

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Advantages : Often automated, so faster. Deep penetration and high quality weld is possible. Less distortion. Operator can work without safety equipment. Wire electrodes are inexpensive. No sparks. Practically no edge preparation is necessary. Smoot welds can be obtained. Disadvantages : Since the operator cannot see the welding being carried out, he cannot judge accurately the progress of welding. Cant be used for plates less thickness. Slag has to be removed continuously. Cant be used for welding cast iron due to high heat input. Cast iron, Al alloys, Mg Alloys, Pb and Zn cannot be welded by this process. Applications : Fabrication of pipes, penstocks, pressure vessels, boilers, structural shapes etc. Used in automotive, aviation, ship-building and nuclear power industry. For welding of metals like mild steel, medium and high tensile low alloy steels.

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7 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

Principle : Flux-Cored Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is produced by heating the work-piece with an arc setup between a continuous tubular consumable electrode and the work-piece. Equipment consists of a constant-voltage d.c source, a wire feeder and a light weight welding gun. Flux is contained with in the electrode. The flux provides the necessary shielding for the pool. The heat of the arc melts the surface of base metal and the end of the electrode. Welding gun is similar to MIG welding gun. Sometimes additional shielding is provided with a gas. FCAW is a modification of MIG/CO2 in which a solid wire is replaced by a flux-cored electrode.

Advantages : Provides high quality weld at lower costs. Welds variety of steel over a wide thickness range. Visible arc-easy to weld. Reduced distortion compared to SMAW.

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Disadvantages : Used only to weld ferrous metals, primarily steels. FCAW produces a slag covering which has to be removed. Equipment is costly. But increased productivity compensates for this. Applications : FCAW is widely used for medium thickness steel fabrication work. Used for welding in bridges, ship building etc.

GAS WELDING

Gas Welding is a Fusion-Welding process. It joins metals using the heat of combustion of an oxygen/air and fuel gas. (Acetylene, Hydrogen, Propane or Butane). Temperature produced ranges from 2600 C to 3300C. The intense heat produced melts and fuses together the edges of parts to be welded, generally with the addition of Filler material. Advantages Of Gas Welding : Oxy-Fuel gas can be easily controlled. Suitable for thin sheets. Equipment is portable. It can weld most common materials. By changing the nozzle the torch can be use for heating, brazing and cutting purposes. Cost is low. Welder has considerable control over the temperature of the metal in the weld zone. Disadvantages Of Gas Welding : Heavy sections cannot be joined. Flame temperature is less than that of arc.

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 Refractory metals (eg. Tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum etc) and reactive metals (eg. Titanium and zirconium) cannot be gas welded. Fluxes used produce fumes that are irritating to eyes, nose and lungs. Slower than Arc Welding Process. Distortion to the work piece is more compared to Arc Welding process. Gases are expensive. Careful handling and storing is required. Equipment is expensive. Applications : Used for joining thin sections. Used for joining metals which cannot be heated to high temperatures. Uses in automobile and aircraft industry. Used for joining various ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Important Types of Gas Welding are Oxy-Acetylene Welding Air-Acetylene Welding Oxy-Hydrogen Welding

Oxy-Acetylene Welding :

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Principle : When Acetylene gas is mixed with oxygen in correct proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal. The oxy-acetylene flame reaches a temperature about 3200 C which is sufficient to melt all commercial metals. A pool of metals to be joined which upon solidification forms a bond. Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld. The composition of Filler Rod is same or nearly the same as that of the part being welded. Filler metal (Welding Rod) added increases the strength of the bond formed. Flux is added to remove the impurities and oxides formed during welding operation.

Important Parts of Oxy-Acetylene Welding Equipment:

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1. Acetylene Cylinder

Acetylene cylinder is painted maroon and the valves are screwed left handed. Usual sizes are around 2800 and 5600 litres. Mild steel cylinder is charged to a pressure of 15.5 bar. The inside diameter is around 30cm. Acetylene cylinder is always kept upright for safety reasons. Acetylene cylinder is equipped with a number of fusible plugs which will melt and release the pressure in case the cylinder is exposed to excessive heat. Acetylene cylinder is filled with a spongy material such as balsa wood which is saturated with a chemical solvent called Acetone. Acetone has to ability to absorb a large volume of acetylene and release it as the pressure falls.

If large quantities of Acetylene is required, its much cheaper to generate at the place of use. Acetylene gas is produced by Carbide-to-water method. Calcium carbide is mixed with water to generate Acetylene. Disadvantages : Greater safety precautions are required. Labour is required.

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 Gas obtained is not pure.

In industry, where considerable gas welding is done it is advantageous to use a manifold system. In Manifold system, instead of having cylinders at the place of work, they are assembled at a common place and connected by a manifold. The gas is then distributed by means of pipe lines to different work places. Advantages : Cylinders are not scattered. More space is available. Cylinders are less transported. Less accidents.

2. Oxygen Cylinder

Oxygen cylinders are painted black and the valves are screwed right handed. Usual sizes are around 3400, 5200 and 6800 litres. Mild steel cylinder is charged to a pressure of 136.6 bar.

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 The inside diameter is around 21.6cm. Oxygen cylinder is equipped with a safety nut. 3. Oxygen and Acetylene pressure Regulators :

The pressure of the gases obtained from the cylinders is considerably higher than the gas pressure required to carry out the welding operation. The purpose of regulators is to 1. Reduce the pressures of gases 2. To produce steady flow of gases. Pressure regulators is fitted with two pressure gauges. One indicates the pressure inside the cylinder and the other indicates the reduced pressure at which gas is going out. Gas Pressure Regulators are classified into two. They are 1. Single Stage Regulator :

In this type, the gas from the cylinder enters the valve chamber and strikes the flexible diaphragm. When the pressure inside the valve chamber is slightly higher than the spring tension supporting the diaphragm, the valve closes the high pressure inlet, and stops the flow of the gases into the valve chamber. The gases thus trapped in the valve chamber

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2. Two-Stage Regulator

Comparison Between Single Stage Regulator and Two-Stage Regulator SL.No Single Stage Regulator Two-Stage Regulator

1. 2.

Reduction takes place in single Reduction takes place in two stage. stage. Commonly used.
Used with cylinders and manifolds.

4. Welding Torch or Blow Pipe

Oxygen and the fuel gas are mixed in the welding torch. Welding Torch controls the flow of gases to the welding nozzle. There are two types of Welding Torches. They are :-

1. High Pressure (or Equal Pressure) Type

Are used with acetylene cylinders having pressure of 8 bar. In this type Oxygen and Acetylene are fed to the mixing chamber at equal pressures.

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Advantages : 1. Simple. 2. Does not need an injector. 3. Less troublesome.

2. Low Pressure (or Injector) Type

Are used with acetylene cylinders having pressure of 0.02 bar. In this type, oxygen enters the torch through a passage located at the center of the torch. The passage is surrounded by the one carrying the acetylene. High pressure oxygen pulls the acetylene gas to the mixing chamber. Advantage of using Low Pressure torch is that proportions of two gases is constant while the torch is in operation.

5. Welding Rods : Used as Filler Metal 6. Flux Types of Flames : Most of the welding operation use the Neutral Flame. But the other flames are sometimes used for special welds. eg. Non-ferrous alloys and high carbon steels require reducing flame. As only the valve for acetylene in the torch is opened initially, it gives only acetylene flame. Oxygen required for the flame is obtained from the atmosphere. : Used for removing impurities and oxides.

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From acetylene flame abundance of free carbon is released into the atmosphere. Acetylene flame is used to apply carbon to the mold surfaces in the foundry.

1. Neutral Flame (Acetylene and Oxygen in equal proportion) Neutral Flame is produced when equal volumes of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. Oxygen to Acetylene ratio is 1.1 to 1. The Temperature of the flame is of the order about 3260C. The flame has distinct inner cone which is light blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelop which is darker blue than the inner cone. Envelop is usually darker blue in color. Neutral flame is used for the cutting of i. Mild Steel ii. Stainless Steel iii. Cast iron iv. Copper v. Aluminum

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2. Oxidizing Flame (Excess of Oxygen) Oxidizing Flame is produced when excess of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and burnt at the torch tip. Oxygen to Acetylene ratio is 1.5 to 1. Oxidizing flame burns with a loud roar. The Temperature of the flame is of the order about 3482 C. High temperature is due to presence of excess of oxygen. The flame has an inner cone pointed and darker blue in color than in neutral flame. Outer Cone is usually darker blue in color and is shorter. Oxidizing flame is used for the cutting of i. Mild Steel ii. Brass iii. Stainless Steel iv. Cast iron v. Copper 3. Reducing Flame or Carburizing Flame(Excess of Acetylene) Reducing Flame is produced when oxygen supplied is reduced. The Temperature of the flame is of the order about 3037 C. Reducing Flame is recognized by Acetylene Feather having pale green color existing between the inner cone and the outer cone. The flame has an inner cone which is dark blue in color. It is surrounded by an outer flame envelop. Outer flame is longer than that of neutral flame and is much brighter in color. Envelop is usually darker blue in color. Reducing Flame is used for the cutting of i. Mild Steel ii. Stainless Steel iii. Cast iron Carburizing flame has more acetylene than Reducing Flame.

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 Carburizing flame is used for welding lead and for surface hardening purposes. Reducing Flame ensures the absence of oxidation. This flame is used for welding of low alloy steels and high carbon steels. Filler Metal :

Filler Metals are additional metal added to the weld. The composition of Filler Rod is same or nearly the same as that of the part being welded. Filler metal (Welding Rod) added increases the strength of the bond formed as additional metal is melted and allowed to solidify. Filler metal is usually available in the rod form.

Fluxes : During Welding, if the metal is heated/melted in air, oxygen from air combines with the metal to form oxides which result in poor quality, low strength welds. The flux metal is fusible and is non-metallic. Fluxes are available as powders, pastes or liquids. Flux chemically reacts with the oxides and a slag is formed. Slag floats over the molten metal which is later removed. Flux also act as a cover preventing oxygen and other gases to enter the molten pool. After welding slag is removed by chipping, filling or grinding. Composition of Flux : Borates, potassium Chloride, Lithium Chloride, Borax etc. Requirement of a good Flux : Should have a lower melting point than the base metal. Should protect the weld from surroundings.

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 Should not cause corrosive action to the weld. Should help the formation of slag. Welding of Metals

Metal Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel No Flux is used. Flux is essential.

Use of Flux

Flux is needed to ensure better control of molten metal. Flux is necessary due to the formation of oxide film on the metal. Compounds of lithium, sodium and potassium are used as flux. Flux is not necessary. However for copper alloys, borax based flux is used. Flux is a must. Flux may contain sodium chloride, potassium fluoride , magnesium chloride etc No Flux is used.

Aluminum and its Alloys

Copper and its Alloys Magnesium and its Alloys Nickel and its Alloys

Chemistry of Oxy-acetylene Welding : Maximum temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is 3100 to 3300 C. Maximum heat concentration is just in front of the extreme tip of the white cone. Combustion of gas mixture takes place in two stages : 1. Stage 1 :

This chemical reaction takes place at the inner cone. In this stage, oxygen combines with acetylene forming carbon monoxide liberating hydrogen. 2C2H2 + 2 O2 4 CO + 2 H2 ----(1)

2. Stage 2 : This chemical reaction takes place at the outer cone. Two chemical reactions takes place in this stage. 1. Carbon monoxide uses oxygen from air forming carbon dioxide.

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2. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen forming water vapour. 4CO + 2 H2 + 3 O2 4 CO2 + 2 H2O Combining equations (1) and (2) above, 2C2H2 + 5 O2 4 CO2 + 2 H2O Steps in lighting the Torch: 1. Crack the cylinder valve on oxygen and acetylene cylinder by opening the valve and closing it quickly in order to blow out impurities. 2. Attach pressure regulators to the respective oxygen and acetylene cylinders. 3. Attach hoses to the pressure regulators. 4. Attach other ends of two hoses to the welding torch. 5. Select proper nozzle and mixing head and then attach it to the welding torch. 6. Make sure that both the torch needle valves are turned off. 7. Open oxygen cylinder valve to turn. Open oxygen cylinder valve all the way. 8. Open acetylene valve on the torch fully. Turn the pressure regulator at the acetylene cylinder until acetylene comes from the nozzle. 9. Light the welding torch using a spark lighter. 10. Acetylene pressure regulator is adjusted so that gap about 6mm exists between the torch tip(nozzle) and flame. This is the proper pressure for welding. 11. Oxygen cylinder valve is adjusted to obtain the required welding flame. ----(3) ----(2)

Flame Adjustment : 1. As only the valve for acetylene in the torch is opened initially, it gives only acetylene flame only. Oxygen required for the flame is obtained from the atmosphere. From acetylene flame abundance of free carbon is released into the atmosphere. Acetylene flame is used to apply carbon to the mold surfaces in the foundry. 2. As the oxygen valve in the torch is opened, flame becomes luminous(glowing). 3. As the oxygen valve is further opened, the luminous flame further contracts towards the welding tip, forming a distinct bright zone within a blue outer envelop. This is carburizing zone and has excess of oxygen.
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4. As oxygen is further increased, the inner cone contracts and will consists of two parts : a bright inner cone and a pale green feather. This is Reducing Flame. 5. With increase in oxygen a certain point will reach where a distinct cone having light blue color will be formed near the torch tip surrounded by a darker blue cone. This is the Neutral Flame. 6. With further increase of oxygen content into the mixture will give rise to an Oxidizing flame.

To extinguish the flame and stop welding: 1. When the welding or cutting operation is finished, acetylene valve in the torch is closed first and then oxygen valve. 2. Then the oxygen cylinder valve is closed. 3. Release the pressure hose and regulator by opening the oxygen control valve in the torch. 4. Oxygen control valve on the torch is then closed. 5. Same procedure is followed for removal of acetylene.

Welding Techniques : Depending upon which welding rod and the welding torch may be used, there are two usual techniques in Gas Welding, namely : 1. Leftward Techniques or Forehand Welding method 2. Rightward Technique or Backhand Welding method

Leftward Technique In this method, the welder torch is held in right hand and filler rod in the left hand. The welding torch is directed towards the un-welded part of the joint.
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 Filler rod is directed towards the welded part of the joint. Welding begins from the right side of the joint and proceeds towards the left side. Since the flame is pointed in the direction of welding, it preheats the joint to be welded. Good control and neat appearance are the features of Leftward Method. Leftward Technique is used to weld thin metals, usually metals having thickness below 6mm. When work-piece thickness is over 3mm, it is necessary to bevel the plate edges to produce a V-Joint so as to obtain good joint. Filler metal consumed is more in Leftward Technique. Oxide formation is more in Leftward technique.

2. Rightward Technique

In this method also, the welder torch is held in right hand and filler rod in the left hand. The welding torch is directed towards the completed weld and the filler metal remains between the flame and the completed weld section. During welding, the filler rod is moved in circles or semi circles. Welding begins from the left side of the joint and proceeds towards the right side. Since the flame is pointed to the welding joint, thicker or heavier base metals can be welded.

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 Rightward Technique is used to weld thick metals, usually metals having thickness above 5mm. No bevel is necessary for plate having thickness up to 8.2mm. Filler metal consumed is less in Rightward Technique. Oxide formation is less in Rightward technique. Comparison between Leftward Method and Rightward Method : SL.No 1. Leftward Technique Rightward Technique

Used for welding thin sections thicker or heavier base metals can be welded (having thickness above (having thickness below 6mm) 6mm). Oxide formation is Leftward technique. more in Oxide formation is less in Rightward technique.

2.

3.

Filler metal consumed is more in Filler metal consumed is less in Leftward Technique. Rightward Technique.

4.

For thickness over 3mm, it is No bevel is necessary for plate having necessary to bevel (edge thickness up to 8.2mm. preparation).

a) Air-Acetylene Welding :

In Air-Acetylene, acetylene gas is mixed with air in correct proportions in the welding torch and ignited, the flame resulting at the tip of the torch is sufficiently hot to melt and join the parent metal. Air required for combustion is drawn directly from the atmosphere. Common fuels used in air-fuel welding are acetylene, propane, natural gas and butane.

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b) Oxy-Hydrogen Welding : Oxy-Hydrogen was once extensively used to weld low temperature metals such as aluminum, lead and magnesium. But it is not as popular today as more versatile and faster welding process such as TIG and MIG have replaced Oxygen-Hydrogen Flame. Factors affecting selection of fuel: Factors are : 1. Type of material to be welded. 2. The required welding temperature 3. Availability of fuel. 4. Cost of fuel Comparison between different fuels used. The most versatile used fuel is Oxy-Acetylene fuel. Approximate flame temperatures of oxygen and various fuel gas combinations are SL.No 1 2 3 Name of fuel Oxy-Acetylene Oxy-hydrogen Oxy-propane Approximate Temperature 3200 C 2500 C 2500 C

Oxy-Acetylene Gas Cutting

Commonly used for cutting of metals.

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 Based on the principle that oxygen has great affinity for iron and steel at elevated temperatures. When a metallic piece is heated up to 1000C, it forms an iron oxide which has low melting temperature. Thus if steel is heated to about 1000C and then a jet of air is blown on the surface, iron oxide is formed and it falls down under pressure. Make use of a special torch for mixing acetylene and oxygen is used. Initially steel is preheated to red color. High-speed cutting is possible. Pieces up to 25mm thickness can be cut. All ferrous metals can be cut. Not suitable for non-ferrous alloys. Safety Recommendation in Gas Welding Welding and cutting of metals involve application of intense heat to the objects being welded. Therefore, to protect persons from injury and to protect the equipment a set of safety recommendations have been published by ISI and many other similar but international organizations. By practicing these recommendations, the risks associated with welding can be largely reduced.

1. Gas Cylinders : Gas Cylinders must be prevented from sharp impact with one another. Acetylene cylinders must be always kept upright. A cap must be fitted on the cylinder when it is not in use. Cylinders must not be exposed to flame, direct sun light, water etc. Gas Cylinders should be well fastened so that that do not fall. Cylinders should not be used as supports for other purposes. Gas Cylinders should be stored in a well protected, well ventilated, dry location well away from combustible materials. One should not smoke at the place where cylinders have been stored. Cylinders containing oxygen and acetylene should be stored separately. Cylinders valve should be closed when the work is finished.

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 Cylinders should be conveyed as not to project beyond the sides of the vehicle carrying the cylinders. Do not use a hammer or wrench to open any valve of the cylinder. Cylinders should be moved by tiling them and rolling them on their bottom edges. Dragging or cylinders should avoided. Cylinder valve should be closed when it is empty. Never attempt to mix gases in a cylinder. To test leak, a solution of soap and water may be brushed. Bubbles indicate leakage. An acetylene cylinders should not be opened more than 1.5 turns of the spindle. Never use acetylene at pressure in excess of 1.05 kg/cm2. Manifolds 1. In case of acetylene cylinder manifolding, Gas pressure in all the cylinders should be approximately equal. Place of manifolding should be adequately ventilated. Cylinders should be manifolded in the vertical position. Place of manifolding should be separated from the rest of the building by a suitable flame proof partition. 2. In case of oxygen cylinder manifolding, 3. Oxygen manifolds should be located away from those of acetylene and from any other inflammable substance.

2. Torches and Tips

Gas Torches and tips should be stored in clean boxes to avoid gas holes blocked with dirt. Never use a gas torch as a lever or hammer. As spanner and a plier should be employed for changing tips. Gs holes must be clean. Never hang a torch with its hose on regulators or cylinder valves.

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 During working, if tip becomes overheated, it may be cooled by dipping it in water. Close the acetylene valve but leave a little oxygen flowing. Slag accumulated in the tip of the torch may be frequently removed by either a hard wooden stick or brass wire. 3. Pressure Regulators Use the correct pressure regulator for a gas. For example, never use acetylene pressure regulator with any other gas. A pressure regulator shall be used only at the pressures it is intended. Handle pressure regulators carefully. Do not move the pressure regulator holding the pressure regulator. Do cracking before connecting pressure regulator to the gas cylinder. 4. Hoses : Use correct color hose for oxygen (green/black) and acetylene (red) and never use oxygen hose for acetylene or vice versa. Proper clamping should be done to the hose connections. Protect the hose from hot work-piece, sparks etc. Never allow the hose to come in contact with oil or grease and they can erode the material. 5. Other general precautions :

Before starting gas welding or cutting, remove from the neighborhood any combustible materials. Fire extinguishes should be available at hand. Welding should be carried out in a place with adequate ventilation. Do not pick up hot jobs or objects. Use goggles with non-flammable lenses and frames. Never do any chipping and grinding with out goggles. Do not use matches for lighting torches. Gas flame should not be allowed to touch the cylinders.

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SPECIAL OR UNIQUE WELDING PROCESSES Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma Arc Welding

Current limiting Resistor for obtaining Transferred Arc

Principle : Plasma Arc Welding is an arc welding process in which coalescence (joint) is produced by the heat obtained from a constricted arc setup between a tungsten/tungsten alloys electrode and water cooled nozzle or between a tungsten electrode and the work-piece. Plasma Arc Welding is a shielded metal arc process. Plasma is a high temperature ionized gas (hydrogen or helium) conducting electricity. When the Gas is passed across an electric arc and then through a constrained opening, the gas get ionized and become plasma. This also raises the temperature of the gas. A non-consumable tungsten electrode, water cooled copper nozzle and gas shield (argon or argon mixtures) is employed for the welding. The process employs two inert gases, one forms the arc plasma and the second shields the arc plasma.

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 Filler metal may or may not be used. Shielding is done to prevent contamination of weld. Temperature produced is about 10000 to 14000 C. Note : Plasma is a temporary state of a gas. Gas gets ionized when it is passed across an electric arc and become a conductor of electricity. In ionized state gas atoms break into electrodes (-) and ions (+). Ionization increases the temperature of the gas to the order 5000C to 10000C. Comparison between Plasma Arc Welding and TIG Welding SL.No 1. 2. Plasma Arc Welding Is a constricted arc process. TIG Welding Is a non-constricted arc process

Uses two inert gases, one forms the Uses only one gas. arc plasma and the second shields the arc plasma. Electrode remains within the nozzle, Chances of tungsten inclusion and therefore tungsten inclusion and electrode contamination. electrode contamination are nil. Filler metal requirement are less. Faster metal deposition. Total welding time is less. More Slow metal deposition. More.

3.

4. 5. 6.

Transferred Arc and Non-Transferred Arc

Transferred Arc

Non-Transferred Arc

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Difference between Transferred Arc and Non-Transferred Arc

SL.No 1.

Transferred Arc

Non-Transferred Arc

Arc is formed between work-piece Arc is formed between water cooled constricting nozzle (+) and electrode (+) and electrode (-) (-) Possess more energy compared to Possess comparatively less energy. Non-Transferred Arc. Make use of a current limiting Initiated by a high frequency unit in resistor to generate this arc. the circuit. Used for cutting metals. Used for welding applications and metal plating.

2. 3. 4.

Advantages : Used for welding and cutting operations. Used for melting high melting point metals. Used for welding of stainless steels, nickel alloys etc. No edge preparation needed. Process is faster. Stable arc can be produced. Uniform penetration can be produced. Excellent weld quality. Disadvantages : Welding Equipment is much complex and expensive. High noise. Inert gas consumption is more. Process is limited to metal thickness of 25mm and lower butt welds. Radiations are produced. Applications : Used for welding of titanium plates up to 8mm thickness. Welding of stainless steel tubes up to 6.3mm. Used in tube mill applications. Used in steel rocket motor cases.

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 Plasma can be effectively used for cutting also called as Plasma Arc Cutting. Electro-slag Welding

Principle Electro-slag Welding is a welding process in which joint is produced by molten slag which melts the filler metal and surfaces of the work to be welded. Electro-slag is a progressive process with solidification from bottom to upward. Water cooled copper shoes are used to confine the molten metal until it solidifies. After completing the welding of a section, copper shoes are moved to the unwelded section. In this process according to the requirement one, two or three electrode wires can be fed into the joint. Equipment consists of a power supply (A.C), a suitable mechanism for feeding the electrode wire, a hopper to carry flux. Electro slag is used for welding thick parts(25 mm or over).

Steps Initially arc is struck between the electrode and work-piece and required amount of flux is added. The heat of arc melts the molten metal. When a sufficient thicker layer of molten slag is formed, the arc is stopped and the slag is maintained in the molten state by the resistance to the electric current passing between the electrode and the work piece by the slag pool.

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 The temperature of the molten slag is approximately 1650C at the surface and 1930C inside, under the surface. This heat is sufficient to melt the edges of work-piece and the electrode. The liquid metal coming from the welding electrode and heated base metal collects in a pool beneath the slag bath and slowly solidifies forming the weld. Flux poured around the electrode is converted into slag which floats on molten metal surrounded by copper shoes that slides on the sides. Advantages : Joint preparation is simpler. Thickness up to 450mm in plain and alloy steels can be welded. Distortion is low. No arc exists. Disadvantages : SAW is economical than Electro-slag Welding for joints below 60mm. Welding is carried in vertical position. Produce larger grain size. Applications : Heavy plates can be welded. Low carbon, high strength structural steels and high strength alloy steels such as stainless steel and nickel alloys can be welded.

Solid State Welding A solid state welding process produces joints at temperatures essentially below the melting point of the base metals being joined, without the addition of filler metal. Pressure is always applied. Various Solid State Welding are

1. Ultrasonic Welding 2. Friction Welding 3. Cold Welding 4. Diffusion Welding

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5. Explosive Welding Ultrasonic Welding

Principle : Ultrasonic welding is a solid state welding process in which joint is produced by the local application of High frequency vibration energy to the work-pieces held together under pressure. Frequency ranges from 15 kHz to 170 kHz. No flux, or filler metals, no electric current passes and no heat is applied. Combined effect of pressure and vibration cause movement of the metal molecules and bring about a sound union between the faces of materials in contact. Ultrasonic welding is completed in about 0.5 to 1.5 seconds. Joint is produced with out the melting of work-pieces. Various metallurgical theories have been put forward to explain the bonding mechanism.
i) j)

One theory is that bonding takes place due to interfacial chemical reaction. Other theories suggest that it is because of interfacial atomic bonding.

Steps : Pieces to be welded are clamped between the welding tip and the anvil. Welding tip along with the coupling system is called as Sonotrode. High frequency ultrasonic vibration energy is transmitted through the welding tip attached to the transducer.

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 Ultrasonic vibrations along with the clamping force induces dynamic shear stresses and plastic deformation occurs at the interface. Oxide films and other surface films are removed due to the intimate contact and the bonding takes place.

Welding Equipment : Ultrasonic Welding equipment consists of :1. A frequency converter power. 2. A transducer 3. An anvil 4. A force application device plane of weld. 5. A timer Advantages : Surface preparation is not needed. Defects are less. Dissimilar metals with vastly different melting points can be welded. Less deformation. Very thin materials can be welded. Equipment is simple and reliable. In ultrasonic welds have from 65 to 100% of parent metal strength. Disadvantages : Initial cost is more. Mostly used for joining thin sections. Life of equipment is short. Applications : Glass and plastic can be welded using Ultrasonic Welding. Used for joining electric and electronic components. Used for fabrication of nuclear fuel elements. : Used for controlling the weld interval. : Converts electric power to vibratory power. : Used for clamping the work-pieces. : Used for applying static force normal to the : Used to provide high frequency electric

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Friction Welding

Friction Welding

Inertia Welding

Principle : Friction Welding is a Solid State welding process in which joint is produced by the heat obtained from mechanically induced sliding motion between rubbing surfaces. The work parts are held together under pressure. Temperatures developed are below the melting point of the metals welded but high enough to create plastic flow and intermolecular bonding. In this process, the metals to be joined are mounted in a device with one surface stationary and other is revolved under pressure. Pressure and rotation is continued until the components achieve desired temperature for plastic flow. When mating parts achieve sufficient temperature, them motion between the parts is stopped and pressure is increased to for the desired joint. Steps : 1. Two components to be welded are held in axial alignment. 2. One component held in chuck is rotated and accelerated to the desired speed. 3. The other component that is held stationary and held in the moving clamp is moved forward to come in contact with the rotating component. 4. Pressure and rotation are maintained until the resulting temperature makes the metals plastic for welding. 5. When sufficient heating has taken place a brake is applied to stop rotation and the axial force is further increased to forge the components together.
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Advantages : Dissimilar metals can be welded. Used for welding of non ferrous metals (pipe, tubes etc). No edge preparation is needed. Operation is simple. Low power is needed. Welding process is fast. Low cost. No use of flux or filler metal. Disadvantages : Process is restricted to flat and angular welds, where one part is normal to the other part. So far process is applied to weld small pieces.

Applications : Used for joining steels, super-alloys, non ferrous metals and combinations of metals. Friction welding replaces brazing, arc welding, electron beam welding, pressure, flash or resistance butt welding. Friction welding is used for production of steering shafts, worm gears, engine valves, cutting tools etc.

Difference between Friction Welding and Inertia Welding

SL.No 1. 2. 3.

Friction Welding

Inertia Welding

Uses electric or hydraulic motor to Uses flywheel to supply weld supply weld energy. energy. Less control over the process Less power. Good control can be obtained. More power.

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Cold Welding

Metal flow in cold welding Metallic surface under high magnification

Principle : Cold Welding is a Solid State process, wherein coalescence is produced by the application of pressure alone at room temperatures. A characteristic feature of Cold Welding is the absence of heat and flux. An ordinary bright metallic surfaces consists of hills and valleys. On the metal surface there is a layer of metal oxide and above this layer there may be a thin layer of moisture. Up on applying pressure during the process, the oxide film get fragmented and metal to metal contact occurs and the metal behind the oxide layer suffers plastic deformation. In Cold Welding procedure, two metal sheets are brought into overlapping contact and a punch is pressed into them. High pressure applied causes the fragmentation of oxide layer permitting metal to metal contact. Any metal can be made to weld by shearing the two surfaces together at sufficiently high pressure. For welding of aluminum (lap joint) the pressure applied ranges from 10.5 x 103 to 35 x 103 kg/cm2. Advantages : Leak tight welds can be produced.

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Disadvantages : Cannot be used for mass production. Applications : Used for cladding. Similar and dissimilar metals can be joined. Used to assemble small transistors where welding heat might cause damage. Useful in welding metals in explosive areas. Metals welded by Cold Welding are : Pure aluminum Aluminum alloys Cd, Pb, Cu, Ni, Zn and Ag. etc Diffusion Welding

Principle : Diffusion Welding is a Solid State process, wherein coalescence is produced by the application of pressure and high temperatures to carefully cleaned and mated metal surfaces so that they grow together by atomic diffusion. The process does not involve macroscopic deformation or relative motion of the parts. Diffusion Welding takes place in two stages :

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a. Stage 1 : Surfaces of the metal pieces may have oxide layer and layer of oil, grease or dirt. Metal to metal contact is achieved by the application of pressure. This removes above mentioned layers and contaminants. Pressure applied ranges from 350 to 700 kg/cm2. b. Stage 2 : In this stage diffusion and grain growth takes place. In order to increase the diffusion, the metal pieces are heated to moderate temperatures (usually below 1100C). With out applying heat the process takes several hours to complete the process. With the application of heat the process will be completed in few hour or minutes. Different Diffusion Welding methods are :1. Gas Pressure Bonding : Parts to be welded are placed together in

intimate contact and then heated to about 815C. During heating, an inert gas pressure is applied over all the surfaces of the parts to be welded. 2. Vacuum Fusion Bonding : Process is carried out in vacuum. Parts are

pressed mechanically or hydraulically. Parts are then heated. Temperature and pressure required are approximately around 1150 C and 700kg/cm2. 3. Eutectic Fusion Bonding : It is a low pressure diffusion welding process.

A thin plate of some other material is placed in between the pieces to be joined. As the pieces are heated to an elevated temperature, the filler metal diffuses and forms an eutectic compound with the parent metals. Advantages : Leak tight welds can be produced. Numerous welds can be made simultaneously. Welds having same physical, chemical and mechanical properties as the base metal can be produced. Dissimilar metals can be joined. Disadvantages : Cannot be used for mass production.

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 Difficulty in removal of oxides. Applications : Used for joining gold silver etc Fabrication of reactor components in atomic energy industries. Fabrication of rocket engines, helicopter rotor hub etc.

Explosive Welding

Principle : Explosive Welding is a Solid State process, wherein coalescence is produced by the high velocity movement of the metal produced by controlled detonation. Basically the explosive welding involves a high velocity impact between a plate(called as flyer-which is to be welded to the parent metal) forced towards a stationary plate (parent plate) by the explosive charge. During the First World War it was observed that fragments of the steel shells of bombs occasionally struck the metallic objects in the vicinity of the explosion. This is an example of Explosive Welding. The energy derived from the explosion forces the metals together. There are two common arrangements of Explosive Welding. They are

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1. Parallel Arrangement (Direct Stand Off Method or Contact Explosion Welding) : Work-pieces are arranged parallel to each other. 2. Inclined Arrangement (Angular Stand Off Method or Impact Explosion Welding) : Work-pieces are arranged such that there is an angle between the work-pieces.

Parallel Arrangement

Inclined Arrangement

Steps : 1. A buffer plate which is made of flexible rubber or cardboard is placed above the Flayer Plate (which is to be joined with the parent plate) to protect the top surface of Flayer Plate from detonation of Explosive charge. 2. Above the buffer is a layer of explosive which is to be detonated from the lower edge. 3. The parent plate is placed on an anvil. 4. As the explosive is ignited, the Flyer under high velocity and pressure strikes the parent plate forming the joint. Advantages : Large surfaces can be welded.

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Disadvantages : Operation is noisy. This process is dangerous and should be performed by experts. Applications : Used for cladding. Dissimilar metals can be joined. Pipes and tubes up to 1.5m length can be clad. Used in production of chemical process vessels, electrical industry, ship building industry etc. This process has been successfully used to weld steel to steel, aluminum to aluminum, copper to steel etc.

Radiant Energy Welding Process Radiant Energy Beam focuses an energy beam on the work-piece. The heat is generated only when the energy beam strikes the work-piece. Radiant Energy beam includes 1. Laser Beam Welding 2. Electron Beam Welding Laser Beam Welding

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Principle : Laser Beam Welding is defined as a welding process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent (waves are identical and parallel) light beam impinging upon the surfaces to be joined. LASER :- Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation. In Laser Beam welding radiation from an intense source of light is concentrated and amplified using a laser crystal. The laser beam is focused on the work-piece and heat generated is used to weld the joint. This process is used for cutting and welding of metals. High melting point metals (stainless steel, tungsten, titanium etc) can be welded by this process. Vacuum is not necessary for laser beam welding. Good welding speed can be obtained.

Welding Equipment : Laser Welding System consists of 1. A cylindrical Ruby Crystal. Ruby is aluminum oxide with chromium dispersed through it. 2. Flash tube containing inert gas xenon is placed around the crystal. Flash Tube converts electrical energy into light energy. 3. Capacitor bank stores electrical energy. It is charged with high voltage power supply. Flash tube is energized by electrical discharge from the capacitor. 4. Optical focusing lens for focusing the laser beam to produce small intense spot on the job.

Working : 1. When the Flash tube is energized by electrical discharge from the capacitor, xenon transforms electrical energy into white light flashes. Or simply flashing occurs when Flash tube is energized by electrical discharge from the capacitor.

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2. As Ruby is exposed to intense light flashes, laser beam is produced. The narrow laser beam is focused by the Optical focusing lens to produce small intense spot on the job.

Forms of Lasers : 1. Ruby Laser : The difficulty with Ruby Laser is that the energy

obtained is not continuous. 2. Gas Laser : Uses mixtures of helium and neon. Can produce

continuous beams but do not have the energy out put of the Ruby Lasers. 3. Liquid Laser : Uses fluids such as nitrobenzene.

4. Semi Conductor Laser : Uses gallium arsenide.

Advantages Wide variety of metals can be welded. Contamination is less. Areas not readily accessible can also be welded. Very small sections can be welded. No vacuum is needed as in Electron Beam Welding. Good control over the process can be achieved. Material to be welded need not be a conductor or electricity. As no electrode is used, electrode contamination or high electric current effects are eliminated. Because it is light, it can be focused to microscopic dimensions and directed with a great accuracy. Because it is light, it is clean, no vaporized metal or electrodes dirty up the delicate assemblies. Disadvantages : Operation slow. Thicker parts cannot be welded.

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Applications : Aircraft industry. Automobile industry. For connecting leads on small electronic components. To weld lead wires. Can be used to weld and cut. Electron Beam Welding

Principle : Electron Beam make use of the kinetic energy of the fast moving electrons for welding operation. When fast moving electrons strike the parts to be welded, they give up kinetic energy into heat. Welding is carried out under High vacuum. The heat generated is about 2500C. Electron beam emitting from the tungsten electrode is accelerated is focused on to the parts to be welded. Steps : 1. Joint Preparation : Joint gas about 0.05 to .075mm maximum used for making narrow welds. 2. Before welding work-piece is cleaned. 3. Residual magnetism if present can cause deflection of electron beam. It is relieved by placing the work-piece in a fifty cycle inductive field. 4. The work-piece is then placed in the welding chamber.

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5. The chamber is pumped down to the required vacuum. 6. The work-piece is preheated if necessary. 7. Welding is initiated.

Vacuum Welding operation can be carried out in 1. High Vacuum

Atmosphere

: In this type both the electron gun and the work-piece are

enclosed in the same vacuum chamber. The pressure inside the chamber is of the order of 10-4 torr. Vacuum assures decontamination and degasification of the molten metal being formed during the process. Also in vacuum assures little loss of beam energy. How ever size of the vacuum chamber limits the size of the work-piece to be welded. 2. Partial Vacuum : In this type both the electron gun and the work-piece are enclosed in the separate vacuum chamber. The pressure inside the gun chamber is of the order of 0.1 micron. The pressure inside the work-piece chamber is of the order of 5 to 100 micron. An orifice permits the electron to pass from gun chamber to work-piece chamber. 3. Atmosphere chamber. Advantages : : In this case, work-piece is placed out side the vacuum

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 Welds are clean. No distortion. High speed welding can be obtained. High quality weld. Suitable for large scale operations. Suitable for welding dissimilar pieces. High penetration. Applications : Aircraft industry. Automobile industry.

Thermo-chemical Welding Process Thermo-chemical welding process make uses of heat energy liberated by chemical reactions (Exothermic Reactions) to carry out welding. Various Thermo-Chemical reactions are 1. Thermit Welding 2. Atomic Hydrogen Welding

Thermit Welding

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 Thermit Welding is a Fusion process. Thermit process is based on a chemical reaction which generates heat (Exothermic reaction). Thermit is a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide. Weld is formed by pouring superheated thermit around the parts to be united. Temperature produced by the Thermit reaction is around 3000C. A few Thermit reactions are 1. 8Al + 3 Fe3O4 = 4Al2O3 + 9Fe (3088C) 2. 2Al + Fe3O4 = Al2O3 + 2Fe (2960C) 3. 3 CuO + 2Al = Al2O3 + 3Cu (4865C) 4. Cr2O3 +2Al = 2Cr Steps : Joint is cleaned. Parts to be welded are lined up with a space about 1.5mm to 6mm between the ends. A pattern of wax is shaped around the parts to be welded. An iron box is placed around the pattern and space between the pattern and box is filled and rammed with sand. Runners and gates are cut in the sand. Before pouring thermit, the parts to be welded are preheated to prevent the chilling of steel. During preheating the wax pattern melts off. Then the superheated metal from produced by the thermit reaction is poured in the mold surrounding the parts to be welded. Mechanical pressure is applied to complete the weld. + 2Cr (2977C)

Advantages : Equipment is portable. Broken parts can be welded on the site itself. No costly power supply is needed. Disadvantages : Thermit Welding can be used for only to ferrous metals of heavy sections. Process is un-economical to weld cheap metals or light parts.
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Applications : Rails. Pipes. Connecting Rods. Welding Of Various Metals

1. Welding of Wrought Iron a. Forge Welding b. Oxy-acetylene gas Welding c. SMAW d. SAW e. Resistance Welding f. Thermit Welding 2. Welding of Grey Cast Iron a. MAW b. Oxy-acetylene gas Welding c. Braze Welding d. Brazing e. Thermit Welding 3. Welding of Carbon Steels a. Oxy-acetylene gas Welding b. Flux-Shielded Metal Arc Welding c. SAW d. MIG e. TIG f. Plasma Arc Welding g. Thermit Welding h. Resistance Welding i. Brazing etc 4. Welding of Alloy Steels a. Oxy-acetylene gas Welding b. Flux-Shielded Metal Arc Welding

: Welding Process used are

: Welding Process used are

: Welding Process used are

: Welding Process used are

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c. SAW d. Thermit Welding e. Resistance Spot Welding 5. Welding of Tool Steels a. Oxy-acetylene gas Welding b. SMAW c. SAW d. Atomic Hydrogen Welding e. Silver Brazing f. Inert gas shielded Metal Arc Welding 6. Welding of Stainless Steels a. Gas Welding b. Arc Welding : TIG, SAW, Plasma Arc Welding c. Brazing d. Soldering 7. Welding of Aluminum and its Alloys : Welding Process used are a. TIG b. MIG c. Oxy-Gas Welding d. Metallic Arc Welding e. Solid State Welding f. Carbon Arc Welding g. Resistance Welding h. Atomic Hydrogen Welding i. Brazing 8. Welding of Magnesium and its Alloys : Welding Process used are a. TIG b. MIG c. Gas Welding d. Resistance Spot Welding e. Brazing 9. Welding of Copper and its alloys : Welding Process used are : Welding Process used are : Welding Process used are

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a. TIG b. MIG c. Gas Welding d. Brazing e. Soldering 10. Welding of dissimilar metals : Welding Process used are

a. Fusion Welding Process such as SMAW, Resistance Welding, Electron Beam Welding etc b. Solid State Welding such as Ultrasonic and Friction Welding. 11. Welding of Plastics a. Heated Tool Welding b. Hot Gas Welding c. High Frequency Welding d. Ultrasonic Welding e. Friction Welding f. Induction Welding SOLDERING Principle In Soldering the metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler alloy called Solder applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the desired joint. Soldering is a common process for joining steel, copper, aluminum and other materials at a lower temperature. There is no direct melting of the metals being joined. During the process the filler alloy flows between the two closely adjacent surfaces of the work-pieces by capillary action. Soldered joints do not resist corrosion. All alloys are not equally wetted by solders. The ease with which a metal can be soldered depends upon the solubility of solder and the base metal Surface to be soldered should be cleaned either chemically or mechanically to insure wetting.
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: Welding Process used are

Steps in Soldering : 1. Select the metals to be joined. 2. Design the joint for bond formation. 3. Pre-clean the work-pieces to help wetting of base metal by the solder. 4. Selection of solder to obtain the desired joint. 5. Melting the solder. Solder is melted by using :a) Soldering Iron b) Torch Soldering c) Dip Soldering d) Oven Soldering e) Spray Gun Soldering. f) Resistance Soldering etc. 6. Alignment of work-pieces. Usually lap joint is preferred than butt joint for soldering. 7. Solder is distributed uniformly over the closely placed metal parts and is allowed to solidify. 8. Soldered work-pieces are then cleaned to remove the flux residues.

Types of Soldering Soldering can be classified into two 1. Soft Soldering : Used for joining of sheet metals. Parts to be

soldered are not exposed to high temperatures and produces a less stronger joint compared to Hard Soldered part. 2. Hard Soldering : Used when strong joint is required and hence exposed to high temperatures.

Advantages of Soldering : Dissimilar metals can be joined.

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Disadvantages of Soldering Soldered joints do not resist corrosion. Soldered joints are not meant to work under vibrations or strength applications.

SOLDERS

Selection of Solders depends up on : 1. Melting range of solder (Melting point of solder should be less than that of the materials to be joined) 2. Wettability 3. Flow Characteristics 4. Availability of solder 5. Electric resistance etc

Different Solders used are : i. Tin Lead Solders Bond produced has good corrosion resistance. ii. Tin-AntimonyLead solders strength of the bond. iii. Lead-Silver Solders will readily wet steel and copper. iv. Cadmium-Silver Solders other metals. v. Cadmium-Zinc Solders vi. Zinc-Aluminum Solders : Used to solder aluminum. : Used to solder aluminum. : Used to join aluminum to itself or to : Addition of silver results in an alloy : Addition of antimony increases the : Tin-Lead solders are used to join most metals.

Soldering Fluxes Any compound added to increase the wetting of the metal with solders is a Soldering Flux. Purpose of Soldering Flux is to
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a. Remove oxides and other impurities such as dirt from the surface being soldered. b. Prevent re-oxidation of the surfaces during the soldering process. Choice of Soldering Flux used depends up on the 1. Type of solder used 2. Base metal used 3. Soldering design and 4. Cost of flux. Different type of Soldering Fluxes are :
1.

Inorganic or Acid Corrosive Fluxes : Consists of Zinc and Aluminum Chloride. These fluxes dissolve the oxides and floats on the surface. Organic Acid or Mild Fluxes : Constituents of these fluxes are Lactic Acid, Steraric Acid, Benzoic Acid etc. Organic Acid are less corrosive than inorganic acids.

2.

3.

Rosin Non-corrosive Fluxes : Are the only non-corrosive flux and has high electrical resistance.

Soldering of Various Metals : 1. Soldering of Carbon and Low Alloy Steels : All types of carbon steels may be easily soldered by wettability decreases with increase in carbon content. 2. Soldering of Cast Iron : Cast Irons are difficult to solder due to the presence of graphite carbon present which resist wetting action of solder. 3. Soldering of Stainless Steel : Stainless steels are even difficult to weld due to the presence of chromium oxide present. 4. Soldering of Copper and its Alloys : Copper can be easily soldered. 5. Soldering of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys : Soldering of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys need certain considerations before soldering because of the difficulty to remove oxides formed, high thermal conductivity and poor corrosion resistance to the soldered joints.

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Different Soldering methods are : 1. Soldering Iron Method 2. Torch method 3. Dip and wave method 4. Induction method 5. Resistance method 6. Furnace and hot plate method 7. Spray method 8. Ultrasonic method 9. Condensation method 1. Soldering Iron Method : Soldering iron method is the traditional tool for soldering. Soldering iron has a soldering iron has a copper tip which may be heated electrically or coke or gas flame. Soldering iron may vary in size depending up on the use. Tip of the soldering iron conducts heat from the heat source to the components being joined. It stores can conveys molten solder also. Soldering iron are not limited to electrical soldering. Large cans and similar assemblies can be soldered by Soldering Iron. Tinning : Process of dipping the hot soldering iron tip in flux and then applying solder enabling on solder to form a coating on the surface of tip of soldering iron. Tip of Soldering iron is again dipped in flux and then applied with solder to carry out the soldering operation.

2. Torch Method : In Torch Soldering, a gas torch is used to supply heat which may have single or multi-orifice tips. Torch may operate on Air and Acetylene, oxygen and acetylene and hydrogen and air and propane. Torch Soldering is used when parts are too large for soldering iron.

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3. Dip and Wave Method

Dip Soldering consists of dipping the assembled, flux coated joints into the pools of molten solder. Dip Soldering is used for mass production of joints. Wave Soldering is employed to eliminate some drawbacks of Dip Soldering. In Wave Soldering, the parts to be soldered are carried by a conveyer. Parts to be soldered touches a wave of solder pumped from solder bath through a narrow slot.

BRAZING Principle In Soldering the metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed parts and then filler alloy called Spelter applied in the molten state which upon solidification produces the desired joint. Melting point of filler metal is above 427C. There is no direct melting of the metals being joined. Most metals and alloys such as carbon steels, cast iron, stainless steels and alloys steels, copper, bronze, aluminum can be brazed. Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to Soldering. Steps in Brazing : 1. Parts to be welded are cleaned. 2. Flux is applied to prevent oxidation of parts to be joined during heating. 3. Parts to be brazed are heated.

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4. Filler material is then fed to the joint area. 5. The flux employed melts at a lower temperature than the filler metal, wets the surface to be brazed and removes the oxide film and cleans the surfaces. 6. As the capillary action between the base metal and the filler material is more than that between base metal and flux, the filer material replaces the flux and flows into the joint. 7. The joint filled with liquid filler material upon cooling to room temperature solidifies and forms the desired joint. Different Brazing Alloys (Filler metal) used are : a) Al-Si Filler b) Mg Filler c) Cu and Cu-Zn filler d) Gold Filler metals e) Nickel filler metals f) Nickel filler metals g) Silver Brazing filler metals.

Advantages of Brazing i. Dissimilar metals can be joined. ii. Properly brazed joints are air tight. iii. Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to Soldering. iv. Complex parts can be brazed. v. Brazing produces non-corrosive joints. vi. Brazing operation does not alter the metallurgy of metals.

Disadvantages of Brazing Very large parts cannot be brazed because of the difficulty to bring the parts to the brazing temperature. A certain degree of skilled labour is required. Brazing fluxes and filler rods may release toxic gases. Process is expensive compared to welding.

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Applications of Brazing Brazing can join 1. cast metals to wrought metals 2. non-metals to metals 3. dissimilar metals Brazing operation is used for joining wrought iron, steels, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, Magnesium and Magnesium alloys and to so many other materials.

Difference between brazing and welding

Surfaces to be brazed are not raised to the melting point. Brazing alloy spreads along the joint by capillary action. There will be penetration into the base metal in welding. But in brazing operation there is not penetration into the base metal.

Comparison between Soldering and Brazing In Soldering and Brazing there is no direct melting of base metal being joined. Brazing alloy or soldering filler alloy flows between the two adjacent surfaces of the work-pieces. Both Soldering and brazing process are particularly used for joining dissimilar metals.

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 Brazing alloy or the solder have a lower melting point than the metals to be joined. Difference between Soldering and Brazing

SL.No 1. 2. 3. 4.

Soldering Filler metal has a melting below 427 C

Brazing point Brazing alloy has melting point above 427 C.

Produces joints weaker than those Produces stronger joint. by brazing. Soldering joints do not resist Brazed joints resist corrosion. corrosion. Air tight joints cannot be obtained. Air tight joints can be obtained.

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MODULE III

METAL FORMING
Metal Forming is a process in which shape of the metals are changed to desired shapes by subjecting them to stresses greater than yield stress of the metal.

Metal Forming can be classified into two. 1. Plastic Deformation Process Primary Process : Volume and mass of the metals are unchanged. eg. Rolling, forging, extrusion etc. 2. Metal Removal or Machining Process Secondary Process : Material is removed from the metal. eg. Turning, thread cutting etc.

Mechanical Working of metals is needed for the following purposes. 1. To reduce original block or ingot to the finished dimensions of the part, saving material machining cost and time. 2. To improve the mechanical properties of the metals. 3. Refinement of grain structure. 4. Removing defects (blow holes etc) from the metal.

Recrystallization : A process whereby a distorted grain structure of cold worked metals is replaced by a new, stress-free grain structure as a result of annealing above a specific minimum temperature for a specific time. Recrystallization temperature depends up on various factors. Although recrystallization temperature for steel is 600C, hot working of steel is carried at 900C to 1100 C. During recrystallization, old grain boundaries disappear and small new grains begin to grow, aligning nearby atoms into their orderly lattice pattern.

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 The more severely the material has been worked, the lower is the temperature at which recrystallization begins. Grain growth is more rapid at higher temperatures. ROLLING

The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls is known as Rolling'. In this process the work is subjected to high compressive stresses from the squeezing action of rolls and to surface shear stresses as a result of the friction between the rolls and the metal. Also, the frictional forces help for drawing the metal into the rolls.

PRINCIPLE OF ROLLING :

Rolling basically consists of passing the metal piece through two rolls rotating in opposite directions. The space between the rolls is adjusted to the desired thickness of the rolled section. The rolls are in contact with passing metal piece over a sufficient distance represented by the arc AB in the diagram. The angle AOB is called Angle of Contact or the Maximum angle of Bite. The friction between metal piece and rolls provide sufficient grip for the rolls to move the metal piece through the rolls. The reduction in thickness increases with coefficient of friction. The pressure exerted by over the metal by the rolls varies as represented by the pressure distribution curve in the diagram.

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 It will be minimum at both the extremities and will be maximum at a point somewhere in the curve. The line representing the maximum pressure is called Neutral or No Slip Line and the point C is known as No Slip Point or the Point of Maximum Pressure. As the Arc of Contact increases, this point tends to move towards the exit B. Also when this arc of contact becomes so big that the maximum angle of bite AOB becomes more than two times the angle of friction between the rolls and the work and hence point C coincides with B and then rolls cannot draw the work through them. At the point C the surface of metal and the roll move at the same speed. Before this point metal moves slower than the rolls. After crossing the rolls metal move at a faster rate.

Hot Rolling :

Hot rolling is the process of rolling a metal above its recrystallization temperature. The first hot working operation for most steel products is done in the blooming mills. Blooming mills are usually high reversing mills, with forged rolls each weighing up to 20 tones. They are driven by a reversing electric motor of up to 20 MW capacity. As a result of squeezing, the grains are elongated in the direction of rolling and after crossing the stress zone, grains start refining. Advantages Hot rolling brings homogeneity in rolled components. Grain refinement gives optimum mechanical properties to the alloy.

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 Time taken to produce the component is less compared to cold rolling. Disadvantages Surface oxidation takes place. Chance of scale inclusion exists. Process is more expensive. More care is needed to handle the hot part.

Cold Rolling :

Cold Rolling is a process of rolling metals and alloys below their recrystallization temperatures. Generally they are worked at room temperatures. In Cold Rolling, the grains tend to retain the shape acquired during rolling. Advantages 1. Cold rolling is used to produce sheets and strips of fine surface finish and accuracy. 2. Strength of cold rolling will be high because of strain hardening. 3. Close dimensional tolerances can be achieved. 4. Reduced defects. Disadvantages 1. Internal stresses are induced into the cold worked metal thus making the metal hard and brittle. 2. Ductility is loosed to great extent.

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SL.No 1.

Hot Working Metal heated above recrystallization temperature.

Cold Working its Metal heated below recrystallization temperature. its

2.

Being carried out at recrystallization temperature, there No recrystallization leading to strain is no strain hardening.(ie. hardening(work hardening). Recrystallization takes pace with deformation) Co-efficient of friction between Lesser. rolls and work is higher. Heavy reduction in area can be Heavy reduction in area cannot be obtained. obtained. Mechanical properties are Hardness increases. Brittleness improved. Less decrease in increases. Ductility decreases. ductility. Blow-holes and other defects are removed. similar Excessive cracks. Smaller. cold rolling generates

3. 4.

5.

6. 7. 8.

Roll radius is generally larger.

Very thin sections are not Thin sections can be obtained. (0.002 obtained. Hot rolling sheets less mm) than 1.25mm is not economical. Hot Rolling has scale(metal oxide) Oxide free. on it. Surface finish is not good. Good surface finish.

9. 10.

11.

Used for ferrous and non-ferrous. Steels, aluminum, copper, brass, Equally applicable. bronze, etc. used to change ingot to billets, slabs, sheets etc. Residual Stresses are less. More due to deformation of crystals and work hardening effect.

12.

SHAPES USED IN ROLLING

1. Ingot: It is the initial product obtained by, the casting of molten metal. (600mm x

600mm)
2. Bloom: A bloom is the product of the first breakdown of ingot. It is usually of

square cross section. (150mm x 150mm)usually square/rectangle.

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3. Billet: Hot rolling of bloom yields billet. (40 x 40 thickness, 150x 150 width) 4. Slab : Produced by Reducing ingot. (Width 500 -1800mm and thickness 50-

300mm).
5. Plate and Sheet : Plate(above 6mm) has more thickness than sheet (less than

6mm).
6. Sheet and Strip : Both sheet and strip has less thickness. But strip has less width

compared to sheet.

Types of Rolling Mills

Rolling mills can be conveniently classified with respect to the number and arrangement of the rolls as follows:

1. Two High Mill

This is the simplest and most common type of rolling. These are further classified as reversing and non reversing mills. In non reversing mills, rolls of equal size are rotated only in one direction. In two high reversing mill the work can be passed to and fro through the rolls by reversing their direction of rotation. The space between the rolls can be adjusted by raising or lowering the upper roll. Used for breaking down of ingots.

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2. Three High Mill

This consists of three rolls of equal size one above the other. In the upper and lower rolls are power driven, while the middle roll rotates by friction. The direction of upper and lower rolls are the same. Used for the production of steel shapes such as I-beams, angles, channels etc. 3. Four High Mill

This consists of two small diameter working rolls and two large diameter backup rolls placed one above the other. The larger diameter called as Backup rolls and its function is to prevent the deflection of small rolls. The smaller rolls are called as Working rolls. Less power needed as less friction due to less contact area. Generally used for sheet rolling. For rolling special sections, rolls are designed so as to obtain the desired section. Used for slab production. 4. Cluster Mill

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 Each of the work rolls (which are Power driven) are supported by two backing rolls. Used for the production of thin sheet.

5. Tandem Mill

In this, a series of rolling mills are after the other, to facilitate high production each stand. Each set of rolls is called stand. Since different reduction takes place at each stand, the strip will be moving at different velocities. 6. Steckel Mill: 7. This mill-is similar to tandem except for no working roll is power driven. Only the uncoiler and the wind up reels are power driven. In this mill, amount of reduction is limited. But hard steels can be reduced to thin sections with close tolerances. Defects in Rolled Products : 1. In hot rolling scaling may take place. 2. Surface cracks may occur if strain hardening is excessive. 3. Non-uniform thickness may be produced if the camber and roll pressure are not matched.

Causes : 1. Defects due to Roll Gap : To produce a flat and even component, the roll gap should be perfectly parallel. 2. Defects due to in homogeneities in deformation : 3. Defects due to Defective ingots.
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Production of Pipes and Tubes : 1. Seamless Pipes (Tube Rolling or Roll Piercing)

Heated billet is pierced using a punch to create a hole of predetermined depth (operation called Punch Piercing). A mandrel is placed inside the workpiece and is placed between conical shaped roller dies and is rolled. Diameter of the mandrel controls the inner diameter of the tube to be produced.

2. Fabricated Pipes :

Lap Welded Pipe

Lap Welded pipe is made from a heated flat strip. Edges of the strip is beveled. This strip is called as Skelp. Skelp is rolled in to give a cylindrical shape to it. After being reheated, the bent skelp is passed between two

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grooved rolls. A mandrel used control the inner diameter of the tube. The edges are lap-welded by pressure between rolls and the mandrel. As the heated metal edges are pressed together, the ends upset slightly. This excess metal is trimmed off. Lap welded pipe is made in sizes 2 to 16 inches in diameter.

Skelp passing thourgh Welding Bell

Pipe passing between rolls to correct the diameter

Butt Welded Pipe is also made from a heated flat strip. Edges are beveled. Heated skelp is then pulled thorough a welding bell which forms it into a round shape and simultaneously the edges are pressed together to complete the cylindrical shape. The welded pipe is then passed through sizing rolls to correct it to the correct diameter.

Unconventional Forming Methods

High Energy Rate Forming Process (HERF) : Commonly used HERF methods are :

1. Explosive Forming : Make use of the pressure wave generated by an explosion to force the material formed against a die. Pressure produced is around 70000kg/cm2. Complicated and difficult shaped parts that can be shaped by other methods can be obtained by this method. Energy from the explosion is transferred to the work-piece by pressure, cavitation, water hammer and diffraction.

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 Depending up on the type of the process, Explosive Forming is classified into 3. They are a) Open Type ( Stand-Off Type) :

In this type energy is released from a distance from the work-piece and is carried to the work-piece through a liquid medium. Space in the die is often connected to a vacuum forming machine as the presence of air puts more resistance tot the operation. b) Closed Type (Contact Type) :

In this type, whole energy produced is transmitted to the workpiece directly. So the efficiency is more. There is no problem of liquid splashing. Greater design considerations are to be given to the container. c) Multiple Type : In this type energy is utilized for forming more than one workpiece at a time.

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Advantages of Explosive Forming : Low capital investment. Component is formed in one shot only. One die (either female or male) is needed. Large parts can be formed easily. Ultimate strength and yield strength are improved. Disadvantages of Explosive Forming : Personnel must be trained. Process is noisy. Applications : Aerospace components. Used for blanking, coining, cutting, embossing drawing etc.

2. Electro-hydraulic Forming or Spark Forming:

Make use of the shock waves and pressure produced due to the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy in a liquid medium for the forming operation. Principle : Discharge of an electric spark in the liquid medium produces shock waves which can be used for metal forming. Unit is immersed in water. During operation high voltage is supplied across two electrodes.
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 Spark created produces high pressure waves form the metal placed in the dies. Energy produced is less than that of explosive forming. Voltages of 10000 to 30000 Volts are generally used. Process can be used for blanking, piercing, forging etc. Running cost is less. Initial cost is high. Two methods are used for the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy. 1. Capacitor Discharge through a gap. 2. Capacitor Discharge through a wire.

Advantages : Low capital investment. Large amount of energy can be directed. Reproducibility is another advantage. Disadvantages : Initial cost is more. Applications : Aerospace components. 3. Electromagnetic Forming (Magnetic Pulse Forming or MPF) :

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 Consist of an capacitor, a switch, a coil and a power supply that provides the energy to charge capacitor. The current through the coil produces a magnetic field of high intensity between the coil and the workpiece. High magnetic field produced between the coil forms the metal piece. Forming depends up on the design of the coil. The efficiency of Magnetic pulse depends up on the resistivity of the metal being formed.

Advantages : No lubricants are required. Process is fast.

High velocity Forming

Metal is deformed by using high velocities or ram/die. Since Kinetic Energy is proportional to square of velocity, high energy can be delivered to the metal with relatively small weights.
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 This reduces cost and size of machine. Velocities range from 30 m/sec to 300 m/sec. HVF make use of the energy stored in a compressed gas or energy released from burning fuel (petrol)-oxidizer to accelerate a ram to high velocity. In Gas operated machines, energy obtained by expanding a high pressure gas is used to drive a piston down a cylinder. Machines make use of a quick release mechanism for rapid action of ram. Advantages : Metals difficult to forge by other methods can be forged. Complex parts can be forged in one blow. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be obtained. Deep, thin sections can be forged. Disadvantages : Process is limited to symmetrical parts. Process is slow compared to mechanical press forging. Applications of HERF : Production of gears and wheels. Parts with high height to width ratios can be produced. Production of turbine blades and turbine wheels, valve bodies, rifle parts missile components etc. Roll Forming

Roll Forming is a process of obtaining circular shape to a steel strip by passing it through a series of rolls where its shape is gradually changed into circular. There are two main types of Roll Forming. They are 1. One uses Continuous Strip Material

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2. Other uses sheet and plate stock. In Roll Forming a series of rolls to gradually change the shape of the metal. Intricacy of the shape, size of the section, thickness and type of material determine the number of rolls required. Bending Rolls are used for bending sheet and plate stock. A Roll Bending machine consists of three rolls of same diameter. Materials used for Roll Forming are Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel, Bronze, Brass, Copper etc. Roll Pass Design

An ingot or bloom need to be passed many times between different rolls before it is shaped into flat, round or section. Plates, sheets and strips are produced by rolling between smooth, cylindrical rolls. Bars, rods and sections are produced by passing the work between rolls having grooves cut in them. The shape formed when the grooves of mating rolls are matched together is called the Pass. Dotted lines in the figure shows the previous shape of the stock. After being shaped in one pass, the stock is turned 90 about its axis before being entered into next pass.

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1. Roughening Pass : Roughening Pass reduce the cross section of the stock. a) Box Pass : Used in Blooming Mills. b) Diamond- diamond Pass : c) Diamond Square Pass d) Oval Square Pass 2. Leader Pass : Leader Pass serve to bring the cross-section of the stock to the final shape.

3. Finishing Pass : Finishing Pass imparts final shape to the product. Rolling of Rounds, Flats and Sections Operational Steps: Surface scales and other defects are removed. Metal is heated. Material is rolled. Rolling of Square Sections :

Rolling of Rounds :

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Rolling of Flats, Angle Section, I-Beams, Channels.

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MODULE IV FORMING TECHNOLOGY

PRESS WORKING

It is a method of cold working of metals usually in the form of sheet or strip. Close dimensional accuracy can be obtained and no heating of the work piece is involved.

TYPES OF PRESSES

Presses are either mechanical or hydraulic. Both have different types of frames, which embrace the moving parts of the press The Society of Manufacturing Engineers states the two most common types of frames as the "C" frame and "straight side press." The "C" type press is accessible on three sides. It's less costly and takes up less floor space. The straight side press, on the other hand, has vertical columns on each sidea setup that eliminates angular deflection.SME considers the force capacity (or force that can be exerted at a specified point in a stroke) as an important feature take into account. While mechanical presses are still the most common type of press, hydraulic presses have the advantage of delivering "full force" at any point during stroke. It can also be adjusted to facilitate part clearance between cycle, making it possible for press operators to use several different tool and die heights. Mechanical press The ram is actuated using a flywheel Stroke motion is not uniform.

Hydraulic press: Have longer strokes than mechanical presses, and develop full force throughout the stroke. Stroke motion is of uniform speed, especially adapted to deep drawing operations. Transfer press Fully automatic, uses robotic arms to move work pieces from station to station
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Similar to progressive die drawing except this process uses separate tooling for each station. Stamping Press Its main function is to provide enough power to open and close the die set. The die set shapes (or cuts) the metal part set. That metal part is then fed into the die block and the ram descends, producing the desired shape. The press uses that energy to construct the part. This is done (ideally) without producing a large amount or possibly no waste (scrap materials) at all Presses range in sizefrom small bench top presses that generate as little as five tons to larger presses that can form geometric shapes rated in thousands of tons Sketches of Presses:

PRESS WORKING OPERATION

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PUNCHING

A shearing operation that separates a scrap slug from the work piece when the punch enters the die. Most economical method of making holes in sheet or strip metal for medium to high production.

Conventional Blanking Similar process to Punching, except this operation separates the workpiece from parent stock material

Shearing A process for straight line cutting of flat stock. Performed by forcing an upper and a lower blade past each other with a desired offset.

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Used for making blanks of suitable dimensions for further processing

In Shearing

Punch and die ratio of rough area:burnished area increases with higher ductility Punch travel depends on the ductility or brittleness.

A brittle metal requires little travel.

Punch Force = shear strength * cross-sectional area. Friction can affect this. P = 0.7 (UTS) (t) (L)

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In Shearing Operation

Punching slug is discarded Blanking slug is retained Fine blanking Slitting

Shearing Dies Clearance usually between 2% and 8% of the shear thickness. Compound dies

Several operations on the same strip may be performed in one stroke.

Progressive dies

Multiple operation are carried out as the coil is moved after each stroke.
Clearance Clearance c is the distance between the punch and die. The correct clearance depends on sheet-metal type and thickness t: c = at where a is the allowance (a = 0.075 for steels and 0.060 for aluminum alloys).
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If the clearance is not set correctly, either an excessive force or an oversized burr can occur:

Progressive Die Drawing

A cold forming process that utilizes a series of stations to perform two or more simultaneous operations. Each press stroke develops a final work piece as the strip stock moves through the die using a combination of shearing and forming processes. Various geometric shapes can be made including cutting and forming operations. High production rates that are automatically operated.

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BENDING OF SHEET AND PLATE

Bending is done to form flanges, etc. Also for giving stiffness to a sheet part

Minimum Bend Radius We can see that as R/T decreases tensile strain at the outer surface increases. Radius R at which cracks appear on the outer surface is called minimum bending radius Min. bending radius is expressed in terms of T (2T, 3T, etc.)

Bendability can be improved

Heating the area Applying hydrostatic pressure Reducing outer tensile strain by compressive force

As R/T decreases, narrow sheets (smaller length of bend) crack at the edge and move towards center. Wide sheet crack at center. Rough edges can also cause reduction of bendability (stress raisers).

TYPES OF BENDING OPERATIONS

Beading Flanging

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Hemming Roll Forming Tube Bending

1. Tube bending

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Spinning

2. Conventional Spinning

As large as 6m (20 ft)

Shear Spinning

Missile nose cones, rocket parts.

Tube Spinning

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3. Superplastic Forming

Same fine grained alloys can elongate as much as 2000%

E.g. Zn-Al, titanium can be formed into very complex shapes.

High ductility, low strength Very strain rate sensitive Extremely slow forming
10-4 to 10-2 s

Some times forming can take hours

4. Deep Drawing It includes

Pure drawing Stretching Ironing

The cold forming process in which a flat blank is shaped by the action of a punch forcing the metal into a die cavity. Very similar to a Stretch draw, except the depth of the drawn part is greater than the diameter. Various geometric shapes can be made. Low or high production rates, manually or automatically operated.

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Important factors of deep drawing Properties of the sheet Ratio of blank dia and punch dia Clearance Punch and die corner radii Speed of punch Holding force etc Deep Drawability

Limiting drawing ratio (LDR) Max D0/Dp ratio

R (normal anisotropy)

If R=1 sheet is isotropic.

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5. Perforating A punching process that cuts a desired pattern of holes into the workpiece by means of multiple punches and dies. 6. Nibbling A shearing process that utilizes a series of overlapping cuts to make complex shapes. Produces complex shapes from sheet metal that is generally no thicker than 0.25 inches

7. Plate Roll Bending

A cold forming process that utilizes a combination of 3 rolls,arrange in a pyramid shape, to form plate or sheet metal into cylindrical shapes.

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Is used for the production of curved workpieces made from heavy sheet or plate material. Materials are typically at least 1/16 inch thick and 15 inch wide, up to 6 inch thick and 20 feet wide. Production on any material capable of cold working. Primarily used in forming large cylindrical sections requiring the seam to be welded.

Stamping Processes

SHEET METAL OPERATION Ratio Surface Area:Volume is very high for sheet metal process. Plates thickness > 0.25 inches Boilers, bridges, ships, etc. use relatively thick plates

Usually sheet forming is done on relatively thin material. Shapes can be of various size Beverage can, car body

Sheet metal forming includes many widely used processes.

Elongation Uniform elongation region Postuniform elongation region True stress, true strain: Necking begins at Uniform strain strain hardening index n Large n, uniform elongation is better.

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EXTRUSION PROCESSES

In the basic extrusion process, a round billet is placed in a chamber and forced through a die opening by a ram. Methods:

Direct extrusion Indirect extrusion Hydrostatic extrusion Impact extrusion

Metal flow in extrusion

Substantial reduction in the cross sectional area Metal flow is important Types of flow Homogenous flow pattern

No friction between billet and die Continuous

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 Good lubrication

Friction

leads to formation of dead metal zone

High wall/billet friction

Outer wall cools down while central part is still hot. Leads to defects

Extrusion ratio (R) = Ao/Af True strain: Where Lf=extruded product length L0=billet length Optimum Die Angle

The ideal work should be independent Friction work increases with decreasing die angle Redundant work caused by inhomogeneous deformation

increases with increasing die angle

Forces in hot extrusion

Velocity effects metal with strain rate sensitivity

For high extrusion ratios and

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As V0 increases, pressure increases As temperature becomes hot, pressure reduces As V0 rate of work done on the billet also increases, thus temperature increases This can cause melting and speed crack on the surface. Cold Extrusion

Room temperature or a few hundred degrees Advantages

Close control of tolerance Improved surface finish Strain hardening ca give some desirable properties No oxide layer formation

High stresses on dies Lubrication is very critical (phosphate, wax, etc.)

Impact Extrusion

Punch descends at high speed and strikes a blank Used to make thin tubular sections Diameter of the tube to thickness of the tube =0.005

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Hydrostatic extrusion

Pressure applied by fluid medium Reduces friction

Defects in extrusion

Surface Cracking

Speed cracking (high speed, high friction)

Intergranular cracks

Occurs with Al, Mg, Zn, molybdenum alloys

Can also be caused by metals sticking to die surfaces
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Surface defects may extrude into the center of the extruded parts Oxides, impurities usually caused due to inhomogeneous flow of metal

Internal Cracking Center of the extrusion can have cracks. Known as center crack chevron crack Depends on contact length, angle, die opening, ratio of extrusion.

Injection Molding Injection Molding is a process, in which a polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under pressure into a mold cavity, where it solidifies. The part, called a molding, is then removed from the cavity:

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The production molding cycle time is in the range 10 to 30 sec: Compression Molding In compression molding, the workpiece (pre-shaped part, volume of powder, mixture of liquid resin and fillers) is placed in the heated mold and is formed under pressure:

Compression molding of thermosets: (1) charge is loaded, (2)charge is compressed and cured, and 3) part is ejected and removed

Transfer Molding Transfer molding is a similar to compression molding process, but the charge is placed not in the die cavity but into a chamber next to the die cavity. Pressure is then applied to force the material to flow into the heated mold where curing occurs

Transfer molding of thermosets: (1) charge is loaded, (2) soften polymer is compressed into mold cavity and cured, and (3) part is ejected and removed

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CALENDERING Calendering is a process for producing sheet and film stocks out of rubber or thermoplastics. Extrusion and calendering can be combined in the roller die process

A typical roll configuration in calendering

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MODULE V

FORGING TECHNOLOGY

Process: Forging is a metal forming process used to produce large quantities of identical parts, as in the manufacture of automobiles, and to improve the mechanical properties of the metal being forged, as in aerospace parts or military equipment. The design of forged parts is limited when undercuts or cored sections are required. All cavities must be comparatively straight and largest at the mouth, so that the forging die may be withdrawn. The products of forging may be tiny or massive and can be made of steel (automobile axles), brass (water valves), tungsten (rocket nozzles), aluminum (aircraft structural members), or any other metal. More than two thirds of forging in the United States is concentrated in four general areas: 30 percent in the aerospace industry, 20 percent in automotive and truck manufacture, 10 percent in off-highway vehicles, and 10 percent in military equipment. This process is also used for coining, but with slow continuous pushes. The forging metal forming process has been practiced since the Bronze Age. Hammering metal by hand can be dated back over 4000 years ago. The purpose, as it still is today, was to change the shape and/or properties of metal into useful tools. Steel was hammered into shape and used mostly for carpentry and farming tools. An ax made easy work of cutting down trees and metal knives were much more efficient than stone cutting tools. Hunters used metal-pointed spears and arrows to catch prey. Blacksmiths used a forge and anvil to create many useful instruments such as horseshoes, nails, wagon tires, and chains. Militaries used forged weapons to equip their armies, resulting in many territories being won and lost with the use and strength of these weapons. Today, forging is used to create various and sundry things. The operation requires no cutting or shearing, and is merely a reshaping operation that does not change the volume of the material.

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Forging: Forging changes the size and shape, but not the volume, of a part. The change is made by force applied to the material so that it stretches beyond the yield point. The force must be strong enough to make the material deform. It must not be so strong, however, that it destroys the material. The yield point is reached when the material will reform into a new shape. The point at which the material would be destroyed is called the fracture point. In forging, a block of metal is deformed under impact or pressure to form the desired shape. Cold forging, in which the metal is not heated, is generally limited to

relatively soft metals. Most metals are hot forged; for example, steel is forged at temperatures between 2,100oF and 2,300oF (1,150oC to 1,260oC). These

temperatures cause deformation, in which the grains of the metal elongate and assume a fibrous structure of increased strength along the direction of flow. (See Figure)

Figure - Flow lines in a forged part Normally this results in metallurgical soundness and improved mechanical properties. Strength, toughness, and general durability depend upon the way the grain is placed. Forgings are somewhat stronger and more ductile along the grain structure than across it. The feature of greatest importance is that along the grain structure there is a greater ability to resist shock, wear, and impact than across the grain. Material properties also depend on the heat-treating process after forging.
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Slow cooling in air may normalize workpieces, or they can be quenched in oil and then tempered or reheated to achieve the desired mechanical properties and to relieve any internal stresses. Good forging practice makes it possible to control the flow pattern resulting in maximum strength of the material and the least chances of fatigue failure. These characteristics of forging, as well as fewer flaws and hidden defects, make it more desirable than some other operations (i.e. casting) for products that will undergo high stresses. In forging, the dimensional tolerances that can be held vary based on the size of the workpiece. The process is capable of producing shapes of 0.5 to >50.0 cm in thickness and 10 to <100 cm in diameter. The tolerances vary from 1/32 in. for small parts to in. for large forgings. Tolerances of 0.010 in. have been held in some precision forgings, but the cost associated with such precision is only justified in exceptional cases, such as some aircraft work. Grain Flow Pattern Grains flow is exposed: end grains Can be avoided by intermediate steps in forging and proper orientation of workpieces

Stress raiser Corrosion, etc.

Forgeability The forgeability of a metal can be defined as its capability to undergo deformation by forging without cracking.

Metal which can be formed easily without cracking, with low force has good forgeability.

Tests to determine forgeability Upsetting test: cracks while upsetting cylindrical specimen Various temperatures and strain rates Just provides guidelines

Hot-twist test

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 Metal rod is twisted at various temperatures. Forgeability can be determined for different materials using this method. Used for steel.

Types of forging: Forging is divided into three main methods: hammer, press, and rolled types. (1) Hammer Forging (Flat Die): Preferred method for individual forgings. The shaping of a metal, or other material, by an instantaneous application of pressure to a relatively small area. A hammer or ram, delivering intermittent blows to the section to be forged, applies this pressure. The hammer is dropped from its maximum height, usually raised by steam or air pressure. Hammer forging can produce a wide variety of shapes and sizes and, if sufficiently reduced, can create a high degree of grain refinement at the same time. The disadvantage to this process is that finish machining is often required, as close dimensional tolerances cannot be obtained.

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(2)

Press Forging: This process is similar to kneading, where a slow continuous pressure is applied to the area to be forged. The pressure will extend deep into the material and can be completed either cold or hot. A cold press forging is used on a thin, annealed material, and a hot press forging is done on large work such as armor plating, locomotives and heavy machinery. Press Forging is more economical than hammer forging (except when dealing with low production numbers), and closer tolerances can be obtained. A greater proportion of the work done is transmitted to the

workpiece, differing from that of the hammer forging operation, where much of the work is absorbed by the machine and foundation. This method can also be used to produce larger forgings, as there is no limitation in the size of the machine. (3) Die Forging: Open and closed die operations can be used in forging. In open-die forging the dies are either flat or rounded. Large forgings can be formed by successive applications of force on different parts of the material. Hydraulic presses and forging machines are both employed in closed die forging. In closed-die forging the metal is trapped in recessed impressions, which are machined into the top and bottom dies. As the dies press together, the material is forced to fill the impressions. Flash, or excess metal, is squeezed out between the dies. Closed-die forging can produce parts with more complex shapes than open-die forging. Die forging is the best method, as far as tolerances that can be met, and also results in a finished part that is completely filled out and is produced with the least amount of flashing. The final shape and the improvement in metallurgical properties are dependent on the skill of the operator. Closer dimensional tolerances can be held with closed die forgings than with open die forgings and the operator requires less skill.

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Impression Die Forging

Workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity Flashes are created radially outward High Friction in the Flash

Flash: Very high length:height ratio.Flash cools faster than the bulk and hence resists deformation - This helps the billet to fill the cavity Complex Shapes have different strains and strain rates.Thus level of strength at different locations depends on values of n strain hardening exponent, m strain rate sensitivity of the material

Closed Die Forging Forging created without flash Proper volume of die is required

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Precise control of parameters Near net shape forging Very precise machines Special die designs Aluminum, magnesium, etc. Isothermal Forging (Hot die forging) Die heated to temperature of forging Good dimensional accuracy Die is made of nickel alloy

Forging Equipment: The type of machinery to be used depends on the shape, size, material, and number of pieces to be made. Forging hammers apply force by the impact of a large ram. This may be a drop hammer, or weight falling under the force of gravity, or it may be a power hammer, driven by steam or compressed air. Two types of power hammers are: the smith forging hammer and the drop hammer. The largest hammers can provide a total force as high as 80,000 pounds.

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Smith Forging Hammer and Board Drop Hammer

Smith Forging Hammer Heavy workpieces could be processed using a smith-forging hammer, and smaller forgings are die formed in drop hammers. Smith forging hammers are typically steam or air-operated, consisting of a power actuated ram supported by a heavy cast iron frame. The final product is a result of the ram being powered into the dies containing the workpiece.

Board Drop Hammer A drop hammer differs in that the anvil is an integrated part of the hammer base. It is necessary for the alignment between the forging die elements used. This method is advantageous in that the physical properties of the metal are improved by the severe mechanical working, the operation is rapid, many complicated parts can be forged to shape, a minimum amount of machining is necessary, and internal defects are eliminated. The disadvantages are the cost of machinery and dies, which demands a high quantity of parts to be manufactured in order for the process to be cost effective.

Forging Press A forging press consists of a hydraulic press, which exerts a force capable of pressing steel or a metal alloy into the shape of the forging die. These machines can be positioned horizontally or vertically. This method can be used to form car wheels, gears, bushings, and other such parts.

Mechanical Forging Press Mechanical presses have a motor-driven flywheel that stores energy to drive a ram--much lighter than a hammer-through a crank or other mechanical device. The ram in a press moves more slowly than a hammer and squeezes the workpiece. The largest mechanical presses have a total force of 12,000 tons and cannot forge as large or complicated parts as the larger hammers.

Hydraulic Forging Press Hydraulic presses, in which high-pressure fluid produced by hydraulic pumps drives a ram, are about 100 times slower

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than hammers. They are used for large or complex die forgings and for extrusion. Presses with a total force of 50,000 tons have been developed in the United States primarily for the forging of large airplane components. Even larger hydraulic presses, up to 78,000 tons, have been introduced in Europe. Heat Treatment: Materials can be improved before or after manufacturing by different heat treatment processes. Forging is usually performed to hot metals, allowing for

smoother flow and easier deformation. Steel is heated to varying temperatures, usually between 1700oF to 2000oF but can reach as high as 2400oF, depending on the carbon content. Depending on the amount of work required to the piece, it may be necessary to reheat the piece one or more times. The temperature of the metal when completely forged is called the finishing temperature. After forging, the material must be cooled uniformly and protected from moisture or cold air. This is done by placing the material into dry ashes, lime or mica dust in order to retard the rate of cooling. (1) Preheating: Preheating of materials is done to help prevent cracking or

distortion of the material. This is done by placing the metal in a series of furnaces of increasing temperatures instead of throwing it directly into the furnace used to heat the metal for forging, annealing, normalizing or hardening. Another way to achieve this is to start in a cold furnace and slowly bring it to temperature. (2) Annealing: Annealing should follow forging as soon as possible

whenever machining is required. Annealing is the heating and then cooling of metal to make the metal less brittle, or more malleable and ductile. This will soften the steel that was previously hardened and reduce internal stresses. Annealing is done by heating the metal to a temperature beyond the critical temperature and holding it there for a period of time. The metal is then cooled with the furnace and not removed until the furnace is cold. It can also be cooled to a temperature within the furnace that is known to be below the lower critical temperature, at which the

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annealing is complete. Slower cooling rates are required as carbon content increases in the metal. (3) Normalizing: Normalizing is done to improve the crystalline structure of

the steel, thus obtaining superior properties. Heating the forged part just beyond the critical temperature and then allowing it to air-cool completes normalizing. This allows the grain-size to be refined and, if not held at that temperature too long, will result in a newly formed crystalline structure. The internal stresses, if any, will be relieved, hardened steels will be softened, overheated steels will have a more favorable, normal fine-grained structure, and structural distortion will be removed. (4) Hardening: Hardening of steels can also be done after forging. The

workpiece is heated slowly, to obtain the finest grain-sizes, to its hardening temperature - much higher than annealing temperatures. The metal is kept at this temperature only until uniform heat distribution and completion of the thermal transformation. Prolonged exposure at these elevated temperatures will result in increased grain growth and surface decarbonization, if no protection from oxidation is provided. Oxidation can be avoided by surrounding the metal with some material that will use up the oxygen that is present in the furnace. Once the metal has been uniformly heated to temperature, it is removed from the furnace and placed directly into a quenching tank. This rapidly cools the metal and the metal retains its new qualities. Forge The forge or smithy is the workplace of a smith or a blacksmith. Forging is the term for shaping metal by plastic deformation. Cold forging is done at low temperatures, while conventional forging is done at high temperatures, which makes metal easier to shape and less likely to fracture. A basic smithy contains a forge, sometimes called a hearth for heating the metals, commonly iron or steel to a temperature where the metal becomes malleable, or to a temperature where work hardening ceases to accumulate, an anvil to lay the metal pieces on while hammering, and a slack tub to rapidly cool, and thus harden, forged metal pieces in. Tools include tongs to hold the hot metal, and hammers to strike the hot metal. Once
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the final shape has been forged, iron and steel in particular often get some type of heat treatment. This can result in various degrees of hardening or softening depending on the details of the treatment. Forging Forging is the working of metal by plastic deformation. It is distinguished from machining, the shaping of metal by removing material, such as by drilling, sawing, milling, turning or grinding, and from casting, wherein metal in its molten state is poured into a mold, whose form it retains on solidifying. The processes of raising, sinking, rolling, swaging, drawing and upsetting are essentially forging operations although they are not commonly so called because of the special techniques and tooling they require.Forging results in metal that is stronger than cast or machined metal parts. This is because during forging the metal's grain flow changes into the shape of the part, making it stronger. Some modern parts require a specific grain flow to ensure the strength and reliability of the part.

Scan of sectioned, forged connecting rod that has been etched to show grain flow. Many metals are forged cold, but iron and its alloys are almost always forged hot. This is for two reasons: first, if work hardening were allowed to progress, hard materials such as iron and steel would become extremely difficult to work with;

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secondly, most steel alloys can be hardened by heat treatments, such as by the formation of martensite, rather than cold forging. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation hardening, such as most structural alloys of aluminium and titanium, can also be forged hot, then made strong once they achieve their final shape. Other materials must be strengthened by the forging process itself. Forging was done historically by a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the 12th century CE, the hammer and anvil are not obsolete. The smithy has evolved over centuries to the forge shop with engineered processes, production equipment, tooling, raw materials and products to meet the demands of modern industry. In modern times, industrial forging is done either with presses or with hammers powered by compressed air, electricity, hydraulics or steam. These hammers are large, having reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds. Smaller power hammers, 500 pounds or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well. Steam hammers are becoming obsolete. In industry a distinction is made between open- and closed-die forging. In open-die work the metal is free to move except where contacted by the hammer, anvil, or other (often hand-held) tooling. In closed-die work the material is placed in a die resembling a mold, which it is forced to fill by the application of pressure. Many common objects, like wrenches and crankshafts, are produced by closed-die forging, which is well suited to mass production. Open-die forging lends itself to short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work. Closed-die forging is more expensive for mass production than is casting, but produces a much stronger part, and is used for tools, high strength machine parts and the like. Forgings are commonly used in automotive applications, where high strength is demanded, with a constraint on the mass of the part (high strength-tomass ratio). Forged parts are more suitable for mass production. The process of forging a part becomes cheaper with higher volumes. For these reasons forgings are used in the automotive industry, usually after some machining. One particular

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variant, drop forging, is often used to mass produce flat wrenches and other household tools. Types of forges Coal/coke/charcoal forge

Standard coal forge A forge which typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal. The designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealing, and drawing temper as examples). The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways: 1) amount of air, 2) volume of fuel, and 3) shape of the fuel/fire. Over thousands of years of forging, these devices have evolved in one form or another as the essential features of this type of forge:

Tuyere -- a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire Bellows or blower -- a means for forcing air into the tuyere

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Firepot or hearth -- a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening.

During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth and ignited. A source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire consumes more fuel and burns hotter. A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work. Often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire. In a typical, but by no means universal, coal forge, a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire. Surrounding all is a ring or horseshoe-shaped layer of raw coal, usually kept damp and tightly packed to maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it "cooks" into coke first. If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feed and deepen the coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work. The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a 'back draft' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall. Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire (as with coal), the fire is handled differently. Individual smiths and specialized applications have fostered development of a variety of forges of this type, from the coal forge described above, to simpler constructions amounting to a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it.

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Gas forge A forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with refractory materials, preferably a hard castable refractory ceramic. The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect. Gas forges vary in size and construction, from large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick. The primary advantage of a gas forge is ease of use, particularly for a novice. A gas forge is simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced is clean and consistent. They are less versatile, as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unusually shaped pieces;. It is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to enable forge-welding, but a well designed gas forge is hot enough for any task. Drop forge

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Hydraulic forging hammer The workpiece, say a wrench, is created by hammering a piece of hot metal into an appropriately shaped die. The metal (in an easily produced shape like a rod or brick) is heated and placed on the bottom part of a die. The top part of the die then drops onto the piece, which gives the forge its name. The die may drop under gravity or be powered, but in all cases drop forging involves impact. The force of the impact causes the heated metal to flow into the shape of the die, with some metal squirting out of the thin seams between the dies. This thin metal is called "flash" and is cut away in the next stage of processing. The drop-forged pieces usually need further processing, like machining and polishing of working surfaces, to provide tighter tolerances than forging alone can provide, and to produce a good finish. Hydraulic press forge In hydraulic press forging the work piece is pressed between the two die halves with gradually increasing force, over a period of a few seconds. The quality of the pieces is better than drop forging as there is more control over metal flow, but takes longer and requires more energy. It also makes the same shape continuously. Hot forging Forging is the hammering or forming of hot or cold metal into a certain shape. When the hammering and forming is done by hand it is called hand forging and when it is done by machine it is called drop forging. The forging process starts after having brought the steel to the correct workable temperature between 900C and 1100. It allows us, through a process of reduction (for crushing), to get the most various shapes. Finery forge A finery forge was a water-powered mill, where pig iron was refined to produce bar iron.

Forging Equipment

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Anvil

The anvil serves as a work bench to the blacksmith, where the metal to be beaten is placed. An anvil body is made of mild steel, with a top face of high carbon steel approximately 20mm thick welded on it. The flat top has two holes; the wider is called the hardy hole, where the square shank of the hardy fits. The smaller hole is called the punch hole, used as clearance when punching holes in hot metal. Chisel Chisels are made of high carbon steel whose cross-section is an octagon. They are hardened and tempered at the cutting edge while the head is left soft so it will not crack when hammered. Chisels are of two types, the hot and cold chisels. The cold chisel is used for cutting cold metals while the hot chisel is for hot metals. Usually the hot chisels are thinner and therefore can not be substituted with the cold chisel. Tongs Tongs are used by the blacksmith for holding hot metals securely. The mouths are made in various shapes to suit the gripping of various shapes of metal. Fuller Fullers are forming tools of different shapes used in making grooves or hollows. They are often used in pairs, the bottom fuller has a square shank which fits into the hardy hole in the anvil while the top fuller has a handle. The work is place don the bottom fuller and the top is placed on the work and struck with a hammer.

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The top fuller is also used for finishing round corners and for stretching or spreading metal. Hardy The hardy is a cutting tool similar to the chisel. It is used as a chisel or hammer for cutting both hot and cold metals. It has a square shank that fits into the hardy hole in the anvil, with the cutting edge facing upwards. The metal to be cut is placed on the cutting edge and struck with a hammer.

TYPES OF FORGING Coining operation

Force or pressure applied is 5 to 6 times the flow stress of the material

Heading Upsetting operation at the end of the rod Can be done in highly automatic machines called Headers.

Piercing

We can create holes or cavities on a part

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Hubbing

A hardened puch with a particular tip geometry is pressed into the surface of a
blcok. Produce a die cavity

Cogging

Progressive pressing of a arge part

Die Allowances

Shrinkage allowances Machining allowances Work holding allowance

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Material Used

Tool Steel, Die steel High carbon alloy steel (Cr, Ni, vanadium) Hardness: Rc=45-60

Material should have strength, toughness, at high temp. Hardenability, mechanical and thermal shock resistance, wear resistance

Dies are the most critical part of the forging operation

Proper fillet radius should be provided Draft angle for all vertical faces for ease of removal Flash should be allowed to form Flash = 3% of max. thickness C=15% of this

Roll forging Cross sectional area of a bar is reduced and altered in shape by passing through a pair of rollers.

Tapers shaft Pre stages of a crank shaft

Skew rolling

Used for making ball bearings

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TYPE OF FORGING PROCESS

Hydraulic press:

Constant low speed Ram speed can be varied Large amount of energy can be applied (75,000 tons)

Mechanical Press

Usually uses crank or eccentric Force depends on the stroke position Proper setting of the position is important 12,000 tons

Screw Press

Energy from flywheel Load transmitted through vertical screw High precision path Extremely accurate alignment top and bottom halves 32,000 tons

Hammers

Potential energy of the ram Speed can be high Sometimes steam or air is used to aid the die Multiple blows may be needed

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Selection of Press depends on

Precision Strain rate sensitivity Amount of deformation Size of forging Production rate

Metal flows in the direction of least resistance Distribute material so that it can properly fill die cavity Several Intermediate stage Dies are used for obtaining final forging

E.G. connecting rod, crankshaft

DEFECTS IN FORGING

Fatigue resistance is reduced Corrosion, stress raisers In complete metal for machining Mismatch of halves of the pierce

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Poor strength in the direction of principle stresses Anisotropic Behavior Not always considered as a defect Metal flows in different directions Thus we obtain different strength at different points of a forging Effect of corner radii Metal flows better as a larger radius than in a smaller radius For smaller radius, the metal can fold over itself to cause cold shuts Defects

Surface cracking
Improper temperature, strain rate, design of dies

Buckling
Lap formation can occur importance of forming distribution Solution increase the thickness of the part

Internal Defects
Improper filling of the die Larger than required billet can cause it

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