EE 303 Communication Systems Semester 1 2012-2013

Do
Read one of the many books available multiple sources Work on your English time is running out Pay attention to scientific language, units, symbols, diagrams, captions, axis labels etc Write your name on any form of submission Ask for an appointment faculty are always busy email is the best Feel free to say you disagree - but please be polite You can disagree without being disagreeable

Do not
Expect class notes Come late Sleep in class Do work related to other courses Expect extension of deadlines

Do not write Respected Sir in your emails Use Dear Sir or Sir if you must use Sir, Dear Dr Chakraborty is perfectly alright with me.

Course Details
Several quizzes all will count Evaluation Assigmts, Matlab programs, Project End sem Mid sem

No invigilation take responsibility dont moan later Only EE has this tradition Books: Modern Digital and Analog Communications B. P. Lathi & Z. Ding Communications Systems - by A Bruce Carlson Principles of Communications Systems H. Taub & D. Schilling References www.ieee.org get a student membership long-term benefits IEEE Spectrum great resource for all electrical engineers IEEE Communications Society IEEE Photonics Society

Altamira Caves

Source Wikipedia

Telegraphy

History of Telecommunications
1837 Morse code Samuel Morse earliest digital comms? Transatlantic comms 1864 Maxwell EM theory dies before verification 1876 Alexander Graham Bell telephone and photophone 1878 First telephone exchange in Connecticut 1887 Heinrich Hertz detects EM waves 1896 Wireless telegraphy patented by Marconi BUT 1894 Jagadish Chandra Bose - wireless signalling in Calcutta Formally recognized Bose as a father of radio by IEEE 1901 First transatlantic radio telegraph by Marconi Bose not acknowledged! 1906 First AM radio broadcast 1925 First TV system demonstrated 1935 First FM radio Edwin Armstrong 1947 Cellular concept from Bell Labs 1948 Shannons paper on information theory Transistor invented by Shockley, Brattain and Bardeen 1958 Integrated circuits proposed by Texas Instruments 1960 Reed-Solomon error correcting code Mariner and Pioneer use it 1971 First wireless computer network: AlohaNet 1973 First portable mobile device - Motorola 1984 First handheld (analog) cellular phone Motorola 1991 First GSM (digital) cellular service in Finland - first LAN 1996 CDMA cellular service and HDTV broadcasting

Jagadish Chandra Bose

A Polymath: a physicist, biologist, botanist, archaeologist, an early writer of science fiction

30 Nov 1858 23 Nov 1937

At that time, sending children to English schools was an aristocratic status symbol. In the vernacular school, to which I was sent, the son of the Muslim attendant of my father sat on my right side, and the son of a fisherman sat on my left. They were my playmates. I listened spellbound to their stories of birds, animals and aquatic creatures. Perhaps these stories created in my mind a keen interest in investigating the workings of Nature. When I returned home from school accompanied by my school fellows, my mother welcomed and fed all of us without discrimination. Although she was an orthodox old-fashioned lady, she never considered herself guilty of impiety by treating these untouchables as her own children. It was because of my childhood friendship with them that I could never feel that there were creatures who might be labelled low-caste. I never realised that there existed a problem common to the two communities, Hindus and Muslims.

pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics very significant contributions to plant science laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904 He is also considered the father of Bengali science fiction IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science Books: 1. Response in the Living and Non-Living (1902) 2. The Nervous Mechanism of Plants (1926)

Evolution of the modern communications age

1842 Samuel Morse submerged a wire in New York Harbour, and telegraphed through it. 1850s - 1911, British submarine cable systems - North Atlantic 1870 Bombay - London submarine cable 1872, Australia - Bombay link via Singapore and China 1902 - US mainland to Hawaii, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Fiji also linked Construction - layer of iron and later steel wire, wrapped in rubber Problems high capacitance & inductance, very limited bandwidth

1956 - TAT-1, from Oban, Scotland - Newfoundland, Canada 36 telephone channels Moscow-Washington hotline
http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Milestones:The_First_Submarine_Transatlantic_Telephone_Cable_System_%28TAT1%29,_1956

1988 - TAT-8 40k telephone circuits - AT&T, France Telecom & BT As of 2006, overseas satellite links - only 1% of international traffic

Kapany

1980s OPTICAL FIBER comms

Ren Descartes - cable layer ship

Kao

Electromagnetic Spectrum
3-30 kHz VLF Sonar, navigation, whale song 30-300 kHz LF Navigation 300-3000 kHz MF AM radio 3-30 MHz HF, SW SW radio 30-300 MHz VHF FM radio, TV, mobile 0.3-3GHz UHF TV, radar, sat comm, mobile 3-30GHz SHF Sat Comm, Microwave links 30-300GHz EHF radar, research 300-3000GHz Terahertz hot topic

1. In which region do the best modern communications systems operate? 2. Future? Mid-IR comms

Transmission media / Channels

Open wire lines
telephone and telegraph 0.05dB/km loss for voice frequencies susceptible to noise pick-up from the environment cross-talk

Coaxial cables
central wire conductor MHz bandwidth

Radio frequencies striplines Waveguides Optical fibre

low loss 0.1dB/km huge bandwidth immune to electromagnetic interference low cross-talk flexible and low cost

Signals must be tailored to the requirements of the channel

Communications frequency bands

Terahertz, mm wave

German troops installing a field telegraph in WWI.

Elements of a Communications system

Source Transmitter Channel Receiver Sink

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Some aspects of communication

Power of the signal Bandwidth of the signal
Rate of Information transmitted decides the Bandwidth required. Audio and Data signals require less amount of Bandwidth. Video transmission requires higher bandwidth e.g.: human speech, 300 to 3.3kHz, requires approximately 4kHz of bandwidth

Noise
External sources interfering channels, man-made noise due to switches, poor power supplies, lightning Internal sources thermal motion of electrons (Johnson noise), random emissions, diffusion and recombination in electronic devices

Channel
physical medium a filter - generally attenuates and distorts Dispersion frequency-dependent gain, multipath effects, Doppler shift

Information Claude Shannon

C = B log2 (1+SNR) bits/s

Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signals are continuously defined on time and their amplitude is continuous Digital Signals are discretely time defined and their amplitude can be either quantized or not.

Modeling of Communication systems

Signals are represented as sum of complex sinusoids or Weighted impulse responses Systems are approximated to Linear Time Invariant systems. Unwanted effects of transmitter, channel and receiver on the signal are modeled into channels LTI.

Signals and Spectra

Fourier Series and Discrete Spectra

By definition, Fourier series

v(t ) = cn e j 2 nf0 t

A periodic signal has a discrete (line) spectrum

Coefficients cn are the weights of the various exponentials

cn =

1 v(t )e j 2 nf0 t dt T0 T0

cn are in general complex numbers

cn = cn e j arg cn

Properties of the Fourier transform 1. 2. All frequencies are harmonics of the fundamental frequency, f0 = 1/T0. c0 at 0 is the DC value c0 =

1 v(t )dt T0 T0
n

3. If v(t) is real, then c n = cn * = cn e j arg c , therefore V(f) exhibits Hermitian symmetry

c n = cn

and

arg c n = arg c n
odd phase symmetry

even amplitude symmetry

All physically realizable signals are real signals

Fourier Transforms and Continuous Spectra

By definition, Fourier transform

V ( f ) = [v(t )] v(t ) = 1[V ( f )]

v(t )e j 2 ft dt
function of the continuous variable f

Conversely, inverse Fourier transform

V ( f )e j 2 ft df

A non-periodic signal has a continuous spectra

Properties of the Fourier transform 1. The Fourier transform is a complex function, so |V(f)| is the amplitude spectrum and arg V(f) is the phase spectrum

2.

The value of V(f) at 0 equals the net area of v(t), since

V (0) =

v(t )dt
and

3.

If v(t) is real, then

V ( f ) = V *( f )

and

V ( f ) = V ( f )
even amplitude symmetry

arg V ( f ) = arg V ( f )
odd phase symmetry

V(f) exhibits Hermitian symmetry

All physically realizable signals are real signals

Duality Theorem

Note that

V( f ) =

v(t )e

j 2 ft

dt

and

v(t ) =

V ( f )e

j 2 ft

df

differ only in sign of the exponent & variable of integration If v(t) and V(f) constitute a known transform pair, and if there exists a time function z(t) related to the function V(f) by z (t ) = V (t ) then

[ z (t )] = v( f )

where

v ( f ) equals v ( t ) w ith t = f

Application: Way of generating new transform pairs without the labour of integration Task: Apply the duality to the Sinc pulse:

z (t ) = A sinc (2Wt )

to get frequency-domain function

Superposition Theorem

a v (t ) = a V ( f )
k k k k k k

Practical viewpoint greatly facilitates spectral analysis when the signal in question is a linear combination of functions whose individual spectra are known Theoretical viewpoint underscores the applicability of the Fourier transform for the study of linear systems

Time Delay Theorem

v(t td ) V ( f )e j 2 ftd
Generate other waveforms from time-shifted copies of an original waveform. In frequency domain, time shift causes an added phase with slope of Direction of time-shift determined by sign of delay td Note that the magnitude response remains unaffected because

2 td

V ( f )e j 2 ftd = V ( f ) e j 2 ftd = V ( f )

Applicable to the analysis of undistorted signal transmission take the example

Time Scaling
Time-scaling produces a horizontally scaled image of v(t) Scaled signal is expanded in time if and is compressed if

<0 >0

Time-scaling produces a reciprocal scaling in the frequency domain,

v( t )

f V ( ), 0

Hence compressing a signal expands its frequency spectrum and vice versa Note: Femtosecond laser pulses use this vice versa Also, refer to Shalabh Guptas work

Comb Filter
Impulse response Frequency response Magnitude response
2

h(t ) = (t ) (t T )

x(t )

+
Delay T

y (t )

H ( f ) = 1 e j 2 fT

H ( f ) = 1 e j 2 fT

= 4sin 2 2 ( f f c ),
2

where f c = 2 T

H ( f ) = 4sin 2 2 ( f f c ), where f c = 2 T
If input PSD is known, the output PSD can be calculated

G y ( f ) = 4sin 2 2 ( f f c ) Gx ( f )

Comments: Periodically varying frequency response Fibre ring resonator widely used to form a frequency scale in sensing and metrology applications Lock-in amplifier

Frequency Translation and Modulation

Apply Duality to Time Delay theorem Complex modulation Multiplying in time function by

v(t )e jct V ( f f c )
Frequency translation

e jct

causes its spectrum to be translated by +fc

Observe
1.Clustering around fc - highly significant 2.Translation doubles the spectral width - though V(f) was bandlimited to W, V(f - fc) has spectral width of 2W. Alternatively, the negative frequency portion of V(f) now appears as at positive frequencies 3.V(f - fc) is not Hermitian but does have symmetry with respect to translated origin at f = fc

But v(t )e c is not a real function of time. Why then do we bother about this?

j t

e j e j v(t ) cos(c t + ) V ( f fc ) + V ( f + fc ) 2 2
Multiplying in time function by a sinusoid translates its spectrum up and down by fc.
Other observations above also apply here In addition the spectrum is now Hermitian, which it must be because v(t ) cos c t is a real function of time

Differentiation and Integration

Certain signal processing technique involve differentiating or integrating a signal

dv(t ) j 2 f V ( f ) dt
and by iteration,

d n v(t ) ( j 2 f ) n V ( f ) n dt

Differentiation theorem

Differentiation enhances the high frequency components in a signal since j 2 f V ( f ) > V ( f )

for f > 1 2

Suppose we generate another function by integrating v(t) over all past time.

v ( ) d

1 V( f ) j 2 f

Conversely, integration suppresses the high frequency components

Other observations above also apply here In addition the spectrum is now Hermitian, which it must be because v(t ) cos c t is a real function of time

Convolution Integral
The convolution of two functions of the same variable is defined as,

v(t ) * w(t )

v( ) w(t )d

Note: 1.Independent variable is t, the same as the independent variable of the function being convolved 2.Integration performed with respect to a dummy variable; t is a constant insofar as the integration is concerned 3.Graphical interpretation of convolution is helpful if one or both functions is defined in a piecewise fashion

Commutative v(t ) * w(t ) = w(t ) * v(t ) Associative u (t ) *( v(t ) * w(t ) ) = (u (t ) * v(t )) * w(t ) Distributive u (t ) *( v(t ) + w(t ) ) = u (t ) * v(t ) + u (t ) * w(t )

Convolution Theorems
Convolution in time domain becomes multiplication in frequency domain Multiplication in time domain becomes convolution in frequency domain

v(t ) * w(t ) V ( f )W ( f ) v(t ) w(t ) V ( f ) *W ( f )

Utility filtering operations in time domain a described by convolution of signal and impulse response of filter. This is much easier to address in the frequency domain.

Signal Transmission and Filtering

Signal Distortion in Transmission

When do we get distortionless transmission? Time-domain view
Implies that shape of the signal remains unchanged Mathematically, transmission

t=0

y (t ) = K x(t td )
In words The output is undistorted if it differs from the input only by a multiplying constant and a finite time delay

t = td

Frequency-domain view
Note - shape is due to the Fourier components of the signal Therefore, the delicate balance of the harmonic components must not be disturbed during transmission

Y ( f ) = K X ( f )e2 ftd

H ( f ) = Y ( f )

X(f )

= K e2 ftd

Interpretation A distortionless channel must have a constant amplitude response negative linear phase shift

H( f ) = K
arg H ( f ) = 2 ftd m180

Types of distortion
Amplitude distortion
H( f ) K
Low-pass, high-pass or bandpass filtering elements in channel Frequency-domain effect manifests itself as a time-domain distortion Successive echoes of transmitted signal can overlap at receiver causing inter-symbol interference (ISI) Limits bit rate in digital communications Generation of new frequencies due to nonlinearity of channel

Delay distortion

arg H ( f ) 2 ftd m180

Nonlinear distortion

Assignment/Tutorial task Obtain Fourier series expression for a square wave up to 7 harmonics Use Matlab to plot each harmonic in a single figure Investigate the effect of suppression of one or more harmonics look at low-pass and highpass effects of the channel Investigate the effect of nonlinear phase delay

Linear Distortion
Amplitude distortion
If the amplitude response of a system H(f), is not constant over the spectrum of interest, the various Fourier components are not in the correct proportion to add up to the original wave. Common causes low-pass or high-pass filtering effects of electronics circuits and channel Less commonly disproportionate response to a band of frequencies hence Gain flattening required

Consider a signal

x(t ) = cos 0t 1 3cos 30t + 1 5cos 50t

Show the effect of unequal gain for different frequency components

Comments
Delay distortion alone can result in increase or decrease of peak values of a signal

Linear Distortion
Delay (phase) distortion
If phase shift is nonlinear, various frequency components suffer different amounts of time delay, and the delicate balance of the Fourier components is disturbed Constant time delay is desired constant phase delay is not.

Time delay, td ( f ) =

arg H ( f ) 2 f

Time delay is constant only if arg H(f) varies linearly with frequency

Comments
Delay distortion alone can result in increase or decrease of peak values of a signal Musicians love it!!

A closer look at phase delay of a modulated signal

Transfer function of a channel with a flat frequency response and a linear phase shift is given by,

H ( f ) = Ae
The time delay is given by,

j ( 2 ft g +0 )

= Ae j0 e

j 2 ft g

td ( f ) =

arg H ( f ) = t g 0 2 f 2 f

If the input signal is, Output given by,

x(t ) = x1 (t ) cos c t x2 (t ) sin c t

y (t ) = Ax1 (t t g ) cos[c (t t g ) + 0 ] Ax2 (t t g ) sin[c (t t g ) + 0 ]

y (t ) = Ax1 (t t g ) cos c (t td ) Ax2 (t t g ) sin c (t td )

Group delay Modulation Envelope Information Slow light Very profound implications for communications and optics Phase delay

Nonlinear distortion
Let the linearized transfer characteristics for a system be given by,

y(t ) = a1 x(t ) + a2 x2 (t ) + a3 x3 (t ) + ...

Output spectrum found by invoking convolution theorem,

nonlinear distortion terms Recall the diode

Y ( f ) = a1 X ( f ) + a2 X ( f ) * X ( f ) + a3 X ( f ) * X ( f ) + ...
Nonlinear distortion is desirable in many cases!!! e.g. nonlinear optics for generation of new wavelengths (mid-infrared) For single input tone,

3a a 3a a a y (t ) = 2 + 4 + ... + a1 + 3 + ... cos 0t + 2 + 4 + ... cos 20t + ... 8 4 2 2 4

Quantified by,
2nd 3a3 a1 + 4 + ... harmonic distortion = 100% a2 a4 + + ... 2 4
2f0 component

Nonlinearity leads to cross-modulation

f1 f2

2 f1

Nonlinear transfer characteristics

2 f2 f1 + f 2 f1 f 2

dc

Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data 1500mV ; fit = avg +0.9amp sin(2*pi*f*n - 0.94*pi) 0.4

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Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data 1500mV ; fit = avg +0.9amp sin(2*pi*f*n - 0.94*pi) 0.4

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Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data 2000mV ; fit = avg +0.985amp sin(2*pi*f*n - 0.95*pi) 0.4

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Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data 2500mV ; fit = avg +0.985amp sin(2*pi*f*n - 0.96*pi) 0.4

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Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data 3000mV ; fit = avg +0.985amp sin(2*pi*f*n - 0.95*pi) 0.4

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Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data for 3500mV 0.4 0.35 0.3 signal (V) 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 data index 1820 1830 1840 1850

signal (V)

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Illustration of nonlinear modulation of laser diode

data 4000mV; fit = avg +0.985amp sin(2*pi*f*n - 0.97*pi) 0.4

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Analog Communication
Carrier Modulations Baseband Communication

Linear Modulation Amplitude Modulations

Non-Linear Modulation Angle Modulations

PAM,PWM,PPM PCM Modulations

Ex: LAN, Tv VCR, Game console, etc.

Angle Modulations Freq, Angle

Angle Modulations Freq, Angle

PAM, PWM, PPM and PCM signals use digital pulse coding schemes. Despite of the word modulation in their name they are baseband communications.

Amplitude modulation-Types

Double Side Band-Suppressed Carrier Double Side Band-With Carrier Single Side Band and Vestigial Side Band

Notations m(t) Message or Modulating signal M(f) Fourier transform of m(t) c(t) Carrier Signal C(f) Fourier transform of c(t) s(t) Modulated signal S(f) Fourier transform of s(t)